Energy and Buildings 41 (2009) 12631268

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Energy and Buildings

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Indonesian residential high rise buildings: A life cycle energy assessment

Agya Utama, Shabbir H. Gheewala *
The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment, King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok, Thailand

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T

Article history: Received 16 January 2009 Received in revised form 2 July 2009 Accepted 23 July 2009 Keywords: Building envelopes High rise Tropical climate Embodied energy Life cycle energy

This study evaluates the effect of building envelopes on the life cycle energy consumption of high rise residential buildings in Jakarta, Indonesia. For high rise residential buildings, the enclosures contribute 1050% of the total building cost, 1417% of the total material mass and 2030% of the total heat gain. The direct as well as indirect inuence of the envelope materials plays an important role in the life cycle energy consumption of buildings. The initial embodied energy of typical double wall and single wall envelopes for high residential buildings is 79.5 GJ and 76.3 GJ, respectively. Over an assumed life span of 40 years, double walls have better energy performance than single walls, 283 GJ versus 480 GJ, respectively. Material selection, which depends not only on embodied energy but also thermal properties, should, therefore, play a crucial role during the design of buildings. 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction According to a UN report, in the year 2010 urban living will surpass rural living and by the year 2030, 60% of the world population will live in urban areas [1]. These changes will be particularly visible in Asian countries where the economy is increasing rapidly. Urban living will lead to increase in the heat island effect, deterioration in air quality and increase the demand of cooling systems (mostly in tropical and sub-tropical countries). Worldwide, 3040% of all primary energy is used in buildings [2], almost 40% of the demand in Indonesia is generated by residential houses [3], the electricity use contributing mainly to cooling (40%) and lighting (18%) [4]. The national expenses index for residential building in Indonesia accounted for 1420% of the total construction work during the years 20012005 [5]. Building envelopes contribute more than 50% of the embodied energy distribution in major building elements in non-residential buildings [6], it is also contribute approximately 5060% of the total heat gain in buildings [7]. In Indonesia, about 3050% of the total building electricity consumption is contributed by AC (air conditioner) use [8]. It has been reported that the energy use during building occupation is seven times greater than during the construction and material production phase [9]. Thus, the energy use during the occupation phase needs to be analyzed. This study will show the signicant inuence of materials chosen for building envelopes in

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: shabbir_g@jgsee.kmutt.ac.th (S.H. Gheewala). 0378-7788/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.07.025

high rise buildings and contribution of the cooling load to the life cycle energy. Construction materials have already consumed intensive energy before they reach the construction site. The energy during material production is called embodied energy. Embodied energy is a measure of the quantity of the energy bound into a product due to raw material extraction and manufacturing processes required to produce a nished product. Also included is the energy associated with transportation of raw materials to the factory and of nished products to the customer [10]. Java is selected as the focus of research since 85% of the total population in Indonesia lives on this island and along with Bali it contributes 80% of the electricity demand [3]. Jakarta has been selected as a representative big city (typical metropolis in the region) for analyzing the operational energy demand in the residential sector. This study will focus on the life cycle energy (LCE) of buildings focusing particularly on the effect of envelope materials (walls, windows-doors frame, glass and ceiling) associated with airconditioning. The analysis includes the construction of the building envelope and quarrying as well as transportation of materials. The type (material and layers) for the envelopes will inuence the heat gain and consequently the energy consumption during its life, especially apartments with the air conditioned rooms. The study will identify the best choices among common wall types in terms of energy consumed from cradle to the use phase. Small but easy opportunities for energy conservation are often ignored and changing behaviour or lifestyle is very difcult; therefore focusing on how the common practice can be implemented correctly and which material will perform better for the Indonesian climate and user behaviour is important.

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Typical materials used for building envelopes in urban buildings are mainly clay bricks and gypsum plasterboard. The gypsum plasterboard demand has increased in the past ten years due to its exibility, constructability and light weight. However, due to its limited resistance to high rain intensity and high humidity which are the ambient conditions in tropical countries, this material is usually used only for inner walls or partition (zone separation). 2. Methodology This paper presents the direct energy consumed by residential envelope building materials, mainly in typical high rise residential buildings. Process analysis has been used to assess the energy consumed during raw material extraction, material production up to construction. Energy consumed during transportation of intermediate and nal materials is also included. Though the study site for the buildings is selected in Jakarta metropolitan (representative of the big cities in Indonesia), the data for the envelope materials production has been collected throughout Java Island (all the envelope materials were produced on this island except the raw materials extracted from the quarry; for example timber from Borneo island, aluminium ingots from Australia and limestone for gypsum from Thailand). The timber is mainly from Borneo which also represents the type and wood properties similar with that from tropical rain forests elsewhere (Amazon and Africa), the method during harvesting is also similar, except the transportation method and distance to the site. 2.1. Case study Middle up to high class residential high rise apartments (household income more than 5 million Rupiah or 500 USD per month), providing accommodation to almost 40% of the population in Jakarta has been studied. The typical materials that are currently used have been chosen along with typical oor area and occupancy rate. Two apartment envelope materials are identied; (a) double walls having external walls made from clay bricks, inner walls with gypsum plasterboard and air gap in between and (b) single walls with clay bricks. Both typical apartments use the commonly available air conditioners with capacity 900012,000 Btu/h (2.6 3.5 kW) having a coefcient of performance (COP) of three. The utilization is 11 h per day and the temperature setting around 25 8C. Household areas in Jakarta metropolitan are divided based on location; supported city area (such as Bogor, Tangerang, Bekasi and Depok), rural area, and urban area (Central, Eastern, Western and Northern Jakarta). The urban areas also consist of many types of households (single housing compounds owned by private companies, the government or individuals; townhouses; apartments and low-cost apartments owned by the government). The large increase in apartments is intriguing since the residential land use is getting limited and more expensive (especially in the strategic areas). In line with the population growth (1.4% per year) the demand for shelters has reached 35,000 units per year. Therefore, the apartments (either low-cost or luxurious ones) have become a very appealing option for middle and upper-class citizens. During 19992004, the apartments in Jakarta increased from 25,000 units per year (just after the economic crisis in 1998) to 39,000 units [11]. Data on electricity utilization behaviour were collected using open interviews and structured questionnaires covering 35 apartments in Jakarta; with oor area varying between 75 m2 and 100 m2 and having 23 bedrooms (two of them mostly airconditioned) and one living room (mostly air-conditioned). Data on appliances used and user behaviour were also collected along

with electricity bills for three months. The monthly family income of the studied houses ranged between 10 and 15 million Rupiah (USD 11001650). The studied high rise apartment is located on the 20th oor facing north and has approximately 85 m2 oor area out of which 53.17 m2 is air-conditioned (two bed rooms and a living room). The kitchen is located together with the living room without separation. The wall consists of 10 mm plaster (outer side), 110 mm local bricks and 10 mm gypsum plasterboard with 50 mm air gap between the bricks and gypsum for double walls and 110 mm bricks with 20 mm mortar plaster on both sides for single walls. The ceiling is made using local gypsum with 3 mm thickness. Both apartments use the same materials for oors, structure, window and door frames and boards (aluminium for frame and wood panel for doors) and clear glass for windows. The study assumed the appliances to be the same in every bedroom and the occupant rate for using the rooms was also similar. The total number of persons staying in the air-conditioned room during the night is four and none during daytime (weekdays) and fully occupied day and night during weekends. The electricity bills were used to calculate the average monthly electricity consumed by the air conditioners. Questionnaires were used for collecting all the information for the electricity-consuming appliances in every apartment together with the average use per day for weekdays as well as weekends [9]. 2.2. Indonesian climate The Indonesian archipelago is alternately dominated by the north monsoon (November to March) blowing from North Asia and the North Pacic and the south monsoon (May to September). Rainfall is heavy and well distributed around the year almost everywhere. Most places receive 15004000 mm/60160 in of rain a year. Jakarta, one of the drier places in the country, receives three times as much rain as London, but it falls on fewer days per year and for only half the number of hours. Temperatures remain high throughout the year and there is very little difference from month to month. As a coastal city the daily variation in temperatures is small. The average temperature in Jakarta is 27 up to 29 8C throughout the year, and the average relative humidity in the morning (09.00 am) is 8894% and 6777% during afternoon (03.00 pm). The average dew point in the city is 24 8C. 2.3. Simulation ECOTECT [12], a dynamic building analysis software, was used to simulate the cooling load. For this study, ECOTECT was used only to calculate the load associated with the building fabric (envelope). Simulations in ECOTECT are performed based on the input parameters such as average temperature setting, occupants, material for envelope, humidity, AC efciency, AC utilizations behaviours, zone inltration, external inltrations, air speed and internal heat (appliances and human). The simulation was carried out for the whole year since all the months are hot and humid. The simulations were based on the average occupation behaviour for four to ve people per apartment, three air conditioned rooms including TV, personal computer (PC) and stereo set inside the main conditioned room for two persons. The second conditioned room had TV and stereo set with two persons and TV and other appliances in the air conditioned living rooms (rarely used). The activities of the persons inside the main conditioned rooms were assumed as sleeping for 8 h and reading for 12 h also in the second room. The activities in the living room are reading and watching television (no heavy activities). The simulation program uses the material thermal properties such as conductivity, convection, thermal lag (time lag) for

A. Utama, S.H. Gheewala / Energy and Buildings 41 (2009) 12631268 Table 1 Quantity, thermal properties and embodied energy (no replacement) of building envelope materials. Materials Conductivity (W/m K) Double walls Quantity (kg) 271 Prod. (MJ) 1763 Trans. (MJ) 95 Const. (MJ) 15 (MJ/m )
2

1265

Single walls Quantity (kg) 271 Prod. (MJ) 1763 Trans. (MJ) 95 Const. (MJ) 15 (MJ/m2)

Ceiling (C) Gypsuma Walls External walls (EW) Internal walls (IW) (gypsuma) Mortar plaster Mortar Aluminium frame (AF) Doors and windows Window glass Clear glass (CG) Total embodied energy
a

0.65

23

23

0.27 0.65 0.43 0.43

9939 1046 885 1946

58,036 6818 2045 4500

689 369 50 109

555 59 73 161

723 88 26 58

9939 1769 1946

58,036 4091 4500

689 99 109

555 147 161

723 53 58

230

28

3408

1.2

1.6

42

28

3408

1.2

1.6

42

5.44

62

786 14,177

77,356

3.5 1313.2

9.6 868.1

62 969.6

786 14,015

72,584

3.5 993.2

9.6 883.1

Gypsum plasterboard.

simulating the dynamic heat transfer which is then used to calculate the cooling load. Other parameters such as leakage, wind sensitivity, thermal zone interchange, indirect heat gain and direct heat gains are also used in the simulation. Instead of conductivity (as seen in Table 1) other thermal properties such solar heat gain coefcient (SHGC), transparency and admittance for windows is crucial, since windows occupy most of the walls area. The selected building has 0.94 SHGC, 6 W/m2 K and 0.92 transparencies. The main purpose for using simulation in this study is to assess the inuence of the envelope materials on the energy consumed in the selected year. The simulated results from ECOTECT were cross-checked with actual measurements by using wattmeter on an air-conditioner with the conditions similar to the average air-conditioner utilization, local weather conditions, local humidity, etc. for several days during summer time. The simulated results were within 25% of the actual measurements. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Embodied energy The results of embodied energy as well as energy consumed during construction and operation were calculated and normalized to MJ/m2 oor area for a life time period of 40 years. The primary energy used for electricity is based on the Indonesian energy mix comprising of 33% coal, 36% oil, 18% natural gas and renewable energy (10% hydropower and 3% geothermal) yielding a value of 9.86 MJ/kWhe [13]. The inventory of embodied energy for selected materials for both types of houses and the energy during construction are shown in Table 1 which also includes the energy used during transportation from quarry to production and production to the construction sites. The overall embodied energy (without considering replacement and energy during use phase) of the double walls envelope was 79.5 GJ and that for single walls envelope was 74.5 MJ. The main differences are from gypsum plasterboard; double walls have more embodied energy from plasterboard as it has additional gypsum for its inner layer. Clay bricks are produced using the traditional open ring process which is not very efcient thus increasing the energy requirement. The ring process uses open kilns where the chamber is not properly sealed but remains open on both sides, therefore releasing a huge amount of heat [8]. The Indonesian bricks production consumes 5.91 MJ/kg compared with 2.1 MJ/kg in Australia where a more efcient ring process is used.

The raw materials for the clay-based envelope are taken from the quarry near the factory which is usually run as a traditional family operation. Low-efciency open kilns red by locally available materials from nearby saw mills or paddy elds are used. As the raw material quarry is located nearby, the energy during transportation is very small compared to the energy during transportation to the customer (construction sites), accounting for 5.5 103 MJ and 3.7 102 MJ/kg material, respectively. Single walls have more mortar plaster than double walls resulting in a higher embodied energy for this particular material (Table 1). The production of gypsum accounted for 6.65 MJ/kg, 5.38 MJ/kg from energy during production, 0.81 MJ/kg from material extraction (quarry) and 0.35 MJ/kg for delivery to Jakarta. The transportation from quarry contributed high amount of energy use as the quarry material (natural gypsum) is imported from Thailand. Total energy consumed during construction process for single walls accounted for 1.1% of the total envelope embodied energy which was very similar to 1.2% for double walls at 0.86 GJ and 0.88 GJ, respectively; the small difference mainly arising from the difference in the amount of mortar used and fuel consumption for lifting the materials. Replacement of the materials during the building life cycle (40 years) was assumed to be one time (at year 20) for ceiling material (gypsum plasterboard) and inner walls (gypsum plasterboard). No replacement was assumed for any other material during the 40 years lifespan. The embodied energy for replacement was almost the same as that of the initial embodied energy of the same components in terms of production and transportation energy. The embodied energy for construction however had differences since tower crane is not used during replacement. The materials are transferred to the selected oor using the buildings electrical hoist lift system; the electricity used for hoisting the material is 0.3 kWh/kg. Different durability is assumed for the different building elements because, gypsum for ceiling for example, does not have very high durability due to less resistance towards humidity; therefore replacement after 20 years is assumed. The embodied energy for double walls replacement was 9 GJ throughout whole lifecycle (including energy during construction process), and for single walls 1.87 GJ (as seen in Fig. 1). These high values of embodied energy are due to the usage of clay bricks (see Table 1). Overall, bricks accounted for about 72% of the total embodied energy of the double walls envelope and 85% for single walls. The second largest contribution is from plasterboard (ceiling and inner

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Fig. 2. Average monthly electricity consumption (AC only) comparisons between simulated and observed results. Fig. 1. Initial and replacement embodied energy for typical high rise residential envelopes (EW: external walls; IW: internal walls; C: ceiling; AF: aluminium frame; CG: clear glass; Repl: replacement).

walls) for double walls (accounting almost 20%). For single walls envelope however, the remaining embodied energy is contributed evenly by gypsum plasterboard, aluminium frame and clear glass (46%). The initial embodied energy for envelope material production and energy during construction and replacement accounted 29% for double walls apartment and 19% for single walls apartment for the 40 years life cycle (similar to 19% for typical Swedish house and 38% for low energy buildings [14]). The higher the percentage of embodied energy compared to the operational phase, the better the material performance towards its life cycle energy. The initial embodied energy during rst installation accounted 27% of the whole LCE for double walls, different from single walls at 17%. The initial embodied and installation energy for double walls envelope material was 79.5 GJ, similar to 76.3 GJ for single walls. The embodied energy for double walls is 9 GJ higher if we add the replacement during its lifetime. The operational energy consumption however shows a big difference between double and single walls apartment, 194 GJ and 383.7 GJ, respectively. The overall embodied energy of double walls is higher than single walls mainly due to the inner gypsum plaster board as well as the replacement (one time for the life cycle of the building). It contributes more than 17.8 GJ (including gypsum frame) for the overall double wall envelopes. 3.2. Operational energy The typical air conditioner utilization for high rise apartment is 11 h on average (starting around evening onwards) for two bedrooms and 19.0021.00 for the living room for 5 days per week and starting in the afternoon (12.00 onward) in the weekend, the thermostat being set on average at 25 8C. The apartments mostly have a window to wall ratio of around 0.44. This is used as the base condition for the simulations to calculate the cooling load associated with only the building envelope (building fabrics). The validation result of measurement and simulations for double walls (bricks with inner gypsum plasterboard separated by air gap) and single walls (bricks only) are shown in Fig. 2; the results from both methods were compared to determine whether the simulation results could be used for further development of the scenarios. Electricity bills were collected for the months May to September 2006 as it was difcult to collect the bills for the whole year. However, the data was considered representative as most of the interviewed apartments conrmed that the monthly electricity bills remained the same throughout the year. As seen in Fig. 2, the electricity consumption from airconditioning as computed from the monthly electricity bills and from simulation for both wall types shows similar results (710% difference). The similarity of results from both the methods gives

condence in the simulations which are used also for estimating the cooling load associated with building envelopes. Fig. 2 shows that the electricity consumption for cooling load estimated from electricity bills and from simulations for double and single envelope materials differs by approximately 1833 kWh on an average monthly basis. The performance of single and double walls associated with its cooling load (perimeter load) caused only by the inuence of its envelope is 81 kWh and 41 kWh per month, respectively. This will therefore inuence the life cycle energy of the typical houses as can be seen in Fig. 3 below. The perimeter load in this study also includes the latent heat load from ambient environment such as latent heat from outside zone or external inltrations (not from the internal heat load or incidental heat gain, human latent heat and appliances latent heat). The U-value of the walls also inuences the heat transferred; double walls have a lower U-value (1.12) than single walls (1.58) indicating a better thermal resistance and hence a lower cooling load. The room cooling loads also increases by 2.6% for every 1 W/m2 increase of incidental heat gain in case of nonresidential buildings [6]; this would result in additional heat gain if there is no separation between kitchen and the conditioned rooms in the design. Material properties such as density and specic heat affect thermal properties and consequently have a signicant inuence on the amount of electricity consumed by the air-conditioner; lower density leads to better insulation (low conductivity) as also lower specic heat (higher specic heat also leads to longer time lag [15]). Thus, the additional layers on the walls result in reduction in electricity consumption during the operational phase. The properties (such as specic heat, width and density) inuence the time lag and attenuation on heat transfer of the building envelope. In turn, the time lag of the building material will also affect the occupants use of cooling appliances as the thickness of the envelopes material will delay or quicken the heat transfer through those materials. The high-capacity materials have a greater time lag than low-capacity materials, but the heat transfer will stop when both surfaces reach steady state conditions [15]. The thermal properties of interest for materials used for single and double walls are brick density (950 kg/m3), conductivity

Fig. 3. High rise apartment life cycle energy associated with the building envelope.

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(0.27 W/m K) and specic heat (840 J/kg K). These factors will also inuence U-value and time lag; double walls have a higher U-value due to the introduction of inner gypsum plasterboard layer. Double walls have more time lag compared to single walls (3.2 h for single walls [16] and 3.5 h for double walls depending on the air gap thickness and gypsum board thermal properties). The time lag also depends upon the material thickness lower thickness leading to lesser time lag. Thus, the additional layers for double walls lead to a higher time lag. The average usage pattern of air-conditioners in Jakarta is as follows: usage starts at 19.00 and ends at 05.00, because of the envelopes thermal properties, the heat from the envelope will start to be released at 11.00 (the solar gain starts around 08.00 in the morning [14]). The heat up to 15.00 h is trapped in the double walls then released to the rooms at 18.30, whereas it will be released at around 18.13 for single walls. The AC usage pattern follows the pattern of the heat release from the envelope materials as well as the schedule of room utilization. Time lag inuence on the cooling load here means, for double walls with bricks and gypsum the inuence of external heat starts 4 h after solar irradiation and for single bricks walls, 3 h. Generally the cooling load from single walls apartment in Jakarta is mainly inuenced by heat generated from 15.30 onwards, and the double walls apartment are inuenced by the heat generated starting around 15.00. Also signicant in the context of AC utilization is that the double walls will have stored heat coming into the room up to approximately 3.5 h after sunset whereas for single walls, only approximately 3 h and 13 min after sunset. As in Jakarta the highest average direct solar gains start from 13.00 up to 15.00 (ranging between 970 W and 1010 W), the double walls have a disadvantage due to higher thermal lag as compared to single walls with regards to the AC utilization pattern. However, the inuence on cooling load is not only from the time lag but also the conductivity and specic heat of the materials. As double walls have a lower U-value (less conductivity, due to additional inner layers), the heat transfer through the double walls is lesser than single walls resulting in lower heat gain than single walls. Thus these two phenomena (time lag and U-value) are acting ` in opposite directions vis-a-vis heat gain. At the end of the day when the diurnal effect is replaced by nocturnal cooling, again single walls have the advantage as they will cool faster than bricks as the time lag of the transferred heat from single walls is lower than double walls. However these conditions do not inuence much since in tropical climates, the diurnal temperature range is small. Research done by Yohanis et al. [17] also conrms that the highest electricity consumption by residential buildings is during 16.0023.00; starting to decline at 23.30 until morning. In case of Indonesia, the highest percentage of electricity is consumed during peak time resulting from air conditioning load caused by afternoon heat, incidental heat and mostly humidity. 3.3. Life cycle energy The life cycle energy associated with building envelopes in single landed houses in Indonesia is 282.9 GJ for the double walls and 460 GJ for the single walls. These calculations include the energy for raw material extraction, material production, transportation (quarry and nal product delivery) and the energy during operation (use phase). The life cycle does not include the end use of the material due to the very limited possibilities to consume energy since there are no experiences before for dismantling the high rise building in Indonesia over its life time and the building materials are mainly land lled at the end of life of the building (concrete based materials); some parts will probably be reused (aluminium and wooden materials).

It was found that the embodied energy during production and transportation (quarry and internal transportation) accounted for 78.7 GJ for double walls and 73.6 GJ for single walls. The construction phase for both typical walls accounted for 0.867 GJ and 0.882 GJ, respectively. It is of course anticipated that the embodied energy for double walls will be slightly greater than single walls due to the additional inner layers (gypsum plasterboard) for double walls. Both types of walls use bricks as the main material, which as mentioned earlier have a high embodied energy (contributing more than 75% of overall material embodied energy) because of the low production efciency. It is interesting, however, to note that brick production uses local biomass-based sources of energy such as rice husk and saw dust from neighbouring areas which would not contribute much to certain impacts such as global warming and acidication. 4. Conclusions For typical Indonesian high rise apartment, double walls made of bricks with gypsum plasterboard and single walls show different inuences towards the overall energy demand; embodied energy contributing 1929% of the LCE and operation phase 7181%. The different electricity consumption despite similar occupant behaviour and indoor appliances for both types of houses are mainly because of the different thermal properties of the envelope materials (density, thickness, conductivity, specic heat, time lag, admittance, absorption and emissivity). The double walls have the disadvantage of higher thermal lag (higher specic heat) relating to the usage pattern of air-conditioners in Indonesia compared to single walls. However since its U-value is lesser than concrete blocks, the effect of the thermal transfer is reduced. The potential of double walls could be improved by increasing U-value and reducing the thickness which will reduce its specic heat. This will reduce time lag thus releasing heat to the inside zone faster and removing the heat also quicker, consequently reducing cooling load when the occupants arrive. As noted by Radhi [18], the extra energy consumed by cooling load is not merely due to the effect of external heat through the envelope and incident heat; rather it is a result of the heat being trapped. The possible and easiest way in case of single walls is by reducing the thickness of bricks, as the time lag by changing the thickness from 110 mm to 100 mm will be reduced from 3.13 h to 2.83 h while not compromising the structural strength. This will help reducing the potential of high cooling load by releasing the heat sooner during daytime; the potential monthly reduction is estimated about 5.6 kWh. The study clearly shows that materials having low initial embodied energy do not automatically have low life cycle energy. A lower U-value of building envelope and lesser time lag will reduce the energy use during the operational leading to lower life cycle energy for the typical occupant behaviour in Indonesia. Lesser the time for heat transfer to the rooms, better the performance will be due to the lower load at night when the air-conditioners are being used. It can be seen that the reverse would be true for commercial buildings where the occupation pattern is opposite; a larger time lag would reduce energy use for air-conditioning during the day in this case. The best option for reducing the LCE in residential buildings would be having lightweight envelope materials (low density and less thickness) which would reduce time lag as well as U-value. Another is introducing air gap with air circulation as the air circulation will remove the humidity [19] and heat by convection in between core material or additional indoor layers (gypsum board) to reduce heat and humidity in the room. It is very important to consider aspects of the local macro climate in addition to the aesthetics which sometimes are the

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A. Utama, S.H. Gheewala / Energy and Buildings 41 (2009) 12631268 [2] UNEP-SBCI, Buildings and Climate Change; Status, Challenge and Opportunities, UNEP Publication, Paris, France, 2007. [3] W.W. Purwanto, Indonesia Energy and Outlook and Statistic 2006, Pengkajian Energy Universitas Indonesia, University of Indonesia, 2006. [4] E. Prianto, Indonesian Landed House Electricity Consumption, Home Design Going Green, One Day Seminar, WWF-Indonesia, Jakarta, 2007. [5] Indonesian Statistical Bureau (BPS), Value of construction completed by type of construction 20012005, Indonesia, 2007. [6] Y.G. Yohanis, B. Norton, Including embodied energy considerations at the conceptual stage of building design, in: Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part A, Journal of Power and Energy 220 (3) (2006) 271288. [7] P. Tiwari, J. Parikh, Cost of CO2 reduction in building construction, Energy 20 (1994) 531547. [8] A. Utama, S.H. Gheewala, Life cycle energy of single landed houses in Indonesia, Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 19111916. [9] B.L.P. Peoportier, Life cycle assessment applied to the comparative evaluation of single family houses in the French context, Energy and Buildings 33 (2001) 443450. [10] U.G. Yasantha, S. Babel, S.H. Gheewala, A. Sharp, Environmental, economic and social analysis of material for doors and windows in Sri Lanka, Building and Environment 42 (5) (2007) 21412149. [11] Central Java Statistical Bureau (BPS) Jakarta, Jakarta household powered by national electricity, Available online: http://bps.jakarta.go.id/P3_Stat/P3K_Perumahan/P3K22_tabel2.htm, surf on February, 14th 2006 (in Bahasa Indonesia). [12] A.J. Marsh, Ecotect; Building Analysis Program, Square One Research Ltd. Autodesk, 2008. [13] A. Widiyanto, S. Kato, N. Maruyama, A. Nishimura, S. Sampattagul, Environmental impacts evaluation of electricity grid mix systems in four selected countries using LCA point of view, in: Proceeding of Ecodesign, Tokyo, Japan, 2003. [14] J.F. Karlson, B. Moshfegh, A comprehensive investigation of a low-energy building in Sweden, Renewable Energy 32 (2006) 18301841. [15] N. Lechner, Heating, Cooling, and Lighting: Design Method for Architects, 2nd edn., John Wiley and Sons, 2001. [16] H. Asan, Numerical computation of time lags and decrement factors for different building materials, Building and Environment 41 (2006) 615620. [17] Y.G. Yohanis, J.D. Mondol, A. Wright, B. Norton, Real-life energy use in the UK: how occupancy and dwelling characteristics affect domestic electricity use, Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 10531059. [18] H. Radhi, Can envelope codes reduce electricity and CO2 emissions in different types of buildings in the hot climate of Bahrain? Energy 34 (2009) 205215. [19] B. Givoni, Passive and Low Energy Cooling of Buildings, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Canada, 1994. [20] J.B. Harjanto, Air conditioning unit for tropical climate, EE&C best practice of Indonesia building (2008), NUS, Singapore.

prime factors in terms of client demands. For the case considered, the double walls based envelope had a better LCE performance than the single walls one. The important points in favour of the double walls envelope are the thermal properties (U-value) and air gaps. Durability of materials is also important as it is reected in the rate of replacement which has an energy as well as economic burden. Local availability of materials is another important consideration as it also reects in energy as well as economic costs. Gypsum plasterboard needs to be replaced one time in the 40 years life span and the embodied energy for this material is relatively high; contributing 20% of the overall embodied energy including the replacement embodied energy for inner gypsum and ceiling. As this particular material is imported, its embodied energy from transportation is also relatively high (accounting for 11% of the overall embodied energy from gypsum production and delivery to the site). It is worth to consider a higher embodied energy material but one that can save more energy during the operation phase. However, the improvement of energy efciency of the production and transportation will also be benecial for saving the overall energy of the buildings and therefore reducing its environmental impacts. Two possible suggestions are (1) consider materials which follow the pattern of the users, in this case which allow heat transfer quickly (evening occupancy schedule) or high thermal storage for commercial buildings (daytime occupancy schedule) and (2) improve air conditioning system in tropical regions to increase its capability for reducing humidity, as most of the systems are designed and made for sub-tropical climates [20]. References
[1] Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision and World Urbanization Prospects: The 2007 Revision, http://esa.un.org/unup, surfs on January 2008.