Water

Chapter 14 Living in the Environment, 13th Edition, Miller

Advanced Placement Environmental Science Prepared by Nita Ganguly, Oak Ridge High School

Key H20 Characteristics

Water is the prime constituent of all living organisms. Water moves easily-from one physical state to another, and from one place to another. Water slowly absorbs and releases large quantities of energy. Water is a superior solvent.
(Source: Wright & Nebel 2002) Michael D. Lee Ph.D. Geography and Environmental Studies

Importance of Water Properties

quickly erode topsoil rendering farmland infertile and streams contaminated.

clean water supplies can quickly lead to dehydration and death.

excess nutrients & acids dissolved in H20 can lead to massive die offs.

Michael D. Lee Ph.D. Geography and Environmental Studies

 Water
Supply, Renewal and Use
Too little Water Dams and Reservoirs Transferring water Groundwater and Saltwater Efficiency Too Much Water

Available Water
Total = 326 million cubic miles 97.4% of Earths water is in oceans 1.984% is locked up in ice caps and glaciers 0.014% is easily accessible
Soil moisture Groundwater Water vapor Lakes Streams

Water Supply & Use

0.014 liter (2.5 teaspoons) Readily available freshwater 0.014%

http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterdistribution.html

Water Cycle

Hydrologic Cycle
Powered by solar energy and gravity Evaporation and precipitation Continuous recycling of water
Runoff Infiltration Evaporation Temporary storage as snow and ice Temporary storage in lakes Temporary storage in plants (transpiration) and animals Chemical reactions with rocks and minerals Volcanism also causes melting of snow caps and mudflows as melted water mixes with ash Source of additional water? volcanism (steam)

Surface Water
Surface runoff flows into streams, lakes, wetlands and reservoirs A watershed or drainage basin
Region that drains into a streams, lakes, wetlands or reservoirs

www.canaanvi.org/assistance/ watershed.asp

Groundwater
Precipitation infiltrates and percolates through voids in soil and rock
Pores, fractures, crevices, etc.

Shallow rock has little moisture Zone of saturation is at a depth were ground is filled with water Top of this zone is water table
Falls in dry weather Rises in wet weather

HOW RIVERS WORK: the role of groundwater

www.elmhurst.edu/.../chm110/ outlines/groundwater.html

Aquifers
Porous, water-saturated layers of sand, gravel or bedrock through which groundwater flows Area of land that supplies water to aquifer is called the recharge area Natural recharge is when water percolates downward, but sometimes lateral recharge occurs

Groundwater Movement
Groundwater moves from recharge area through an aquifer and out a discharge area
well, spring, lake, geyser, artesian well, stream, ocean

Normally moves downhill at only a meter per year Some aquifers get little recharge and were formed thousands of years ago Removal from these nonrenewable resources is called water mining

Use of Fresh Water

United States
41% agriculture 38% power plant cooling 11% industry 10% public

China
87% agriculture 7% industry 6% public

Water Use Globally

According toPeople and Planet

70 percent of all water withdrawn for human use on an annual basis is soaked up by agriculture (mostly in the form of irrigation) Industry accounts for 23% Domestic use (household, drinking water, sanitation) accounts for about 7 percent

70

60

50

40 Irrigation Industry Domestic

30

20

10

Water Use
According toPeople and Planet

The average person needs a minimum of five litres (1.3 gallons) of water per day to survive in a moderate climate at an average activity level, according to UN figures. The minimum amount of water needed for drinking and cooking, bathing and sanitation is 50 litres (13 gallons).

Water Use - (minimum 13 gallons) People and Planet

250

The average person in the United States uses between 250 to 300 litres of water (65-78 gallons) per day for drinking, cooking bathing, and watering their yard. The average person in the Netherlands uses 104 litres per day (27 gallons). The average person in the African nation of Gambia uses 4.5 litres per day (1.2 gallons of water).

200

150 United States Netherlands Gambia 100

50

Water Use - United States

In 1990, about 408,000 million gallons (Mgal/d) of water were used each day Of that, about 339,000 Mgal/d was fresh water and about 69,400 Mgal/d was saline water California used the most water, about 46,800 Mgal/d, with most of that going towards irrigation The state with the second-highest water use was Texas, with about 25,200 Mgal/d, mostly for use in the power-production industries and for irrigation

 Some conversions: 1 Mgal/d = 1.547 cubic feet per second 1 Mgal/d = 0.6944 thousand gallons per minute 1 Mgal/d = 1,121 thousand acre-feet per year 1 million gallons = 3.07 acre feet
http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/wateruse.html

 Water
Supply, Renewal and Use

Too little Water

Dams and Reservoirs Transferring water Groundwater and Saltwater Efficiency Too Much Water

Too Little Water

Causes
Dry climate Drought - a period in which precipitation is much lower and evaporation is much higher Desiccation - drying of soil because of such activities as deforestation and overgrazing Water stress - low per capita availability of water caused by overpopulation

Precipitation Varies Greatly

US cities vary in their precipitation from an average of less than 8 to 60 inches a year. Globally, the extreme is even greater averages of less than 1 inch to more than 70 inches per year. However, this masks variations between years. Some locations may get ten times more, or less than 1/10 of their annual average from year to year. Meeting demands for water when precipitation is so highly varied creates many challenges.

www.geocities.com/seafloormapping2/ atmos.htm

whyfiles.org/131fresh_water/ 2.html

Global Precipitation Patterns

Wright and Nebel, 2002.

Michael D. Lee Ph.D. Geography and Environmental Studies

http://www.peopleandpla net.net/graphs/Freshwate ravailability.jpg

 In most areas of Nevada and California, potential transpiration and evaporation is in excess of precipitation, which causes a net moisture deficit

Drought may spark food price hike

Tuesday, November 12, 2002

SYDNEY, Australia -All but one percent of Australia's most populous state, New South Wales, has been bit by the country's worst drought in a century, with retailers warning that if rain does not fall soon, the country will likely face massive food price hikes.

 Water
Supply, Renewal and Use Too little Water

Dams and Reservoirs and Transferring water

Groundwater and Saltwater Efficiency Too Much Water

Water and Civilization

Many anthropologists and historians believe the need to manage water played a major role in the development of early systems of government. In Mesopotamia, the Fertile Crescent where the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers come together, water allowed the rise of irrigation-based agriculture, but this required coordination and rules to permit equitable access to water downstream. Proto-laws and governments were thus developed some 4,400 years BP Ancient communities that prospered were those that generally well managed their water supplies.
Michael D. Lee Ph.D. Geography and Environmental Studies

Examples of Water Management

Many civilizations built impressive water management systems to bring water to places where people wanted to be or where crops could be grown, but where it was naturally insufficient. Egyptians built dykes, canals and water lifts to extend agricultural limits. Middle East and North African nomads built qanats (underground chain wells). Nabateans built runoff harvesting systems cisterns and flood terraces. Incas built canals to catch snowmelt from the Andes to the coastal desert, and terraces to flood for farming. Romans built municipal aqueducts and sewers to serve burgeoning settlements. For a good, fun site on water history go here.
Michael D. Lee Ph.D. Geography and Environmental Studies

Egyptians perfected the shadouf to draw water from canals and the river to the adjacent bank and into ditches.
Michael D. Lee Ph.D. Geography and Environmental Studies

Nomadic herders and, later, sedentary civilizations developed chains of wells qanats, karez, foggaras, falaj to route water across miles of desert from distant aquifers.

Water for Power

In addition to its uses for municipal purposes (drinking, sanitation, etc.) and for farming, moving water also has tremendous power to do work. This too has been harnessed for millennia first to lift water out of the river itself, then to grind grain and turn gears for machinery like looms, and then for electricity. Water wheels have been in use for more than 2,000 years and were thought to have been a major factor in the advancement of European societies in the middle ages, as labor was freed for other purposes than farming. Following the discovery of electricity and the pioneering of electric light by Edison, in the 1880s hydropower systems were built to generate electricity to send through transmission lines to homes and businesses.
Michael D. Lee Ph.D. Geography and Environmental Studies

Example of noria water driven wheels lifting water into irrigation ditches or elevated aqueducts (This is in Vietnam) Slaters Mill in Rhode Island, one of the earliest American water powered industrial systems.

Gorges Project, Yangtze River, China worlds biggest hydropower project 19 m kW.
Michael D. Lee Ph.D. Geography and Environmental Studies

Increasing Water Supplies

Build dams and reservoirs to store runoff Bring in surface water from another area Withdraw groundwater Convert salt water to fresh water (desalination) Improve the efficiency of water use

Aswan Dam, Egypt

Chinese Dam Fish Bypass System Earthen Dam

Hoover Dam

Large Dams - Pros

Collect and store water from rain and snow Produce electricity Irrigate land below the dam Control flooding Provide water to cities, towns and rural areas Provide recreational activities such as swimming, boating, fishing

Large Dams - Cons

Enormous loss of water due to evaporation Mass of water can cause earthquakes Flooded land destroys forests or cropland and displaces people Danger of Dam collapse Downstream areas deprived of nutrient-rich soil, which will eventually clog the reservoir Migration and spawning of fish disrupted Expensive to build

Case Study:

California
CSU Hayward Dept. Geography and Environmental Studies GEOG 4350 Fall 2001 Class 6

isis.csuhayward.edu/alss/geography/ mlee/geog4350/4350c6f01.ppt

Most of the land in Nevada and southern California is desert shrubland, because these areas receive little precipitation. By contrast, wetter areas of central and northern California are forested where mountainous and developed as farmland and urban areas are flatter

Californias Water
Water Law Californias Water Projects
Los Angeles Aqueduct Hetch-Hetchy Salton Sea Colorado Aqueduct Central Valley Project

Water Law
Riparian Rights (Sharing)
from English Common Law applies to surface waters owner of waterfront land to use amounts correlated with other riparian owners. Works well in areas with water surplus

Prior Appropriation (1st come, first served)

from Spanish law no preference given to those adjoining water course water rights based on use; earliest has rights use protected as long as it is continuous and reasonable

Water Law
Correlative Rights
applies to ground water about 40% of all California water (not a sustainable withdraw) Overlying landowners entitled to reasonable use. Rights are correlated with other landowners overlying the aquifer

The California Doctrine

1928 amendment to California Constitution Most reasonable beneficial use Blend of riparian and appropriation rights Problem: California water geography is unbalanced. Plenty of water in the north. Most people in the south.

California Water Code

Highest priority for domestic use Second priority goes to irrigation Applications by municipalities for use of water by residents given priority over most other uses. Water Board determines allocation to serve public interest. Board must work within state water plans. Owens Valley issue highlights how contentious this process can be.

Los Angeles Aqueduct (DWP)

Eastern Sierra
Started in 1908 by William Mulholland appropriated water feeding Owens Valley taps surface flow from Eastern Sierra south 250 miles, cost $25,000,000 and took five years pipe and flume, tunnel, and trench gravity feed, no pumping generates hydroelectric power L.A. purchased riparian land, used appropriation rights to get away with this. Ranchers in Owens Valley fought back with dynamite and guns - Californias only range war.

Mono Lake

In 1941, L.A. DWP started diverting Mono Basin streams to add to L.A. Aqueduct. Mono Lakes volume halved while salinity doubled. The simple ecosystem began to fail and threatened migrating birds and nesting gulls. The state and courts now mandate raising the level of the lake 17 feet. It will take about 20 years.

Hetch Hetchy:
San Francisco Water Hetch Hetchy Valley, in Yosemite National Park, damned. Completed in 1931. 175 mile aqueduct and OShawnasy Dam, powerhouse, provide cheap power to the city of San Francisco. 95 mile Mokelumne aqueduct, starts at Pardee Dam and reservoir. Together they provide about 1/3 of Bay Area water. Controversy helped to strengthen John Muirs Sierra Club.

The Salton Sea

Man-made by accident in 1905. Irrigation in Imperial Valley had flooded an ancient overflow channel of the Colorado River. Unusually heavy spring runoff and lack of control gates caused a two-year flood into the Salton Sink. The Southern Pacific Railroad had to move its tracks five times that season to higher ground. Eventually the S.P.R.R. took control and put the river back but by then the Salton Sea was created. Hoover Dam now controls Colorado and prevents delivery of sediment to Yuma and the delta.
www.westernlaw.org/fischer/ 7_6text.html

Colorado River Aqueduct

Established 1928 to bring water to L.A. and rest of Southern California First delivery in 1940; serves 15 million people Lawsuit from Arizona (1953) finally began to be implemented in 1985 - amount will decrease and this amount will be replaced by State Water Project water. Five pumping stations Diversions for agriculture

The State Water Project: The California Aqueduct

Constructed beginning in the 1960s. About 1/2 for irrigation, about 1/2 for domestic use. Domestic use supply helps offset that lost to Arizona in 1985 court case. Includes the huge Oroville Dam on Feather River in Sierra foothills. Pumps at Tracy lift water, then it flows by gravity to the Tehachapi Mountains.

California Aqueduct

Dams and Global River Degradation

Shasta Dam, CA

Aswan Dam, Egypt

Lake Nasser

The Geography of Large Dams

Over 39,000 large dams by 1986

World Reservoir Inundation

Area submerged
size California

Upstream of Dams - Negative Impact

Environment
Loss of terrestrial/riparian habitat and species Creation of artificial lacustrine (lakes) system exotic species introductions Reservoir/storage for contaminants

Cultural / social
Loss of cultural resources Displacement of families (villages, regions) Water quality hazard

Economic
Shift in land use / economy Water loss via evaporation Water loss via seepage

Aesthetic
landscape inundated

Upstream Impact of Dams

Built 1956-1966. Aesthetics: Glen Canyon, Colorado River

Downstream Impacts of Dams

Altered hydrology - no seasonality Altered water quality/character Modify nutrient cycling Reduce sediment supply Channel adjustments Habitat modification Species impacts River fragmentation

The Dam Balance

Some dam removal (small dams) or operational changes (larger dams) Bruce Babbit (Secretary of the Interior) oversaw the creative destruction of two California dams in 2000
Saelzer Dam on Clear Creek near Redding, for Salmon Matilija Dam in Southern California

Dams continue to be built until good sites are gone, or it is not economic to build them. Global numbers? We do not know

Three Gorges Dam

World's largest hydroelectric dam, Three Gorges, Yangtze River. 1.2 - 1.9 million people will be displaced. The entire project is to be completed in 2009.

Summary of California Water Systems

Very complicated. Politically controversial - Owens Valley, Dams, Habitat changes, reduced flushing of SF Bay Delta. California has the most advanced and expensive water delivery system in the world. Most of the water (about 80%) is used by agriculture; essential to Californias huge farm industry.

Michael D. Lee Ph.D. Geography and Environmental Studies

New Alaskan Pipeline

A coastal, subsea pipeline has been proposed
2000 mile long from one or more rivers in Alaska to Shasta lake where it would join present system $110 billion estimate in 1990 no leakage or loss due to evaporation from 14-foot diameter pipeline 4 million acre-feet of water transported per year 36 million acre-feet of water needed per year in 2010

 Water
Supply, Renewal and Use Too little Water Dams and Reservoirs Transferring water

Groundwater and Saltwater

Efficiency Too Much Water

Tapping Groundwater
About half of the drinking water in the United States is pumped from aquifers Roughly 40% of the water in streams/river is from groundwater The number one removal of water from aquifers is for irrigation for farming

Groundwater Problems
Aquifer depletion
more water is removed than is naturally refreshed

Aquifer subsidence
land sinks due to withdrawal of groundwater (Mexico City)

Intrusion of salt water into aquifers Contamination from multiple sources

Groundwater Depletion
Aquifer Depletion
95% of water removed from Ogallala Aquifer is for irrigation and the removal rate is greater than the refreshing rate Saudi Arabia, China, northern Africa, southern Europe, Middle East, Thailand, India

www.npwd.org/Ogallala.htm

Aquifer Subsidence
Mexico Citys aquifer has shrunk enough that land has dropped up to 7.5 m

Well casing projecting from the ground (40 years)

http://www.geotimes.org/july01/sinking_titanic_city.html

http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/earth/waton/mexfig2.html

Salt Water Intrusion

One-third of the water supply for coastal areas of Greater Los Angeles comes from local ground-water sources. Saltwater has penetrated a part of the supply, and a significant part of the remaining supply is at risk.
U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 03002

Desalination
Removal of salts from ocean water
distillation
first land-based desalination plant was established in 1928 in the Netherlands

www.oas.org/usde/publications/ Unit/oea59e/ch21.htm

Desalination
Removal of salts from ocean water
reverse osmosis using high pressure
http://urila.tripod.com/

The Santa Barbara facility began operation in March 1992

 Water
Supply, Renewal and Use Too little Water Dams and Reservoirs Transferring water Groundwater and Saltwater

Efficiency
Too Much Water

Reducing Water Waste

Up 70% of water is lost through evaporation & leaks How to reduce water waste???
repair leaky pipes/canals recycling
use of gray water (i.e. from shower) for irrigation etc.

water conservation
efficient toilets, faucets, & shower heads

irrigation efficiency (only 40% reaches crops)

drip irrigation, centralpivot, computer monitoring

Types of Benefits
Possible benefits of canal replacement with pipeline: reduction in seepage losses improvement of head and on-farm water delivery better operation of distribution network reduction in maintenance costs

Direct Potable Water Reuse

Drinking Water Wastewater

Treatment

Direct Potable Water Reuse

Case Studies:
Windhoek, Namibia Denver, Colorado

Health concerns Public perception

Windhoek, Namibia
Population: 220,000 Severe water shortage First and only city using direct potable water reuse (Since 1968)

Windhoek, Namibia
40% of water demand returned as wastewater 2,000 m3/day of reclaimed water Basic public acceptance No significant epidemiological trends
Data consistent with WHO health trends

Denver, Colorado
Direct Potable Reuse demonstration project (1985-1992) Drinking water influent is secondary treated wastewater Several barriers of treatment
Standard Drinking Water Treatment Carbon Adsorption Ultraviolet Irradiation Reverse Osmosis/Ultrafiltration Air Stripping Disinfection (ozonation and chlorination)

Denver, Colorado
High water quality (meets all EPA standards) No adverse health effects
Tested on animals Carcinogenic and reproductive tests

Public awareness and education programs

Majority of acceptance if sufficient need exists

Specific Uses for Recycled Water

Toilet flushing Subsurface drip irrigation
Safer
Non-aerosolizing of water and pathogens

More prone to clogging

Requires more maintenance

More efficient
Less evaporative water loss Feeds roots of plants/grass directly

 Water
Supply, Renewal and Use Too little Water Dams and Reservoirs Transferring water Groundwater and Saltwater Efficiency

Too Much Water

Too Much Water: Floods

Natural flooding is caused primarily by heavy rain or rapid melting snow. This causes water in a stream to overflow it normal channel & flood the adjacent area, called a floodplain. Floodplains, which include highly productive wetlands, help to: Provide natural flood & erosion control Maintain high water quality Recharge groundwater When the floodwater recede, deposits of silt are left behind, creating a nutrient-rich soil.

Too Much Water: Floods

People have been settling in floodplains for several reasons: 1. Fertile soil 2. Sufficient water for irrigation 3. Flat land suitable for agriculture 4. Use of nearby rivers for transportations However, each year floods (natural disasters) kill thousands of people & cause tens of billons of dollar in property damage. Human activities have contributed to the sharp rice in flood frequencies which dramatically increased flood deaths & damages.

Flooding
Human activities that increase flooding: removing vegetation logging overgrazing forest fires mining destruction of wetlands building on floodplains urbanization

Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP

Too Much Water: Floods

Natural phenomena Renew and replenish
Reservoir Dam Levee Floodplain Flood wall

Aggravated by human activities