Kinetic Energy and the Work Energy Theorem

Idea: Force is a vector, work and energy are scalars. Thus, it is often easier to solve problems using energy considerations instead of using Newton's laws (i.e. it is easier to work with scalars than vectors). Definition: The kinetic energy ( KE ) of an object of mass m that is moving with velocity v is:

(1)

KE =
Note:

mv .

Kinetic energy is a scalar. The units are the same as for work (i.e. Joules, J).

Relation bewteen KE and W: The work done on an object by a net force equals the change in kinetic energy of the object:

W = KEf - KEi.
This relationship is called the work-energy theorem. Proof (for 1. W = Fs 2. From the third equation of motion: as = (v 2 - v02)/2 W = 1/2m(v 2 - v02) = KEf - KEi . W = (ma)s (by Newton's second law). parallel to ):

(2)

Gravitational Potential Energy

Definition: Gravitational Potential Energy ( PEg ) is given by:

PEg = mgy,

(3)

where m is the mass of an object, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and y is the distance the object is above some reference level.

The term ``energy'' is motivated by the fact that potential energy and kinetic energy are different aspects of the same thing (mechanical energy). For Example: When an object is dropped from rest at some height above the earth's surface, it starts with some PEg but no KE. As the object falls towards the Earth, it loses PEg and gains KE. Just before the object hits the ground, it has lost all of its initial PEg but gained an equal amount of KE. Proof: Find the work done by the force of gravity when an object falls from rest at position yi to yf = 0 . We have W = Fs , F = |m | = mg and s = (yi - yf) = yi . This gives, W = mgyi . Combining with Eq.(5.2) gives 1/2m(vf2 - 0) = mgyi or PEi = KEf .

Potential Energy Stored in a Spring

Definition: The spring constant, k , is a measure of the stiffness of a spring (large k spring, small k soft spring). stiff

To compress a spring by a distance x we must apply a force F ext = k x . By Newton's 3rd law, if we hold a spring in a compressed position, the spring exerts a force Fs = - k x . This is called a linear restoring force because the force is always in the opposite direction from the displacement. Note:

The sign of Fs shows that the spring resists attempts to compress or stretch it; therefore Fs is a restoring force. For Example: In Figure (5.2a) x = xf - xi = - 5 which gives Fs = - k(- 5) = 5k . This force is positive and therefore directed to the right. This means that the spring resists the compression. In Figure (5.2b) x = xf - xi = 3 which gives Fs = - 3k . The negative sign indicates that the force is to the left and that the spring resists the stretching.

Figure: a) Compressed spring b) Stretched spring

The farther we compress or stretch the spring, the greater the restoring force. We usually define xi = 0 and xf = x which gives Fs = - kx . This is called Hooke's law.

To find the potential energy stored in a compressed (or stretched) spring, we calculate the work to compress (or stretch) the spring: the force to compress a spring varies from F ext = F0 = 0 (at xi = 0 ), to F ext = Fx = kx (at xf = x ). Since force increases linearly with x , the average force that must be applied is

(F0 + Fx) =

kx

The work done by energy:

is W =

x=

kx 2. This work is stored in the spring as potential (4)

PEs =
Note:

kx .

PEs = 0 when x = 0 (at equilibrium). PEs always > 0 when the spring is not in equilibrium. PEs is the same if x = xf (same PEs for equal expansion or compression).

Potential Energy

An object can store energy as the result of its position. For example, the heavy ball of a demolition machine is storing energy when it is held at an elevated position. This stored energy of position is referred to as potential energy. Similarly, a drawn bow is able to store energy as the result of its position. When assuming its usual position (i.e., when not drawn), there is no energy stored in the bow. Yet when its position is altered from its usual equilibrium position, the bow is able to store energy by virtue of its position. This stored energy of position is referred to as potential energy. Potential energy is the stored energy of position possessed by an object.

Gravitational Potential Energy

The two examples above illustrate the two forms of potential energy to be discussed in this course gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy. Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an object as the result of its vertical position or height. The energy is stored as the result of the gravitational attraction of the Earth for the object. The gravitational potential energy of the massive ball of a demolition machine is dependent on two variables - the mass of the ball and the height to which it is raised. There is a direct relation between gravitational potential energy and the mass of an object. More massive objects have greater gravitational potential energy. There is also a direct relation between gravitational potential energy and the height of an object. The higher that an object is elevated, the greater the gravitational potential energy. These relationships are expressed by the following equation:

PEgrav = mass g height PEgrav = m * g h

In the above equation, m represents the mass of the object, h represents the height of the object and g represents the gravitational field strength (9.8 N/kg on Earth) - sometimes referred to as the acceleration of gravity. To determine the gravitational potential energy of an object, a zero height position must first be arbitrarily assigned. Typically, the ground is considered to be a position of zero height. But this is merely an arbitrarily assigned position that most people agree upon. Since many of our labs are done on tabletops, it is often customary to assign the tabletop to be the zero height position. Again this is merely arbitrary. If the tabletop is the zero position, then the potential energy of an object is based upon its height relative to the tabletop. For example, a pendulum bob swinging to and from above the tabletop has a potential energy that can be measured based on its height above the tabletop. By measuring the mass of the bob and the height of the bob above the tabletop, the potential energy of the bob can be determined. Since the gravitational potential energy of an object is directly proportional to its height above the zero position, a doubling of the height will result in a doubling of the gravitational potential energy. A tripling of the height will result in a tripling of the gravitational potential energy.

Use this principle to determine the blanks in the following diagram. Knowing that the potential energy at the top of the tall platform is 50 J, what is the potential energy at the other positions shown on the stair steps and the incline?

Elastic Potential Energy

The second form of potential energy that we will discuss is elastic potential energy. Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in elastic materials as the result of their stretching or compressing. Elastic potential energy can be stored in rubber bands, bungee chords, trampolines, springs, an arrow drawn into a bow, etc. The amount of elastic potential energy stored in such a device is related to the amount of stretch of the device - the more stretch, the more stored energy. Springs are a special instance of a device that can store elastic potential energy due to either compression or stretching. A force is required to compress a spring; the more compression there is, the more force that is required to compress it further. For certain springs, the amount of force is directly proportional to the amount of stretch or compression (x); the constant of proportionality is known as the spring constant (k).

Such springs are said to follow Hooke's Law. If a spring is not stretched or compressed, then there is no elastic potential energy stored in it. The spring is said to be at its equilibrium position. The equilibrium position is the position that the spring naturally assumes when there is no force applied to it. In terms of potential energy, the equilibrium position could be called the zeropotential energy position. There is a special equation for springs that relates the amount of elastic potential energy to the amount of stretch (or compression) and the spring constant. The equation is

To summarize, potential energy is the energy that is stored in an object due to its position relative to some zero position. An object possesses gravitational potential energy if it is positioned at a

height above (or below) the zero height. An object possesses elastic potential energy if it is at a position on an elastic medium other than the equilibrium position.

Check Your Understanding

Check your understanding of the concept of potential energy by answering the following questions. When finished, click the button to view the answers. 1. A cart is loaded with a brick and pulled at constant speed along an inclined plane to the height of a seat-top. If the mass of the loaded cart is 3.0 kg and the height of the seat top is 0.45 meters, then what is the potential energy of the loaded cart at the height of the seat-top?

PE = m*g*h PE = (3 kg ) * (9.8 m/s/s) * (0.45 m) PE = 13.2 J

2. If a force of 14.7 N is used to drag the loaded cart (from previous question) along the incline for a distance of 0.90 meters, then how much work is done on the loaded cart? W = F * d * cos Theta W = 14.7 N * 0.9 m * cos (0 degrees) W = 13.2 J

(Note: The angle between F and d is 0 degrees because the F and d are in the same directionn)

Note that the work done to lift the loaded cart up the inclined plane at constant speed is equal to the potential energy change of the cart. This is not coincidental! The reason for the relation between the potential energy change of the cart and the work done upon it is the subject of Lesson 2.

Next Section: Kinetic Energy Jump To Lesson 2: The Work-Energy Theorem

Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. An object that has motion - whether it is vertical or horizontal motion - has kinetic energy. There are many forms of kinetic energy - vibrational (the energy due to vibrational motion), rotational (the energy due to rotational motion), and translational (the energy due to motion from one location to another). To keep matters simple, we will focus upon translational kinetic energy. The amount of translational kinetic energy (from here on, the phrase kinetic energy will refer to translational kinetic energy) that an object has depends upon two variables: the mass (m) of the object and the speed (v) of the object. The following equation is used to represent the kinetic energy (KE) of an object.

where m = mass of object v = speed of object This equation reveals that the kinetic energy of an object is directly proportional to the square of its speed. That means that for a twofold increase in speed, the kinetic energy will increase by a factor of four. For a threefold increase in speed, the kinetic energy will increase by a factor of nine. And for a fourfold increase in speed, the kinetic energy

will increase by a factor of sixteen. The kinetic energy is dependent upon the square of the speed. As it is often said, an equation is not merely a recipe for algebraic problem solving, but also a guide to thinking about the relationship between quantities. Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity; it does not have a direction. Unlike velocity, acceleration, force, and momentum, the kinetic energy of an object is completely described by magnitude alone. Like work and potential energy, the standard metric unit of measurement for kinetic energy is the Joule. As might be implied by the above equation, 1 Joule is equivalent to 1 kg*(m/s)^2.

Check Your Understanding

Use your understanding of kinetic energy to answer the following questions. Then click the button to view the answers. 1. Determine the kinetic energy of a 625-kg roller coaster car that is moving with a speed of 18.3 m/s. KE = 0.5*m*v2 KE = (0.5) * (625 kg) * (18.3 m/s)2 KE = 1.05 x105 Joules

2. If the roller coaster car in the above problem were moving with twice the speed, then what would be its new kinetic energy?

If the speed is doubled, then the KE is quadrupled. Thus, KE = 4 * (1.04653 x 105 J) = 4.19 x 105 Joules. or

KE = 0.5*m*v2 KE = 0.5*625 kg*(36.6 m/s)2 KE = 4.19 x 105 Joules

3. Missy Diwater, the former platform diver for the Ringling Brother's Circus, had a kinetic energy of 12 000 J just prior to hitting the bucket of water. If Missy's mass is 40 kg, then what is her speed? KE = 0.5*m*v2 12 000 J = (0.5) * (40 kg) * v2 300 J = (0.5) * v2 600 J = v2 v = 24.5 m/s

4. A 900-kg compact car moving at 60 mi/hr has approximately 320 000 Joules of kinetic energy. Estimate its new kinetic energy if it is moving at 30 mi/hr. (HINT: use the kinetic energy equation as a "guide to thinking.") The KE is directly related to the square of the speed. If the speed is reduced by a factor of 2 (as in from 60 mi/hr to 30 mi/hr) then the KE will be reduced by a factor of 4. Thus, the new KE is (320 000 J)/4 or 80 000 J.

Next Section: Mechanical Energy Jump To Lesson 2: The Work-Energy Theorem

Mechanical Energy

In a previous part of Lesson 1, it was said that work is done upon an object whenever a force acts upon it to cause it to be displaced. Work involves a force acting upon an object to cause a displacement. In all instances in which work is done, there is an object that supplies the force in order to do the work. If a World Civilization book is lifted to the top shelf of a student locker, then the student supplies the force to do the work on the book. If a plow is displaced across a field, then some form of farm equipment (usually a tractor or a horse) supplies the force to do the work on the plow. If a pitcher winds up and accelerates a baseball towards home plate, then the pitcher supplies the force to do the work on the baseball. If a roller coaster car is displaced from ground level to the top of the first drop of a roller coaster ride, then a chain driven by a motor supplies the force to do the work on the car. If a barbell is displaced from ground level to a height above a weightlifter's head, then the weightlifter is supplying a force to do work on the barbell. In all instances, an object that possesses some form of energy supplies the force to do the work. In the instances described here, the objects doing the work (a student, a tractor, a pitcher, a motor/chain) possess chemical potential energy stored in food or fuel that is transformed into work. In the process of doing work, the object that is doing the work exchanges energy with the object upon which the work is done. When the work is done upon the object, that object gains energy. The energy acquired by the objects upon which work is done is known as mechanical energy. Mechanical energy is the energy that is possessed by an object due to its motion or due to its position. Mechanical energy can be either kinetic energy (energy of motion) or potential energy (stored energy of position). Objects have mechanical energy if they are in motion and/or if they are at some position relative to a zero potential energy position (for example, a brick held at a vertical position above the ground or zero height position). A moving car possesses mechanical energy due to its motion (kinetic energy). A moving baseball possesses mechanical energy due to both its high speed (kinetic energy) and its vertical position above the ground (gravitational potential energy). A World Civilization book at rest on the top shelf of a locker possesses mechanical energy due to its vertical position above the ground (gravitational potential energy). A barbell lifted high above a weightlifter's head possesses mechanical energy due to its vertical position above the ground (gravitational potential energy). A drawn bow possesses mechanical energy due to its stretched position (elastic potential energy).

Mechanical Energy as the Ability to Do Work An object that possesses mechanical energy is able to do work. In fact, mechanical energy is often defined as the ability to do

work. Any object that possesses mechanical energy - whether it is in the form of potential energy or kinetic energy - is able to do work. That is, its mechanical energy enables that object to apply a force to another object in order to cause it to be displaced. Numerous examples can be given of how an object with mechanical energy can harness that energy in order to apply a force to cause another object to be displaced. A classic example involves the massive wrecking ball of a demolition machine. The wrecking ball is a massive object that is swung backwards to a high position and allowed to swing forward into building structure or other object in order to demolish it. Upon hitting the structure, the wrecking ball applies a force to it in order to cause the wall of the structure to be displaced. The diagram below depicts the process by which the mechanical energy of a wrecking ball can be used to do work.

A hammer is a tool that utilizes mechanical energy to do work. The mechanical energy of a hammer gives the hammer its ability to apply a force to a nail in order to cause it to be displaced. Because the hammer has mechanical energy (in the form of kinetic energy), it is able to do work on the nail. Mechanical energy is the ability to do work.

Another example that illustrates how mechanical energy is the ability of an object to do work can be seen any evening at your local bowling alley. The mechanical energy of a bowling ball gives the ball the ability to apply a force to a bowling pin in order to cause it to be displaced. Because the massive ball has mechanical energy (in the form of kinetic energy), it is able to do work on the pin. Mechanical energy is the ability to do work.

A dart gun is still another example of how mechanical energy of an object can do work on another object. When a dart gun is loaded and the springs are compressed, it possesses mechanical energy. The mechanical energy of the compressed springs gives the springs the ability to apply a force to the dart in order to cause it to be displaced. Because of the springs have mechanical energy (in the form of elastic potential energy), it is able to do work on the dart. Mechanical energy is the ability to do work. A common scene in some parts of the countryside is a "wind farm." High-speed winds are used to do work on the blades of a turbine at the so-called wind farm. The mechanical energy of the moving air gives the air particles the ability to apply a force and cause a displacement of the blades. As the blades spin, their energy is subsequently converted into electrical energy (a non-mechanical form of energy) and supplied to homes and industries in order to run electrical appliances. Because the moving wind has mechanical energy (in the form of kinetic energy), it is able to do work on the blades. Once more, mechanical energy is the ability to do work.

The Total Mechanical Energy As already mentioned, the mechanical energy of an object can be the result of its motion (i.e., kinetic energy) and/or the result of its stored energy of position (i.e., potential energy). The total amount of mechanical energy is merely the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic energy. This sum is simply referred to as the total mechanical energy (abbreviated TME).

TME = PE + KE
As discussed earlier, there are two forms of potential energy discussed in our course gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy. Given this fact, the above equation can be rewritten:

TME = PEgrav + PEspring + KE

The diagram below depicts the motion of Li Ping Phar (esteemed Chinese ski jumper) as she glides down the hill and makes one of her record-setting jumps.

The total mechanical energy of Li Ping Phar is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies. The two forms of energy sum up to 50 000 Joules. Notice also that the total mechanical energy of Li Ping Phar is a constant value throughout her motion. There are conditions under which the total mechanical energy will be a constant value and conditions under which it will be a changing value. This is the subject of Lesson 2 - the work-energy relationship. For now, merely remember that total mechanical energy is the energy possessed by an object due to either its motion or its stored energy of position. The total amount of mechanical energy is merely the sum of these two forms of energy. And finally, an object with mechanical energy is able to do work on another object.
Next Section: Power Jump To Lesson 2: The Work-Energy Theorem

Power

The quantity work has to do with a force causing a displacement. Work has nothing to do with the amount of time that this force acts to cause the displacement. Sometimes, the work is done very quickly and other times the work is done rather slowly. For example, a rock climber takes an abnormally long time to elevate her body up a few meters along the side of a cliff. On the other hand, a trail hiker (who selects the easier path up the mountain) might elevate her body a few meters in a short amount of time. The two people might do the same amount of work, yet the hiker does the work in considerably less time than the rock climber. The quantity that has to do with the rate at which a certain amount of work is done is known as the power. The hiker has a greater power rating than the rock climber. Power is the rate at which work is done. It is the work/time ratio. Mathematically, it is computed using the following equation.

The standard metric unit of power is the Watt. As is implied by the equation for power, a unit of power is equivalent to a unit of work divided by a unit of time. Thus, a Watt is equivalent to a Joule/second. For historical reasons, the horsepower is occasionally used to describe the power delivered by a machine. One horsepower is equivalent to approximately 750 Watts.

Most machines are designed and built to do work on objects. All machines are typically described by a power rating. The power rating indicates the rate at which that machine can do work upon other objects. Thus, the power of a machine is the work/time ratio for that particular machine. A car engine is an example of a machine that is given a power rating. The power rating relates to how rapidly the car can accelerate the car. Suppose that a 40-horsepower engine could accelerate the car from 0 mi/hr to 60 mi/hr in 16 seconds. If this were the case, then a car with four times the horsepower could do the same amount of work in one-fourth the time. That is, a 160horsepower engine could accelerate the same car from 0 mi/hr to 60 mi/hr in 4 seconds. The point is that for the same amount of work, power and time are inversely proportional. The power equation suggests that a more powerful engine can do the same amount of work in less time. A person is also a machine that has a power rating. Some people are more power-full than others. That is, some people are capable of doing the same amount of work in less time or more work in the same amount of time. A common physics lab involves quickly climbing a flight of stairs and using mass, height and time information to determine a student's personal power. Despite the diagonal motion along the staircase, it is often assumed that the horizontal motion is constant and all the force from the steps is used to elevate the student upward at a constant speed. Thus, the weight of the student is equal to the force that does the work on the student and the height of the staircase is the upward displacement. Suppose that Ben Pumpiniron elevates his 80-kg body up the 2.0-meter stairwell in 1.8 seconds. If this were the case, then we could calculate Ben's power rating. It can be assumed that Ben must apply an 800-Newton downward force upon the stairs to elevate his body. By so doing, the stairs would push upward on Ben's body with just enough force to lift his body up the stairs. It can also be assumed that the angle between the force of the stairs on Ben and Ben's displacement is 0 degrees. With these two approximations, Ben's power rating could be determined as shown below.

Ben's power rating is 871 Watts. He is quite a horse.

The expression for power is work/time. And since the expression for work is force*displacement, the expression for power can be rewritten as (force*displacement)/time. Since the expression for velocity is displacement/time, the expression for power can be rewritten once more as force*velocity. This is shown below.

This new equation for power reveals that a powerful machine is both strong (big force) and fast (big velocity). A powerful car engine is strong and fast. A powerful piece of farm equipment is strong and fast. A powerful weightlifter is strong and fast. A powerful lineman on a football team is strong and fast. A machine that is strong enough to apply a big force to cause a displacement in a small mount of time (i.e., a big velocity) is a powerful machine.

Check Your Understanding

Use your understanding of work and power to answer the following questions. When finished, click the button to view the answers. 1. Two physics students, Will N. Andable and Ben Pumpiniron, are in the weightlifting room. Will lifts the 100-pound barbell over his head 10 times in one minute; Ben lifts the 100-pound barbell over his head 10 times in 10 seconds. Which student does the most work? ______________ Which student delivers the most power? ______________ Explain your answers. Ben and Will do the same amount of work. They apply the same force to lift the same barbell the same distance above their heads. Yet, Ben is the most "power-full" since he does the same work in less time. Power and time are inversely proportional.

2. During a physics lab, Jack and Jill ran up a hill. Jack is twice as massive as Jill; yet Jill ascends the same distance in half the time. Who did the most work? ______________ Who delivered the most power? ______________ Explain your answers.

Jack does more work than Jill. Jack must apply twice the force to lift his twice-as-massive body up the same flight of stairs. Yet, Jill is just as "power-full" as Jack. Jill does one-half the work yet does it one-half the time. The reduction in work done is compensated for by the reduction in time.

3. A tired squirrel (mass of approximately 1 kg) does push-ups by applying a force to elevate its center-ofmass by 5 cm in order to do a mere 0.50 Joule of

work. If the tired squirrel does all this work in 2 seconds, then determine its power.

The tired squirrel does 0.50 Joule of work in 2.0 seconds. The power rating of this squirrel is found by P = W / t = (0.50 J) / (2.0 s) = 0.25 Watts

4. When doing a chin-up, a physics student lifts her 42.0-kg body a distance of 0.25 meters in 2 seconds. What is the power delivered by the student's biceps?

To raise her body upward at a constant speed, the student must apply a force which is equal to her weight (mg). The work done to lift her body is W = F * d = (411.6 N) * (0.250 m) W = 102.9 J The power is the work/time ratio which is (102.9 J) / (2 seconds) = 51.5 Watts (rounded)

5. Your household's monthly electric bill is often expressed in kilowatt-hours. One kilowatthour is the amount of energy delivered by the flow of l kilowatt of electricity for one hour. Use conversion factors to show how many joules of energy you get when you buy 1 kilowatt-hour of electricity. Using conversion factors, it can be shown that 1 kilo-watt*hour is equivalent to 3.6 x 106 Joules. First, convert 1 kW-hr to 1000 Watt-hours. Then convert 1000 Watt-hours to 3.6 x 106 Watt-seconds. Since a Watt-second is equivalent to a Joule, you have found your answer.

6. An escalator is used to move 20 passengers every minute from the first floor of a department store to the second. The second floor is located 5.20 meters above the first floor. The average passenger's mass is 54.9 kg. Determine the power requirement of the escalator in order to move this number of passengers in this amount of time.

A good strategy would involve determining the work required to elevate one average passenger. Then multiply this value by 20 to determine the total work for elevating 20 passengers. Finally, the power can be determined by dividing this total work value by the time required to do the work. The solution goes as follows: W1 passenger = F d cos(0 deg) W1 passenger = (54.9 kg 9.8 m/s2) 5.20 m = 2798 J (rounded) W20 passengers = 55954 J (rounded)

P = W20 passengers / time = (55954 J) / (60 s) P = 933 W

Jump To Lesson 2: The Work-Energy Theorem