16 Quality Evaluation of Cereals and Cereal Products

Vladimir F. Rasper University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada Charles E. Walker* BRIAustralia Ltd., North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia The quality of cereals and various cereal products is determined by a variety of characteristics that may be assigned different significance levels, depending upon the desired end product. These characteristics can be divided into chemical, enzymatic, and physical. Likewise, individual quality testing methodologies can be classified into those concerned with the chemical components of the tested material, assays for estimating enzymatic activity, and tests dealing with various physical or physicochemical properties. Procedures based on small-scale product preparation, e.g., laboratory milling and experimental baking tests, are also parts of the methodology. Tables 1 and 2 contain a list of the procedures most commonly employed as part of the Approved Methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists [1] or Standards of the International Association for Cereal Chemistry and Technology [1823]. The expected ranges of values measured by these procedures for different types of wheat flour are given in Tables 35. I Chemical Tests A Moisture Moisture determination is an essential step in evaluating the quality of cereal grains and their products. The behavior of the grains in both storage and milling depends to a great extent on their moisture content. Moisture content also influences the keeping quality of flour and bakery products. The knowledge of moisture content is required for comparing production data at a uniform level of dry solids and for compliance with government regulations. Similarly, since compositional percentages are inversely related to moisture content in the analyzed material, results of chemical analyses have to be reported on a fixed-moisture basis. In North America, it has become a common practice to report the results on the 14% basis, whereas in Europe the dry solids basis is often preferred, and 12% is used in other countries for some products. There are many methods for testing moisture content, and their results may vary considerably. It is therefore important that all tests are made by the same method when the results are intended for the same purpose or different laboratories are involved. In reporting the results, the method used should be indicated so that in comparing results of different methods, a proper correction factor can be
1

applied.
*

This work was co-authored by Dr. Walker while on leave from Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas.

Disclaimer: It is common practice in the Cereal Technology field to refer to equipment by manufacturer and/or by brand names. Where company names have been used in this article, it is for clarity and identification only. No endorsement of any particular company or its products in preference to other similarly suited equipment is implied. TABLE 1 Some of the Most Commonly Used AACC Approved Methods and ICC Official Standards for Testing Grains and Flours Tested property Chemical constituent Moisture Oven-drying 44-15A 44-16 44-18 44-19 44-20 Dielectric meter Vacuum drying Distillation with toluene Protein Automated Kjel-Foss method Automated colorimetric method Improved Kjeldahl method 44-11 44-40 44-51 46-08 46-09 46-10 46-11 46-12 Micro-Kjeldahl method Udy-dye method Biuret method Combustion method Gluten Hand washing 46-13 46-14A 46-15 46-30 38-10 105/1 109/1 110/1 Principle AACC Methodsa ICC Standardb

Machine washing Mineral matter (ash) Incineration

38-11 08-01 08-02 08-03

137 104

Crude fiber Dietary fiber (insoluble) Crude fat Fat acidity

Chemical digestion Enzymatic and chemical digestion Solvent extraction Titration

32-10 32-20 30-10 30-25 02-01A 02-02A 02-03A

105/1

136

Starch

Enzymatic Polarimetric

76-11 76-20 76-30A

128 122

Starch damage Enzymatic activity -Amylase

Enzymatic

Colorimetric

22-01 22-06

108

Nephelometric Viscometric Amylography Falling number Pressuremetric Volumetric Chemical (incubation in situ)

22-07

22-10 56-81B 22-11 22-14 22-15 22-16

126 107

Rapid Viscometric

22-08

61-02 Proteases Chemical 22-60 22-61 Spectrophotometric Colorimetric 22-62 22-63 46-11 46-12

(table continued on next page) Continued

TABLE 1 Tested property Physical properties Farinography Mixography Extensigraphy Alveography Particle size Dough mixing Dough mixing Dough stretching Dough stretching Centrifugation Sedimentation Physicochemical properties Sedimentation value Oxidizing, bleaching, and maturing agents Oxidizing agents Acetone peroxides Ascorbic acid Chemical Chemical Chemical 48-02 48-05 86-10 Swelling and sedimentation 56-60 116 54-21 54-40 54-10 54-30 50-10 127 114 121 115 Principle AACC Methodsa ICC Standardb

Benzoyl peroxide

Chemical Chemical

46-06B 48-07 48-30 48-42 50-10

Chlorine dioxide Azodicarbonamide Potassium bromate

a b

Chemical Chemical Chemical

Approved Methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists, 9th ed., St. Paul, MN 1995. Standard Methods of the International Association for Cereal Science and Technology.

When moisture is determined by drying, the measured value is defined as the percent loss in weight under the conditions of the specific procedure. The loss includes both water and other volatiles. If the original moisture content in the sample exceeds 16%, drying is usually carried out in two stages. The moisture content is first reduced to 16% or less (13% for rice) by keeping the sample in a well-ventilated and warm place. Then the sample is dried at an elevated temperature: 103C for 72 hours [1] (AACC Method 4415A) or at 135C for 2 hours (AACC Method 44-19). An alternate procedure uses a partial vacuum equivalent to 25 mm mercury or less at 98100C for approximately 5 hours (AACC Method 44-32). Other techniques such as measuring the dielectric constant (AACC Method 44-11), azeotropic distillation with toluene (AACC Method 44-51), and near-infrared reflectance (NIR) spectroscopy are also used. According to the ICC Basic Reference Method [22], sample moisture content is defined as the loss in weight sustained by the material when equilibrated in an anhydrous atmosphere at a temperature between 45 and 56C and a pressure of 1.32.7 kPa (1020 mmHg). B Protein The protein quantity has historically been determined by the classical Kjeldahl analysis or one of its more recent modifications [1] (AACC Methods 46-10, 46-1 1, 46-12, 46-13). Protein nitrogen is reduced and transformed to ammonium sulfate by hot digestion of the dry sample with concentrated sulfuric acid in the presence of a catalyst. Ammonia is then liberated from the sulfate by distillation in the presence of sodium hydroxide and driven into a known volume of standard acid solution. From the quantity of unreacted acid determined by titration, the quantity of released nitrogen is established and converted to protein by multiplying the percentage of nitrogen with the appropriate conversion factor (5.7 for wheat and wheat flour, 6.25 for most foods and feeds). Another method is based on the dye-binding capacity of specific groups of amino acids in protein [1,47] (AACC Method 46-14A). More recently, methods have been developed to determine protein by near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy [1,31,54] (AACC Method 39-10) and near-infrared transmission. NIR is a somewhat empirical method, however, and requires a set of previously
5

analyzed reference samples to calibrate the instrument. As a result of the expense, hazards, and environmental pollution characterizing the Kjeldahl procedure, many laboratories now use methods that measure the nitrogen as a gas left after exhaustively combusting the sample in a 99.9% pure oxygen atmosphere at 950C [1] (AACC Method 46-30). Protein determination is particularly significant when testing wheat or flour. Wheat protein quantity and quality have long been recognized to have a decisive effect on the physicochemical properties of wheat flour dough and consequently on its handling properties and baking potential.
Page 508 TABLE 2 Procedures for Testing Baking Quality of Wheat Flour and Ingredients Tested property Standard procedures Bread flour quality Bread flour quality Straight-dough baking test with long fermentation; size: pup loaf Straight-dough baking test with optimized conditions; also suitable for evaluation of effects of environment, variety, dough ingredients, protein content, flour components; used for 10100 g flour and on 1-lb loaves; also used for blends of wheat and nonwheat flours Sponge and dough baking tests; 800 g flour, 1-lb loaves 10-09a 1010Ba 10-11a 10-20a Preparation of coffee cakes using 100 g of mix Preparation of biscuits Baking sugar snap cookies and measuring cookie spread; 225 g flour Same as above; 40 g flour Preparation of white layer cakes; 200 g flour Preparation of angel food cakes 10-31a 1050Da 10-52a 10-90a 10-15a 10-60a Principle Source

Bread flour quality Baking test of flour quality for sweet yeast products Baking property of selfrising biscuit flour Baking quality of cookie flour Baking quality of cookie flour Baking quality of cake flour Baking quality of angel food cake flour

Baking quality of pie flour Preparation of pie shells; 1000 g flour

Baking quality of rye flour Straight-dough process for rye bread; 100 g wheat (clear) and 100 g rye flour Baking quality of nonfat dry milk (NFDM) Nonstandardized procedures Bread flour quality Cake flour quality
a b

10-70a 10-85a

Straight-dough bread process with 6% NFDM

Sponge dough method under optimized conditions, see Table 6 Yellow layer cake, see Table 7

AIBb AIBb

Approved Methods of the American Association of Cereal Chemists, 8th Edition, St. Paul, MN, 1983. American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, KS.

Since these relevant functions of wheat protein have been attributed primarily to gluten-forming proteins, protein determination in wheat or wheat flour is very often supplemented by a quantitative estimation of wet and dry gluten, especially in Europe. Gluten is prepared by washing out most of the starch and solubles from a piece of dough developed from flour and water [1] (AACC Method 38-10). This tedious and poorly reproducible procedure has been made easier by the introduction of automatic gluten washers (Fig. 1) [1] (AACC Method 38-11). The wet gluten can be examined visually for its color and elasticity. The difference between gluten weight before and after drying can be taken as a rough estimate of its hydration capacity. Some other tests used for evaluating gluten quality are mentioned in Section IV. C Mineral Content Mineral content, more commonly known as ash, has always been considered an important criterion in flour quality. Although not directly related to the baking performance of flour, it serves as an indicator of the degree of separation of starchy endosperm from the bran during the milling process because the aleurone and bran layers are higher in mineral matter than the endosperm. Thus, ash content determination not only provides a useful criterion for classifying flours, but is a tool for controlling the entire milling operation. Ash content may vary from less than 0.4% for high-quality, low-extraction flours to more than 2.0% for whole wheat flours. The conditions of the determination may vary with the type of the tested material and procedure used. According to AACC Method 0801, ash is determined as a residue after incinerating the sample at 550C (for soft wheat flour) or 575590C (for hard wheat flour) until a light gray ash is obtained [1]. Using an accelerated method, applicable only to flour, the sample is wetted with magnesium oxalate solution and incinerated for 3045 minutes at 700C [1] (AACC Method
7

08-02). The ICC Standard No. 104 (18) for ash determination in cereal materials prescribes incineration at ~900C until the residue is white or nearly white. For a rapid determination of ash without any incineration involved, NIR spectroscopy can be applied [53]. Most NIR instruments now used in mills can have this calibration included. D Fiber Mineral content correlates very closely to fiber content. They are both related to the amount of bran in the kernel or in the flour. In cereal testing, fiber was traditionally determined as crude fiber in the form of a residue remaining af-

TABLE 3 Generally Used Criteria for Measuring Quality of Flour for Yeast Breads Pan bread Quality criterion Wheat class
a

Wholesale, conventional HS, HW, or blend Medium to high 6064 0.440.50 NSb Pan; straight or sponge Creamy white

Continuous dough HS, HW, or blend Medium 5964 0.440.50 NS Pan; sponge Creamy white

Hearth breads HS High 6368 0.440.55 NS Hearth; straight Creamy white

Variety breads, cracked wheat bread, rye bread HS High 6575 0.450.55 NS Pan; straight NS

Soft rolls HS, HW, or blend High 5964 0.440.5 NS Pan; sponge Creamy white to white

Sweet goods HS, HW, or blend Medium to high 6064 0.450.50 NS Pan; straight Creamy white

Flour absorption (% by farinograph) Ash (%) Alk. water retention Baking test Color Enzyme activity Amylase Amylograph (BU) Maltose (mg)

475625 290350

525600 280330

400600 300360

350550 300375

475625 290350

475625 290350

Pressuremeter 5th-hour (mm) Falling number Amylase analyzer Lipase Protease Particle size Range (SED)c = (m) Protein Quantity (%) Quality (Farinograph recording mixer values) Hydration Peak development (min) Stability (min) Extensibilityd Resistance to extension Starch damage (%)
a b

500550 200300 300600 NS NS

475550 200300 300600 NS NS

500550 175275 350600 NS NS

500550 200300 300600 NS NS

500550 200300 300600 NS NS

500550 200300 300600 Low for prepared mixes NS

0150

0150

0150

0150

0150

0150

11.013.0

11.013.0

13.514.5

Medium 68 7.5 minimum Medium Medium 5.57.7

Short to medium 57 8 minimum Medium Medium 5.57.8

Medium to long 79 10 minimum Medium to long Maximum 7.08.5

Medium to long 79 10 minimum Medium to long Maximum Low as possible

Medium 68 8 minimum Medium to long Medium to low 5.57.8

Short to medium 58 8 minimum Long Medium to low 5.57.8

HS = Hard spring, HW = hard winter. NS = Not significant at present, or significance not known. c Stokes equivalent diameter. d Descriptive terms in each instance refer to relative values for wheat variety involved. Source: Ref. 15.

TABLE 4 Generally Used Criteria for Measuring Quality of Flour for Chemically Leavened Breads and Biscuits Crackers Quality criterion Wheat class
a

Home baking HW or HW-SW blend Medium low 5258 0.440.48 NS

b

Biscuits HW-SW blend or SW Low 5054 0.440.40 NS Biscuits White

Sponge SW or SW-HW Low 4852 0.400.48 5868 AACC cookie; W/T 6.07.5 Creamy

Dough SW Low 4852 0.400.48 5868 AACC cookie; W/T 7.58.5 Creamy

Pastry SW Low 4852 0.400.48 5056 AACC cookie; W/T 7.58.5 Creamy

Flour absorption (% by farinograph) Ash (%) Alk. water retention Baking test Color Enzyme activity Amylase Amylograph (BU) Maltose (mg) Pressuremeter 5th-hr (mm) Falling number Lipase Protease Particle size Range (SED)c = (m) Protein Quantity (%) Quality (recording mixer

Biscuits; kitchen layer cakes Creamy white

450600 290320 400450 200300 NS NS

NS NS NS 250 minimum NS NS

700800 200250 300350 250 minimum NS NS

NS NS NS 250 minimum NS NS

NS NS NS 250 minimum NS NS

0125

090

0125

0125

0125

9.511.0

9.010.0

9.010.0

8.09.0

8.09.0

10

values) Hydration Peak development (min) Stability Extensibilityd Resistance to extensiond Starch damage Viscosity MacMichael
a b

Short 35 36 Medium Medium to low Low as possible

Short 23 13 Medium short Low Low as possible

Short 13 13 Medium Low Moderate

Short 13 12 Medium Low Low as possible

Short 13 12 Medium Low Low as possible

90120

6090

6590

4560

4560

HW = Hard winter, SW = soft winter. NS = Not significant at present, or significance not known. c Stokes equivalent diameter. d Descriptive terms in each instance refer to relative values for wheat variety involved. Source: Ref. 15. TABLE 5 Criteria for Evaluating Flours for Cookies, Cakes, Soups, and Gravies Cakes Quality criterion Wheat classa Flour absorption (% by farinograph) Ash (%) Alk. water retention Baking test Color Enzyme activity Amylase Cookies SW Low; 4852 0.420.50 5054 AACC cookie; W/T 8.09.5 Creamy Layer SW Low; 4852 0.340.40 5462 White layer cake White White Foam SW Very low; 4448 0.290.33 5256 Angel food cake NS Soups and gravies (thickeners) SW NSb 0.400.58 4855 None

11

Amylograph (BU) Maltose (mg) Pressuremeter 5th-hr (mm) Falling number Lipase Protease Particle size Range (SED)c = (m) Protein Quantity (%) Quality (recording mixer values) Hydration Peak development (min) Stability (min) Extensibilityd Starch damaged Viscosity MacMichael
a b

NSb NS NS 250 minimum NS NS

NS NS NS 250 minimum Low for prepared mixes NS

NS NS NS 250 minimum Low for prepared mixes NS

700+, high as possible 200, low as possible NS 250 minimum NS NS

0125

0125

2060

0150

7.09.5

7.09.5

5.57.5

9.010.5

Short 13 12 Medium Low as possible

Short 12 11.5 Short High

Short 11.5 11.5 Short Low

NS NS NS NS Low as possible

4065

3565

3045

NS

SW = Soft winter. NS = Not significant at present, or significance not known. c Stokes equivalent diameter. d Descriptive terms in each instance refer to relative values for wheat variety involved. Source: Ref. 15.

ter treating the sample successively with hot concentrated acid and hot concentrated alkali [1] (AACC Method 32-10). In wheat grain,
12

the crude fiber content ranges from 2 to 2.5% (14% m.b.). Flour crude fiber is directly related to the milling extraction and averages around 0.5% (14% m.b.) in white flour. Recently, fiber content in cereals and cereal products has more frequently been reported as ''dietary fiber." This term designates a residue indigestible by human digestive enzymes. A method based on a combined action of amylase and neutral detergent was designed to simulate the digestive process in vitro for the determination of insoluble dietary fiber [1] (AACC Method 32-20). For the determination of total dietary fiber, consisting of both soluble and insoluble fractions, the enzymatic method uses amylolytic and proteolytic enzymes as proposed by Prosky et al. [36]. Like crude fiber, total dietary fiber in flour will increase with higher milling extraction rates. It may range from approximately 3% in white wheat flour to over 9% in whole meal. In wheat bran, it accounts for more than 40% of the solids. E Starch Starch constitutes the main chemical component of the cereal grains and their products. However, when quality testing wheat flours, more attention is usually given to the physical condition of the starch granule rather than the actual quantity of this component. It is the degree of physical

Figure 1 Gluten washers: (A) Glutomatic 2200. (Courtesy of Falling Number A.B. Stockholm, Sweden.)

13

(B) Glutinex MLI 500. (Courtesy of Bhler Brothers Ltd. Uzwil, Switzerland.)

damage to the granule inflicted by milling that is more important. Some positive contribution to the quality of some types of wheat flour can be expected from a limited amount of damaged granules. Cake flours often benefit by a high batter viscosity resulting from high starch damage. However, distinctly adverse effects will be noticed if the amount becomes excessive. The first attempt to measure the extent of starch damage involved microscopic examination of wheat flour after staining with Congo red. Physical damage enhances the absorption of dyes by the starch granule. Congo red was later replaced with 0.2% solution of crystal violet or chlorzinciodide [56]. Several methods exploit the higher susceptibility of damaged starch granules to amylolytic degradation and quantitatively estimate the level of products of this degradation [1,11] (AACC Method 76-30A). Other methods depend upon the development of color formed when iodine reagent is added to an extract of flour that contains amylose leached out from the damaged granules by a solution of ammonium sulfate, formamide, and sulfosalicylic acid [16,55]. An amperometric technique [29] measures the rate of iodine absorption by starch granules. The rate increases with higher degrees of
14

damage. This principle is now used by the Chopin Starch Damage Analyzer (Fig. 2). Specific methods are used in analyzing flours for added bleaching and maturing agents. The Approved Methods of the AACC [1] include procedures for the determination of acetone peroxide (Method 48-05), benzoyl peroxide (Method 48-07), chlorine dioxide (Method 48-30), potassium bromate (Method 48-42), ammonium persulfate (Method 48-62), and azodicarbonamide (Method 4871A). II Enzyme Activity In testing cereal grains and their milling products for enzymatic activity, amylolytic activity, i.e., the activity of starch-hydrolyzing enzymes, is considered of primary importance. While only small amounts of -amylase are present in sound grain, the activity of this enzyme increases markedly during pre- or postharvest germination (sprouting). Some level of this activity is needed for sufficient gas development during fermentation in the early stages of baking yeasted doughs such as pan breads. If the -amylase concentration is insufficient, the flour can be supplemented with preparations from wheat or barley malt, fungi, or bacteria. Excessively high levels, however, impair the quality of both the dough and the final baked product because -amylase cleaves the starch molecules, reducing the paste viscosity, and can lead to sticky doughs. Unlike -amylase, -amylase is present even in sound (not field-sprouted) grain, but the quantity remains practically unchanged during germination. For that reason, the assays for amylolytic activity deal primarily with -amylase. The AACC Method 22-07 [1] is a colorimetric assay based on the reaction of -amylase with a buffered solution of potato amylose dyed with Cibachrom blue F3GA. Another AACC method (Method 22-07) measures the rate of decrease in light-scattering ability of a dilute suspension of a -limit dextrin substrate treated with enzyme extracted from the tested flour. The ICC Standard No. 108 [19] is a similar colorimetric method. Other chemical procedures are based on quantitatively estimating the reducing sugars produced in situ in a buffered flour suspension after a standard incubation period [1] (AACC Method 22-15). Such methods measure the effects of the combined activity of -

15

Figure 2 Chopin Rapid FT starch damage analyzer. (Courtesy of Chopin SA, Villeneuve la Garenne, France.)

and -amylase, as well as the damaged starch granules' susceptibility to amylolytic activity. In that respect, the results are more a reflection of the total gas production ability of the tested flour than the actual amylolytic activity. A number of methods evaluate this combined effect by measuring the quantity of gas produced by the flour under the specific test conditions (see Section IV). Methods for indirectly estimating amylolytic activity from viscometric measurements on starch pastes are found in Section III. Some amylase preparations used for adjusting wheat flour's amylolytic activity contain appreciable quantities of proteolytic enzymes. In flour unsupplemented with such preparations, higher levels of proteolytic activity indicate sprouted grain. In order to assay this activity, the nitrogen released from a buffered hemoglobin substrate when it is incubating with the enzyme-containing flour extract is
16

estimated quantitatively by Kjeldahl analysis [1] (AACC Method 22-60). Solubilized hemoglobin can also be measured spectrophotometrically (Method 22-62) or colorimetrically (Method 62-63). Unfavorable storage conditions may enhance the lipase action, especially in materials high in fat. Since higher lipase activity leads to an increase in fat acidity, the extent of the lipase action can be expressed in terms of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize the free fatty acids extracted from a 100-g sample [1] (AACC Methods 62-01A, 62-02A, and 62-03A). Fat acidity may range from about 20 for sound wheat to over 100 if the grain was stored under adverse conditions. III Physical Testing A Physical Grain Testing 1 Test Weight Test weight, measured as weight of grain per unit volume, is the simplest and most widely used predictor for a grain's milling quality. Although many factors may influence the relationship between test weight and milling yield, the latter usually increases with increasing test weight unless the weight value exceeds 75 lb per bushel (96 kg/hl) [15]. In countries using Imperial units, test weight is expressed in terms of lb per bu. In the United States, the Winchester bushel (2150.42 in3) is used, which differs slightly from the Imperial bushel (2219.36 in3). In countries using the metric system, test weight is defined in terms of kilograms per hectoliter. For conversion, the following factors can be used: From lb/Winchester bu lb/Winchester bu To lb/Imperial bu kg/hectoliter Multiply by 1.032 1.282

17

lb/Imperial bu 2 Hardness

kg/hectoliter

1.247

Grain hardness constitutes a comparative measure for distinguishing between soft and hard wheats. The criterion is widely used in testing corn (maize) for hardness and breakage susceptibility [33]. Methods used for testing hardness employ either a single grain or a bulk sample [34]. The single grain tests involve abrasion, cutting, crushing, or penetration. In bulk tests hardness is estimated from the power or time required to grind a given quantity of grain, from the quantity of abraded material, or from the particle size of the ground material. The latter is determined by sieving [59], sedimentation [23] (ICC Standard No. 127), centrifugation [1] (AACC Method 5010), light-diffraction technique [2], Coulter counter, or NIR spectroscopy [54]. Many laboratories now use a single kernel characterization system to simultaneously measure several factors including hardness [32]. When grading wheat, other physical criteria are considered. Kernel weight, which is usually expressed in g per 1000 kernels, is a function of kernel size and density. It may be a reliable predictor of milling yields, because large, dense kernels usually have a higher ratio of endosperm to nonendosperm components than smaller, less dense kernels. U.S. hard red winter and spring wheats range in kernel weight from 20 to 32 g/1000 kernels. Soft red winter, white, and durum wheats average approximately 35 g/1000 kernels [15]. Milling yield can also be predicted from kernel size and shape [43]. Based on bran pigmentation, wheats are classed as either red or white. These two colors are varietal characteristics but may be influenced by environmental factors. Inspection of grain for damaged kernels and impurities is also part of the grading procedure. The ICC system adopted for the evaluation of wheat intended for milling includes testing for extraneous material referred to as ''Besatz" [20]. "Besatz" includes dockage, foreign material, damaged kernels, shrunken and broken kernels, and wheat of other classes. 3 Experimental Milling Experimental milling provides the miller with advance information on the probable performance of a grain in a commercial scale process. In breeding programs, it serves as a useful tool to evaluate the milling potential of the tested lines and helps to predict their end-use quality. Prior to any experimental milling, the grain must be cleaned and conditioned (tempered) [1] (AACC Method 26-10). Numerous milling devices exist for the actual milling operation. They all work on the principle of grinding and sifting and differ only in the extent of these operations. The Bhler Laboratory Mill (Bhler Bros, Inc., Uzwil, Switzerland) is a continuous automatic mill with
18

pneumatic conveying and a milling system consisting of three breaks and three reductions (Fig. 3). It can produce straight-grade flour comparable in quality to commercially milled flour. Some modifications such as the addition of a bran finisher are required to achieve typical commercial extraction rates, however [5]. Another automatic mill is the Brabender Quadrumat Senior (Fig. 4) with two four-roll system units, one for breaking and one for reduction, and a two-section plansifter. The Brabender Quadrumat Junior (Fig. 5), a compact unit with four 3-inch-diameter corrugated rolls, is well suited for milling small quantities of wheat, down to about 20 g. It is often used in early-generation testing

Figure 3 The Bhler experimental mill MLU 202.

19

(Courtesy of Bhler Brothers Ltd., Uzwil, Switzerland.)

when only limited sample sizes are available from the plant breeder. Some millers prefer batch-operated experimental mills such as the Allis-Chalmers or Ross Mill Stands because the milling procedure can be adjusted at each stage on the basis of a visual examination, the yields, and stock quality throughout the mill flow. When evaluating the results of experimental milling, two factors are usually considered: flour extraction (the percentage of the wheat recovered as flour) and flour ash. The lower the flour ash and the brighter the flour color, the more desirable the wheat for milling. The following two formulas are used to evaluate wheat milling quality from experimental milling data [40]:

20

Figure 4 The Brabender Quadrumat Senior laboratory mill. (Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)

Figure 5 The Brabender Quadrumat Junior laboratory mill. (Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)

21

Higher milling ratings and milling values are preferred. The milling quality of different wheats can also be judged by comparing their cumulative ash curves [28]. Cumulative ash curves are constructed by arranging mill streams in ascending order of ash on a constant moisture basis and by plotting cumulative ash against cumulative extraction for each successive blend of millstreams. Wheats that exhibit the lowest initial flour ash and the slowest rate of ash increase with increasing flour extraction are preferred. The results of this comparison can be expressed in terms of a single numerical score, the curve index. A line is drawn from the 30% extraction point on the cumulative curve to the 70% extraction point (Fig. 6). The distance on the 50% extraction level from the curve to the drawn line, when measured at right angle to the line, is called depth, D. It is used in the calculation of the curve index:

where L is the length of the line between the 30% and 70% extraction points. A lower curve index indicates better milling quality. B Flour Color Testing Flour is tested for color for evaluating either its whiteness, which primarily determines the extent of the oxidation of carotenoid pigments by bleaching compounds, or the presence of bran particles, indicating milling performance. Testing flour for whiteness may be based on measuring light reflectance of the sample within the blue range of the light spectrum. Since improvement in flour color results from the oxidation of the pigments by the bleaching agents as well as natural oxidation during storage, the measured values vary not only with the extent of bleaching but the age of the flour. Correlation between color measured in the blue range of light spectrum and ash content in flour is rather limited. If color is to be taken as a measure of contamination with bran particles, reflectance meters with a light source in the green band of the light spectrum should be used. Among them, the Kent-Jones Grader [25] and the Agtron Color Meter set on ''green mode" [1,12,44] (AACC Method 1430) are the most common. NIR analyzers have also been employed for this purpose, though tri-stimulus reflected color instruments such as the Minolta or Hunter devices using the L*a*b* system are now more routinely used. Color must be used rather than ash content when the flour is fortified with calcium because the calcium salt contributes more ash than does the naturally occurring mineral material.

22

Figure 6 Measurement of the curve index. (From Ref. 28.)

The "slick" (Pekar) test is a rough but simple guide for assessing flour color visually [1] (AACC Method 14-10). Flour is placed on a flat piece of wood or metal, pressed down, trimmed, and immersed in water. The color may be judged at several stages: (1) before immersion in water (dry), (2) shortly after immersion, and (3) after the flour has been dried. Bran shows up as fine brown flecks more obviously when it is wet. It is common to "slick" several flours immediately beside each other. More recently, image analysis has been used, in which computer software examines the brightness of the pixels in a digitized image. The more sophisticated instruments use a low-power microscope and illuminate the sample with UV light. Since bran and aleurone fragments fluoresce differently under UV light, producing different colors, it is possible to obtain rather accurate estimates of the fraction of each component in the flour sample [51]. Simple systems can also be based on a small TV camera using visible light or on an inexpensive flatbed scanner. The Branscan equipment (Fig. 7) is an example of such an application. It can measure "speckyness" directly rather than mineral ash content. Models are available for use in either a laboratory situation or for on-line quality monitoring and control purposes. An automatic sampler compresses a flour sample against a flat glass window and a series of fields are digitally analyzed. Visible range light is used, and the
23

gray scale threshold can be set to select the size and darkness of the pixels that are to be denoted as "specs." The number and total area of the specs can be determined and used as indicators of milling efficiency or flour baking quality [52]. The procedure can also be used to identify flour specks in noodles, for example. C Physical Dough Testing Dough physical properties not only determine performance at the various stages in the manufacturing process but also have a pronounced effect on finished product qualities. Since the physical condition of dough depends to a large extent on the quality of the flour used, testing doughs for their physical properties has become an essential part of the quality evaluation of wheats and their flours. The methodology can be considered in three phases that reflect the relevance of the individual physical qualities of dough at different stages in the baking process (Fig. 8). 1 Recording Mixers The first phase is concerned with the behavior of dough when it is developed from flour and water and subsequently subjected to overmixing. Recording mixers are used to measure and record the changes in the resistance to mixing

24

Figure 7 The Branscan image analysis system for determining bran specks in flour. (Courtesy of Parascan Technologies, Ltd., Redditch, Worc., UK.)

with time. The mixing curves are characterized by an ascending part that indicates changes during the dough-development process, while the subsequent decline in resistance is taken as a sign of a steady breakdown of the dough structure upon mixing beyond the point of optimum development. Optimum development from the standpoint of bread quality may occur slightly past the ''mixing peak," depending upon what equipment follows. (a) Farinograph The Brabender farinograph (Fig. 9) is one of the most widely used recording dough mixers [7]. The two Z-shaped blades of the farinograph mixer rotate at constant but different speeds and subject the dough to a relatively gentle mixing at constant temperature. A representative farinograph record, or farinogram, with the commonly measured indices as defined by ICC method [21] is shown in Figure 10. Dough-development time and stability increase with increasing strength of flour, whereas mixing tolerance index and degree of softening are inversely related to increasing strength. The AACC method [1] (AACC Method 54-21) uses additional indices. Arrival time is defined as the elapsed time required for the top of the curve to reach the 500 FU (farinograph units) line on the recording chart and serves as a measurement of the rate at which water is taken up by the flour. Departure time equals the sum of the arrival time plus the stability. Longer arrival and departure times indicate stronger flour. The 20-minute drop is measured as the difference between the height of the center of the curve at its peak and 20 minutes after the first addition of water. The larger the value, the weaker the flour. To express the strength of the tested flour as a single score, the valorimeter value may be determined from the dough-development time and the descending slope of the curve by means of a special nomograph known as the valorimeter. The higher the value, the stronger the flour. Water absorption by flour is another relevant property that can be determined by means of a farinograph. It is defined as the amount of water required for dough to reach a definite consistency (normally 500 FU) at the point of optimum development. Stronger flours with higher protein content and better gluten quality are characterized by higher absorptions. Figure 11 presents an example of how the farinograms and water absorption values change with increasing flour strength. More information about the dough-mixing characteristics may be obtained if the standard farinograph mixing bowl is replaced with the resistograph mixer. The resistograph combines mixing with stretching, pressing, and kneading, thus imparting high shear and high work input to the dough. The resistograms have two maxima, which become more pronounced with medium and weak flours (Fig. 12). The first maximum is related to binding water; the second one measures the stickiness and extensibility at breakdown of the
25

dough. Another variant of the farinograph, the Brabender Do-Corder mixer (Fig. 13), was designed to simulate conditions of mechanical dough development [30]. It has a nearly closed mixer in which dough can be subjected to mixing at variable speeds and with work-input levels higher than in an ordinary farinograph mixer (Fig. 14). This variant was developed in response to the implementation of short-time, high-speed bread processes and the new mixer designs they required. (b) Mixograph The mixograph (TMCO, Lincoln, Nebraska), originally designed by Swanson and Working [46], is another widely used recording mixer (Fig. 15). The mixing action is provided by four planetary pins revolving about three stationary pins attached to the bottom of the mixing bowl. The mixing can be described as a pull, fold, and repull action, which is more severe than that produced by the farinograph. As a result, the main advantage of the mixograph is the speed with which a test can be conducted [26]. The mixograph is especially popular with hard wheat plant breeders and in mill and bakery quality-control laboratories, and in laboratories doing research on the proteins that control mixing quality. It is available in several sizes, including 35 g, 10 g, and a computerized model requiring

26

Figure 8 Three-phase system of physical flour testing. (Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)

only 2 g of flour. However, in comparison with the farinograph, the mixograph is more difficult to standardize and requires more operator skill to determine the ''proper" flour water absorption [49]. The shape of a mixogram (Fig. 16) can be characterized by indices similar to those defined for the farinogram [1] (AACC Method 5440). Peak time is similar to farinograph dough development time. Peak height provides information about flour strength and absorption. Height of curve at a specified time past the peak is similar to the farinograph tolerance index. Higher values indicate a greater tolerance to overmixing. The same applies to the values of the angle between the ascending and descending portions of the curve at the peak. A higher tolerance to overmixing and overall flour strength can also be judged from the area under the curve.
27

Examples of mixograms milled from different classes of wheat are shown in Figure 17. Like other empirical dough-testing instruments, the mixograph has been modernized by redesigning it and by incorporating computerized data acquisition and interpretation. A particularly challenging feature was the development and introduction of the 2-g model [17,38]. (c) Consistograph The Chopin Consistograph is a new recording dough mixer (Fig. 18). It consists of two parts: a mixer equipped with a pressure sensor in the mixing bowl, along with a special double arm mixing blade, and the Alveolink NG recorder-calculator, fitted with a color printer and dedicated software for data collection, graphing, and analysis. The consistograph can (1) record in real time the pressure in the mixing bowl during mixing, (2) determine the water-absorption capacity of a flour with a mixing test at constant absorption, and (3) characterize the behavior of a dough with a mixing test at varying absorption. A consistograph testing method achieved AACC First Approval status in September 1998. (d) Commercial Implementation Unlike many of the procedures used in cereal quality evaluations, mixing properties can be easily related to commercial practice, and the principles have been directly transported. Equipment is available from several sources to monitor the electrical power demand by large-scale mixers [37]. A power draw transducer produces a signal that may be interpreted by appropriate software, often producing a mixing curve resembling that from a farinograph or a mixograph. Furthermore, some systems are sufficiently automated that they can actually stop the mixer at the appropriate time, usually shortly after the dough has reached maximum resistance to mixing (just past the peak on the mixing curve) and direct it to automatically empty and to begin the next mixing cycle. An example of the graphical output from such sensing equipment and software is shown from the Easy Mix system available from BRI-Australia (Fig. 19).

28

Figure 9 The Brabender Farinograph/Resistograph. (Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)

2 Stress-Strain Instruments Techniques constituting the second phase of the three-phase testing system provide information on the potential behavior of dough during its rise due to the development and expansion of gas during the fermentation and early baking stages. Load-extension instruments are applied to measure the resistance of dough to extension. (a)
29

Extensograph The Brabender extensigraph (Fig. 20) stretches a cylindrically shaped dough piece until it ruptures while the resulting force on the test piece is transmitted through a balanced lever system to a recorder. The dough (with 2% salt based on flour weight) is prepared in a farinograph mixer, usually at 2% less than its optimum absorption to compensate for the salt addition. According to the AACC procedure [1] (AACC Method 54-10), the dough is developed until its consistency reaches its maximum, whereas the ICC method (ICC Standard No. 114) uses mixing for a fixed 5-minutes period. When the dough test piece is stretched, a curve of force versus time, an extensigram, is recorded (Fig. 21). Several extensigram indices provide a practical guide to general dough strength. They include: 1. The maximum resistance, Rm, or the resistance at a fixed extension usually corresponding to 50 mm transposition on the chart paper, R5. The latter has the advantage of measuring the resistance at the same extension for all tested doughs. 2. The dough extensibility, E, which is the distance it stretched before rupture.

Figure 10 Representative farinogram showing some commonly measured indices. (From Ref. 3.)

30

Figure 11 Farinograms of flours with different strengths. Farinograph absorptions: flour A54%, flour B57%, flour C64.5%, flour D62.7%. (From Ref. 35.)

31

Figure 12 Comparison of farinograms and resistograms for identical flours: (B) farinogram of soft flour, (C) farinogram of strong flour, (D) resistogram of soft flour, (E) esistogram of strong flour. (Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)

3. The ratio of resistance to extensibility. 4. The area under the curve, which is proportional to the energy required to stretch the test piece to its rupture point. This index is a convenient single figure for characterizing flour strength. The stronger the flour, the more energy is required to stretch the dough. The extensigraph response by different flours and the ways in which the extensigram shape may relate to the dough's behavior can be seen from Figure 22. Apart from differentiating among flours, the extensigraph is also used to evaluate the effects of oxidizing agents on dough's physical
32

qualities. For example, Figure

Figure 13 The Brabender Do-Corder. (Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)

23 shows how the extensigram changes after the addition of ascorbic acid to the dough, when it is allowed to react for different times. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is often added to commercial bread dough to produce a finer crumb grain and larger loaf volume. (b) Extensometer The Halton (or Simon ''Research") extensometer of the Association of British Flour Millers [14] is similar to the Brabender extensigraph. The extensometer is part of a three-unit device that also includes a water absorption meter and a mixer-shaper unit. The
33

absorption meter determines the optimum absorption of the dough (generally yeasted) from the extrusion time values measured on several doughs prepared from the same flour sample with varying amounts of water. Optimum absorption has been empirically linked to an extrusion time of 50 seconds. After the doughs are shaped in the mixer-shaper unit, they are stretched between two pegs. The force exerted on the stationary peg is transmitted and recorded in the form of a curve that resembles the Brabender extensigram. (c) Alveograph Another load-extension apparatus, until recently more popular in several European countries than in North America, is the Chopin alveograph. Unlike the Brabender extensigraph or Halton extensometer, which both stretch the test dough piece in only one direction, the

34

Figure 14 Two views of the developer head for the Brabender Do-Corder. (Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)

alveograph subjects dough to extension in two dimensions by blowing a molded and rested sheet into a bubble [1,10,24] (AACC Method 54-30). From the physical viewpoint, such an extension mode is well linked with the gas cell expansion in rising dough. The
35

instrument records the air pressure in the bubble as a function of inflation time. A typical alveograph record, an alveogram, is shown in Figure 24. Its interpretation is similar to that of the extensigram. The maximum height of the curve is taken as a measure of resistance to extension, and its length as a measure

Figure 15 The National Mixograph. (Courtesy TMCO, Lincoln, NE.)

of extensibility. The area under the curve is usually converted into a W value, referred to as deformation energy, which represents the total work input in blowing up the test piece into a bubble. The W value is the most commonly used alveogram index, much like the area under the extensigram. Alveograms for flours with distinctly different properties are shown in Figure 25. Alveograph flour tests have traditionally been conducted on doughs prepared with a constant water addition to the flour (51.4%). Now it is possible to carry out Alveograph tests at varying absorptions, better reflecting actual baking absorptions. This is done by utilizing water absorptions previously determined with the recently developed recording dough mixer, the Chopin Consistograph (see above). A new alveograph modification is the Alveograph NG (Fig. 26). This unit has three components: a mixer for dough preparation, the alveograph for deformation of the dough sample, and a recorder-calculator for data acquisition, visualization, analysis, and printout of data functions. Yet another alveograph version is the Alveo-Consistograph, which combines capabilities of the Alveograph NG and the Consistograph. (d)
36

Dobraszczyk/Roberts Attachment Many instruments can be modified to provide a stress-strain type record. For example, a recent attachment developed for the Stable Microsystems TA-XT2 Texture Analyzer mimics the bubble-blowing action of the alveograph (Fig. 27). The crosshead movement is proportional to the bubble volume, and the resisting force encountered is related to the pressure in the bubble. The area under the resulting curve that is produced is a measure of the total work input [9].

37

Figure 16 Representative mixogram showing the commonly measured indices: peak time = line CD; maximum height = line CH. Angle between ascending and descending portion of curve at peak (lines BC and CE, angle 1). Alternately, angles formed by lines with horizontal lines (angles 2 and 3) have been used to describe curves. (From Ref. 26.)

(e) Dynamic Rheometry Conventional applied dough-stressing systems are destructive. They extend the structure to failure, and the extension is usually far greater than occurs during normal dough rising and oven spring. Such instruments cannot be easily characterized in terms of fundamental rheological properties. An alternative approach is to apply a much smaller strain of the order of a few percent, repeating the strain several times per second in a regular vibratory or oscillatory manner. By measuring the stress transmitted through the dough piece and its phase angle lag, it is possible to measure both the elastic and viscous components. Unfortunately, though this approach is important to someone studying fundamental rheological properties, the results are often difficult to relate to the dough's actual behavior in practical situations [27] (Fig. 28).

38

Figure 17 Mixograms of flours milled from different wheat classes (using farinograph optimimum absorption). (From Ref. 26.)

3 Pasting Tests The third phase of the three-phase testing system concentrates on changes in physical properties taking place during the baking stage, the most striking of which result from the gelatinizing of starch and its degradation by amylolytic enzymes either inherent in or added to flour. Continuously measuring the sample's viscosity while it is being heated in a controlled manner is well suited for this purpose. (a) Amylograph The Brabender amylograph (Fig. 29) is a torsion viscometer, which provides a continuous record of the changes in the viscosity of a buffered flour suspension during a uniform temperature increase (fixed at 1.5C/min) under constant stirring [1,45] (AACC Method 22-10). The starch granules swell upon reaching the gelatinization temperature and, together with the increased solubles concentration in the surrounding liquid due to the amylose starch molecules leaching out from the swollen granules, cause the suspension viscosity to rise. Gelatinized (pasted) starch becomes highly susceptible to the action of thermostable amylases that are activated by the higher temperatures. They hydrolyze and liquefy part of the total starch, thus reducing its viscosity. The recorded maximum viscosity is therefore a result of two simultaneous processes (Fig. 30). Since there is little variability in the viscosity of gelatinizing wheat starch in the absence of amylases, the height of the viscosity curve is primarily a reflection of the amylolytic activity in the flour being tested. The higher the activity of the starch-liquefying enzymic system, the lower is the peak viscosity. Although both -amylase and -amylase contribute to this reduction in viscosity, the -amylase is predominantly responsible for the final viscosity. Because it is more heat sensitive, -amylase is largely inactivated before the starch substrate becomes sufficiently susceptible to its action. Similarly, the lower heat stability of fungal -amylases renders the test unsuitable for testing flours supplemented with such enzymes. A modified amylographic procedure had to be designed for these flours. Using a pregelatinized substrate eliminates the need for test temperatures above the optimum performance range of the enzyme [1] (AACC Method 22-12). The classical amylograph typically requires about 4060 g to conduct a test. Brabender has recently introduced a new model, the viscoamylo-graph R, which requires only about one-tenth that amount, and it can be programmed to heat at different rates (Fig. 31). (b)
39

Falling Number The principle of viscometry in determining the amylolytic activity of wheat flour is applied in the Falling Number test [1] (AACC Method 56-81B) (Fig. 32). The test is based on measuring the time required to stir and to allow a specified viscometer-stirrer to fall a standard distance. Only a single value is obtained, not a complete pasting curve as provided by the amylograph or the RVA (below). It is intended to rapidly screen small-sized wheat samples for sprout damage. Whole grain samples that have lower than 250 s FN are generally considered to be damaged, with too much -amylase present. On the other hand, samples above 400 s FN may need malt or some other -amylase preparation added to them for satisfactory bread fermentation (Fig. 33). (c) Rapid Visco Analyzer The Newport Scientific Rapid Visco Analyser is a stirring, temperature-controlled viscometer. It was originally developed to be a fast and robust field-use replacement for the Falling Number test, yielding a single number to indicate the extent of -amylase activity induced by preharvest sprouting in wheats. It still serves that purpose but has rapidly developed into a versatile instrument that can perform complete heating and cooling pasting curves as well. The device typically uses 35 g of starch, flour, or whole meal, suspended in 25 mL of water, held in a thin aluminum cup that is clamped in a temperature-controlled split copper block. The solution is stirred with a plastic paddle and heated at a programmable rate while its viscosity is being measured as the torque required to maintain the paddle's speed at a constant 160 rpm. The data is collected and analyzed by the computer that controls the instrument. Its uses now extend beyond wheat meal to modified starches, rice, maize, breakfast ce-

40

Figure 18 The Chopin Consistograph. (Courtesy of Chopin SA, Villeneuve la Garenne, France.)

real manufacture, etc. (AACC Methods 22-08, 61-02) [1,8,48,50,57] (Fig. 34). IV Physicochemical Tests A number of tests were designed for predicting a flour's potential bread-baking strength from its gluten behavior. The Berliner and Koopman method [4] measures the swelling ability of wet gluten when immersed in a 0.1 N lactic acid solution. Higher ''specific swelling factors" can be obtained with stronger glutens. A modification to this method measures the turbidity of the suspension, which is inversely related to gluten strength. The Pelschenke test (or dough-ball test) uses a small ball of yeasted dough that is prepared from whole wheat meal and then immersed in water at constant temperature [1] (AACC Method 56-50). The length of time before it starts to disintegrate is called the "test number." It is a measure of both gluten quantity and quality. It varies from less than 30 minutes for soft wheats to more than 6 hours for very strong wheats. By dividing the "test number" by the wheat protein content, an index to gluten quality, separated from quantity, may be obtained. The higher the index, the higher is the gluten strength. The sedimentation test [1] (AACC Methods 56-60, 56-61A, 56-63) originally developed by Zeleny [60], measures the volume of sediment (predominantly swollen protein and occluded starch) from a crude white flour suspended in dilute acetic acid. Like the "test number," the "sedimentation value" is a reflection of both gluten quantity and quality but can be turned into an index of gluten quality alone if divided by sample protein content. It is then referred to as "specific sedimentation value." The alkaline water-retention test [58] has been useful in predicting performance of wheat flours in cookie (biscuit) manufacture. Another widely used test to evaluate soft wheat flour quality is the MacMichael viscosity test. The special MacMichael viscometer measures the increase in viscosity of acidulated soft flourwater suspensions due to swelling of gluten proteins and, to some extent, of starch [1] (AACC Method 56-80). Starch swelling becomes more pronounced if the granules are damaged. Thus, if the range in protein content is relatively narrow, the measurements reflect primarily the condition of the starch. On the other

41

Figure 19 Mixing curve obtained from a spiral mixer by the Easy-Mix system. (Courtesy of BRI-Australia Ltd., North Ryde, NSW, Australia.)

42

Figure 20 The Brabender Extensigraph. (Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)

hand, if the changes in viscosity due to starch are more or less constant, the increase in viscosity is in direct relation to the swelling properties and quantity of gluten present. (The Brookfield viscometer is now often used for a similar test because the MacMichael viscometer is no longer manufactured and the torsion wires are no longer available.) A rapid lactic acid swelling procedure has also been developed, using the RVA [6]. Physicochemical testing also includes tests evaluating a dough's gas production and retention capacity. The National pressuremeter method [1] (AACC Method 22-11) measures the pressure of gas produced by a yeasted suspension of flour in an airtight and pressure gaugeequipped container after a 5-hour fermentation at 30C. National has computerized the instrument so that up to eight pressure cells can be monitored simultaneously and the pressure changes are continuously graphed (Fig. 35). Other methods for measuring gas production and/or gas retention use special instruments such as the Demaray gasograph [39] or the Chopin rheofermentometer (Fig. 36). The latter, apart from measuring the total and retained gas, also monitors the changes in dough volume during fermentation (Fig. 37). The Brabender maturograph (Fig. 38) measures the net results of gas production and gas loss by recording the changes in height of fermenting dough subjected to periodic punching at 2-minute intervals (Fig. 39). From the shape of the curve, optimum proofing conditions and fermentation tolerance can be established. The difference between top and bottom envelopes of the curve band reflects
43

the changes in the height of the dough due to peri-

Figure 21 Representative extensigram with the most commonly measured indices. (From Ref. 3.)

odic punching and recovery and is often referred to as elasticity [41]. V BakingThe Ultimate Test Flour and ingredient qualities are generally determined in industrial practice by experimental baking tests. The standard procedures developed by the American Association of Cereal Chemists are listed in Table 2. They are used to evaluate flour quality and may be adopted for determining the influence on quality of other bread ingredients and treatments. The same approach is used to evaluate soft wheat flours for cookies, cakes, pies, etc. The standard methods do not always produce results that correlate with industrial practice in a particular application. Therefore, many modifications to the formulas and procedures have been made in various laboratories. The baking methods for bread and cake testing used at the American Institute of Baking are given as examples in Tables 6 and 7. The baked products are scored for various quality parameters as specified by the respective methods (see Table 2). Test baking can be done on several scales. For example, routine flour mill and plant bakery quality-control laboratories often bake one-pound bread loaves, whereas new wheat variety screening laboratories often bake ''pup" loaves requiring 100 g of flour each.
44

When the flour is even more limited, a mini-pup size can be baked, requiring only 35 g of flour. Even smaller 10-g loaves have been developed to help the plant breeder make decisions at an even earlier generation [42]. An especially interesting system has been developed to evaluate the bread-baking quality of individual gluten protein components following their extraction and recombination. Two grams of flour are mixed in a 2-g mixograph, then baked in small metal thimbles [13] (Fig. 40).

45

Figure 22 Extensigrams of different types of flour and their relation to the baking behavior of their doughs.

46

(Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.) TABLE 6 White Pan Bread Control Formulaa Ingredients Sponge: Bread flour Compressed yeast Yeast Food (no oxidants) Water Dough: Bread flour Granulated sugar Bread shortening (plastic, no emulsifier) Salt Calcium Propionate Water or ice (variable) Total Procedure SpongeMixing:b 1 minute at low speed; 1 minute at medium speed Temperature: 2526C Fermentation: 4 hours at 29C in covered container DoughMixing: 1/2 minute at low speed; 45 minutes at medium speed. (To full gluten development.) Temperature: 2526C. Floor time: 20 minutes at 29C (covered). Scaling weight525 g of dough per loaf. 180 1746.2 300 70 30 20 1.2 420 700 20 5 Weight (g)

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Intermediate proof10 min at room temperature. MoulderStraight grain. Head roll 0.87 cm, sheeter roll 0.67 cm. Pressure plate 3.1 cm, width 22.9 cm. Pan size10.8 cm 25.4 top inside, 9.5 cm 24.1 bottom outside dimensions; 7.0 cm depth. ProofTo 1.6 cm above pan top at 43.0C 0.5C and 81.5% relative humidify. Bake22 minutes at 216C. CoolOne hour at ambient temperature. MeasureWeight and volume by rapeseed displacement. ScorePackage loaves in polyethylene bags for evaluation of internal and external characteristics on following morning.
a

Procedure of the American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, KS. Hobart A-200 or A-120 mixer with McDuffee bowl and 2-prong fork agitator.
b

Figure 23 The effect of ascorbic acid on extensigrams recorded after different resting periods. (Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)

48

Figure 24 Representative alveogram showing the commonly used indices, where P is overpressure (mm), L is abscise at rupture mm), G is swelling index (ml), V is volume of air -4 (ml), and W is deformation energy (10 ) (J). (Courtesy of Chopin SA, Villeneuve la Garenne, France.)

Figure 25 Alveograms of different flour types. (A) Normal dough, (B) Short dough with little stretching properties,

49

(C) Soft dough with excess stretching properties. (Courtesy of Chopin SA, Villeneuve la Garenne, France.)

Figure 26 The Chopin Alveograph NG. (Courtesy of Chopin SA, Villeneuve la Garenne, France.)

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Figure 27 The Dobraszczyk/Roberts Dough Inflation system for the stable Microsystem TA-XT2. (Courtesy Texture Technologies, Scarsdale, NY.)

51

Figure 28 A dynamic stress rheometer. (Courtesy Rheometric Scientific, Piscataway, NJ.)

Figure 29

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The Brabender Viscograph-E. (Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.) TABLE 7 Yellow Layer Cake Formulaa Ingredient A. Cake flour Granulated sugar Egg solids, whole Nonfat dry milk Salt Baking powder Shortening, plastic, emulsified Emulsifier Water 1 Flavor Egg color liquid B. Water 2 C. Water 3 120 150 Weight (g) 400 480 80 10 12 23 160 10 230 2 1 Add water 2. Mix 1 minute at low speed and scrape, then 1 minute at medium speed. Add water 3 on low speed and scrape bowl. Mix 1 minute at low speed and scrape. Mix 1 minute at speed 1 and scrape. Add shortening, emulsifier, and water 1 and incorporate. Mix 1 minute at low speed and scrape. Mix 3 minutes at medium speed and scrape. Mixing methodb Blend dry ingredients for 1 minute at low speed.

RecordSpecific gravity and temperature of batter. Desired Temperature 24 1C. Scale400 g of batter per 8-inch (20 cm) round layer cake pan. Bake28 min at 185C until fully baked. Drop pans from 10 cm immediately out of oven. CoolOne hour on wire rack at ambient temperature. Depan cakes after 10 min. MeasureWeight and volume of baked cakes. ScoreInternal and external characteristics of cakes 1 day after baking.

53

Procedure of the American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, KS. Hobart N-50 mixer with 5-qt bowl and paddle beater.

Figure 30 Regular amylogram of malted wheat flour by AACC method. Peak viscosity is 600 A.U. (amylograph units).

54

(From Ref. 45.)

Figure 31 Brabender Visco-Amylograph-R. (Courtesy of C.W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)

55

Figure 32 The Hagberg Falling Number apparatus. (Courtesy of Falling Number A.B., Stockholm, Sweden.)

56

Figure 33 The falling number procedure: (1) sample preparation; (2) weighing; (3) dispensing; (4) shaking; (5) stirring; (6) measuring; (7) result. (Courtesy of Falling Number A.B., Stockholm, Sweden.)

57

Figure 34 The Rapid Visco Analyzer. (Courtesy of Newport Scientific, Warriewood, NSW, Australia.)

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Figure 35 National Pressuremeter for AACC Method 22-11. (Courtesy of National Manufacturing Div., TMCO, Lincoln, NE.)

Figure 36 The Chopin Rheofermentometer. (Courtesy of Chopin SA, Villeneuve la Garenne, France.)

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60

Figure 37 Standard rheofermentograms indicating the changes in dough volume and gas production (line 1) and retention (line 2). (A and A) Dough with good fermentation power and good tolerance. (B and B) Dough with good fermentation power but poor tolerance. (C and C) Dough with poor fermentation power and poor tolerance. (Courtesy of Chopin SA, Villeneuve la Garenne, France.)

Figure 38 The Brabender Maturograph. (Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Co., South Hackensack, NJ.)

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Figure 39 A maturogram. (From Ref. 3.)

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Figure 40 Thimble-sized bread loaves being checked for volume. (Courtesy Dr. Peter Gras, CSIRO Grain Quality Lab., North Ryde, NSW, Australia.)

63