SUSTAINABLE METHODS FOR MAINTAINING SOIL FERTILITY IN AGROECOSYSTEMS Miguel Altieri University of California, Berkeley There are thousands

of farmers throughout the world (mostly organic farmers and resource-poor farmers) that due to enormous constraints or environmental reasons cannot or do not want to use chemical fertilizers to enhance or maintain soil fertility (Conway 1997). These farmers who can neither afford nor rely on a regular supply of inorganic fertilizers must find alternative sources of nutrients. These sources are often cheaper, more efficient that inorganic compounds and their use focuses on recycling of nutrients rather than on supplying nutrients on a regular basis (Lampkin 1990). The techniques that these farmers use to maintain soil fertility and thus beneficial biological, chemical and physical soil properties tend to enhance organic matter content, increase the efficiency of nutrient use by closing the nutrient cycles by returning exported nutrients to cropland and by minimizing nutrient loss from the agroecosystem (Lal and Pierce 1991). PRINCIPLES OF LOW INPUT SOIL FERTILIY MANAGEMENT Although many farmers have developed alternative fertilizing techniques through trial and error, research shows that there are several agroecological principles underlying such low input methods of maintaining soil fertility (Altieri 1995, Gliessman 1998). Such principles can be summarized as follows: 1. Securing for arable soil conditions for plant growth: in order to grow healthy and productive plants, farmers must create and/or maintain the following soil conditions (Reijntjes et al. 1992): Timely availability of water, air and nutrients in balanced and buffered quantities; Soil structure which enhances root growth, exchange of gaseous elements, water availability and storage capacity; Soil temperature which enhances soil biology and plant growth; Absence of toxic elements such as pesticide residues; Increased addition of organic residues by using varied sources of organic materials

2. Optimizing nutrient availability and cycling: Nutrient availability depends greatly on the general soil condition, soil life and organic matter content. However, deliberate attention must also be given to providing the nutrients required for plant growth. There is a constant flow of nutrients through the farm. Some of the nutrients are lost or exported, e.g. by export of products, erosion, leaching and volatilization. These nutrients have to be replaced. Nutrient losses can be limited by (Magdoff and Van Es 2000): Recycling organic wastes, e.g. manure, night soil and crop residues by returning them to the field, either directly or treated (composted, fermented, etc.). Handling organic fertilizers in such a way that nutrients are not leached by excessive rain or volatilized by high temperature or solar radiation. Reducing run-off and soil erosion, which removes nutrients and organic matter. Reducing burning of vegetation when farming is intensified, as this leads to losses of organic matter; Reducing leaching by maintaining a high humus content in the soil, soil cover and intercropping plant species with different rooting depths; Pumping up partly leached nutrients from deeper soil layers and bringing them back to the topsoil by using litter from trees or other deep-rooting plants.

Clearly, nutrient export from the farm to the market cannot be completely avoided, nor all nutrient losses resulting from erosion and leaching. However, soil cover and efficient organic management can minimize losses to acceptable levels. In fact, nutrients can be captured on the farm by (Kotschi 1990): Fixing nitrogen by micro-organisms living in symbiosis with leguminous trees, shrubs or cover crops. Harvesting nutrients by capturing wind or water sediments from outside the farm; this can be done with special soil conservation practices. Integrating livestock into the farming system.

TECHNIQUES FOR SUSTAINABLE SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT The above principles are universal in nature but when applied by different farmers under a diversity of environmental and socioeconomic conditions, principles take various technical forms which can be grouped as follows (Gershung and Smillie 1986): 1. Soil conservation The most effective way to improve the productivity of small, resource- poor farmers is to conserve and utilize the resources that they already possess. Soil conservation thus aims to maintain soil fertility by preserving soil structure, organic matter and nutrients. These practices include techniques that decrease rates of leaching, erosion and organic matter destruction. Also important are methods that capture and conserve water, especially in low rainfall areas, for water and soil fertility act synergistically on crop production (Lal and Pierce 1991). Conservation techniques are often advantageous because they require little outlay of cash and they can usually be undertaken during the fallow season, when farmers have less work. As a result, they do not put the farmer in debt risk and they do not interrupt or interfere with traditional work schedules. These techniques include the use of windbreaks, terraces, and deep-rooted plants. Windbreaks are usually composed of tree hedgerows planted at regular intervals in a crop field. They reduce erosion by reducing wind velocity. Terraces can be used to prevent soil erosion on cultivated steeplands. Although large-scale terracing programs may be expensive and require much labor, there are several techniques for low-resources terrace building, in which the terraces actually build themselves. Deep rooted plants, such as perennial shrubs and trees, can be used to re-cycle nutrients that have leached to deeper layers in the subsoil, beyond the reach of the roots of most crop species. This strategy is particularly important in certain forms of agroforestry such as alley farming (Pretty 1995). 2. Nutrient recycling The nutrients that are removed form agricultural fields as crops eventually become wastes and thus can be reused in the field. Some wastes, such as manure, can be used directly on cropland, but most organic materials must first be "prepared" before they are used as a fertilizer. The variety of materials that have been used to maintain soil fertility include animal wastes, bones, blood, seaweed, seashells, peat, ashes, saw dust, leaves, sewage, sludge, etc. (Lampkin 1990). In temperate regions, one of the most common recycling practices is the use of "mixed" farming, where livestock or chickens are the chief product of the farm. On these farms, grains and hay are grown and fed to the livestock. Their manure is used to fertilize the soil. Legumes are grown in rotation with grain crops in order to re-supply the soil with nitrogen. Opportunities are endless, but main approaches include:

Cover crops and green manures: Some crops are grown solely for the purpose of enhancing soil fertility. These crops are not harvested, but rather they are plowed into the soil, while they are still growing, which is why they are referred to as green manures. Typically, green manures or cover crops are grown in rotation or as "improved fallow" and are mixed into the soil before seeding the subsequent crop, allowing enough time for the decomposition of residues and the mineralization of nutrients. Green manures serve many different purposes in soil fertility. They can improve soil physical structure by adding organic matter. They can be used to prevent erosion, as when they are used as a fallow season cover crop. They can improve soil nutrient status when they are used as "nutrient pumps" to recycle nutrients that have leached to deeper horizons (Sarrantino 1997). When a legume is used as a green manure crop, large amounts of soil nitrogen may be added. One of the most remarkable cover crops is the velvetbean (Mucuna pruriens). This has been widely promoted as part of the work of World Neighbors in Central America, though its effectiveness is attested by its spontaneous spread from village to village without outside intervention. It grows rapidly, is palatable to animals and people, fixes large amounts of nitrogen and can produce as much as 60 t/ha of organic matter. It can grow on most soils and its spreading habit suppresses weed growth. Incorporating such green manures into cropping systems can substantially increase yields. Honduran farmers are able to harvest some 2.5-3.2 t/ha of maize when grown after velvetbean. This compares with and average for the country of just 0.6 t/ha Buckles et al l998). Azolla and Anabaena: Blue-green algae are another important source of nitrogen, the most widely exploited being the alga Anabaena azollae which fixes atmospheric nitrogen while living in cavities in the leaves of a small fern, Azolla, which grows in the water of rice fields in both tropical and temperate regions. Azolla quickly covers the water surface in the ricefield, but does not interfere with the normal cultivation of the rice crop. Very high nitrogen production is possible following Azolla inoculation in rice fields. In the Philippines, 57 tons of fresh weight Azolla can be harvested after 100 days yielding more than 120 kg/ha of nitrogen. Over the whole year, Azolla can fix more than 400 kg N/ha, a rate in excess of most tropical and subtropical legumes. This nitrogen is only available to the rice crop after Azolla has decomposed and so exploitation consists of incorporating the ferns into the soil while wet as a green manure or removing them for drying and then reapplying them to the ricefields. The results of at least 1500 studies in China, Philippines, Vietnam, India, Thailand and USA have shown that when Azolla is grown in paddy fields, rice yields increase by on average 700 kg/ha, with a range of 400 to 1500 kg/ha (Pretty 1995). Mulches: Soil fertility can often be enhanced simply by covering the soils surface with a layer of organic material (mainly straw), a process that is known as mulching. In the humid tropics, where cultivation of any sort is often deleterious to soil fertility and crop productivity, mulching is a highly effective method to maintain soil health. Mulches are particularly useful in preventing soil damage because they reduce the destructive effect of raindrop impact on soil aggregation and prevent soil erosion. Mulches also improve soil water status by increasing infiltration rates. Mulches also stimulate growth of soil biota (Gershuny and Smillie 1986). Agroforestry and Intercropping: There is a huge diversity of agroforestry systems throughout the world, in which the incorporation of bushes and trees result in many benefits. Trees with nitrogenfixing capacity have beneficial effects on plants growing beneath them. Some of these effects are the result of the fixed nitrogen, but significant quantities of N can also be supplied in the leaf litter or from deliberate pruning. Trees also improve the microclimate by acting as windbreaks, by improving the water-holding capacity of the soil and by acting as shade trees for livestock so focusing the deposition of manure (Nair 1989). Intercropping, the process of growing more than one crop simultaneously in the same plot is used throughout the world and has many advantages over monoculture, including a more efficient use of

space and nutrients, higher total yields and less vulnerability to crop failure due to pests. As in the case of maize-bean polycultures, legumes can be used in the intercrop to add nitrogen and thereby reduce competition between the intercropped species. Intercropping also helps prevent erosion and soil surface damage (i.e., degradation of surface pores) by keeping the soil covered (Francis 1986). Integration of livestock: Livestock are a critical component of sustainable agricultural systems. The nutrient value of manure largely depends on how they are handled, stored and applied. Losses of nitrogen tend to be highest when liquid systems of storage are used and when the manure is broadcast without incorporation. Livestock manures from cattle, pigs and chickens are important, as they positively affect soil structure and water retention, and benefit soil organisms. Manure itself is an excellent fertilizer and soils usually require 5 to 20 tons per hectare of fresh manure to remain in continuous productivity. It is becoming more common for small farmers to keep their animals permanently penned in zerograzing or stall-feeding units rather than permit them to graze freely. In many rural areas zerograzing units are a central part of efforts to improve soil and water conservation. Fodder grown on the farm in the form of improved grasses, tree fodder and the residues of cultivated crops are cut and carried to the animals. Because of the proximity to the crops, manures can be returned directly to the land, so improving nutrient supply and soil structure (Pearson and Gam 1987). Reduced tillage: The use of reduced tillage or no-till systems can maintain or enhance soil organic matter more than the conventional moldboard plow and disk system. The decreased soil disturbance under reduced tillage slows the rate of organic matter decomposition and helps maintain a soil structure that allows rainfall to infiltrate rapidly. Leaving residue on the surface encourage the development of earthworm populations, which also improves soil structure. Compared with conventional tillage, soil erosion is greatly reduced under minimum tillage systems, which helps keep the organic matter and rich topsoil in place. The only drawback of these systems is their high dependence on herbicides. Composting: Organic wastes can also be concentrated through the process of composting, in which microorganisms attack the waste before it is used as fertilizer. There are many methods of composting, each combining the use of animal manures, green material and household wastes in different ways and proportions. The materials are headed or placed in a pit in such a fashion that anaerobic decomposition occurs. Harmful substances and toxic products of metabolism are broken down, while pathogens, and the seeds and roots of weeds are destroyed by the heat generated within the compost heap. Compost created by a variety of methods has proven to be an effective fertilizer in many agricultural settings. Inoculating the soil with microorganisms: Soil microbes play many beneficial roles in maintaining sol fertility. In the field, however, these beneficial microbes might not be present or in low densities, or the strains that are present may not be the most effective at conferring soil fertility. As a result, crop productivity may be enhanced when the soil is "inoculated" with beneficial microorganisms. These introductions may be done with any species of microbe that is known to benefit plant productivity. Those species that fix nitrogen, enhance phosphorus availability nutrition, dissolve minerals, increase mineralization of soil organic matter or prevent diseases have attracted the attention of researchers. There are many studies that examine the use of improved strains of the nitrogen-fixing bacterium Rhizobium, the nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria Azobacter and Azospirillum and the mycorrhizae, fungi that enhance plant phosphorus nutrition (McGuinnes 1993). INTEGRATED APPROACHES TO SOIL FERTILITY MAINTENANCE As discussed above there are many options for making soils more healthy and fertile. Combining the various options is challenging, but usually implies:

Using rotations that utilize grass, legume, or a combination of grass and legume sod crops, or crops wit large amounts of residue as important parts of the system. Leaving residues from annual crops in the field or, if they were removed for composting or to use as bedding for animal, returning them to the soil as manure or compost. The use of cover crops when soils would otherwise be bare to add organic matter, capture residual plant nutrients, and reduce erosion. Cover crops also help maintain soil organic matter in resource-scarce regions that lack possible substitutes to using crop residues for fuel or building materials. Raising animals or having access to animal wastes from nearby farms gives farmers wider choices of economically sound rotations. Rotations that include perennial forages make hay or pasture available for use by dairy and beef cows, sheep and goats. In addition, on mixed crop-livestock farms, animal manures can be applied on cropland. Its easier to maintain organic material on a diversified crop-and-livestock farm, where sod crops are fed to animal and manures returned to the soil. However, growing crops with high quantities of residues plus frequent use of green manures and composts from vegetable residues helps maintain soil organic matter even without animals.

Throughout the world more and more farmers are learning that the combination of reduced tillage, cover crops and better rotations can have a dramatic effect on their soil and the health of crops. They are finding that, by combining practices, they are reducing pest damage, improving soil tilth, vastly reducing runoff and erosion, increasing soil organic matter and producing better crop growth. Each practice by itself is worthwhile. However, the greatest strengths and benefits are derived from combining a number of the key practices outlined in this chapter. REFERENCES Allison, F.E. Soil organic matter and its role in crop production. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1973. Altieri, M.A. Agroecology: the science of sustainable agriculture. Westview Press, Boulder, 1995. Buckles, D; Triomphe, B and G. Sain l998 Cover crops in hillside agriculture. International Development Research center, Ottawa. Conway, G.R. The doubly green revolution. Penguin Books, London, 1997. Dover, M.; Talbot, L.M. To feed the earth: agroecology for sustainable development. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC, 1987. Edwards, C.A. (ed.). Sustainable agricultural systems. SWCS, Amkeng, 1990. Follet, R.F. Soil fertility and organic matter as initial components of production systems. SSSA Special Pub. No. 19 Madison, 1987. Francis, C.A. Multiple cropping systems. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1986. Gershung, G. and Smillie, J. The soul of soil: a guide to ecological soil management. GAIA Services, St. Johnsburg, 1986. Gliessman, S.R. Agroecology: ecological processes in agriculture. Ann Arbor Press, Chelsea, 1998. Kotschi, J. Ecofarming practices for tropical smallholdings. Maspraf, Weikersheim, 1990.

Lal, R.; Pierce, F.J. Soil management for sustainability. Sol and Water Conservation society, Amkeng, 1991. Lampkin, N. Organic Farming. Farming Press, Ipswich, 1990. McGuinnes, H. Living soils: sustainable alternatives to chemical fertilizers for developing countries. Consumers Policy Institute, New York, 1993. MagdOff, F.; Van Es, H. Building soils for better crops. Sustainable Agriculture Network, Beltsville, 2000. Nair, P.K. Agroforestry systems in the tropics. Kluwer Acedemic Pub., Dorducht, 1989 Pearson, C.J.; Ison, R.L. Agronomy of grassland systems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995. Pretty, J.N. Regenerating agriculture. Earthscan, London, 1995. Reinjntjes, C.; Haverkort, B.; Waters-Bayer, A. Farming in the future. McMillan Press, London, 1992. Sarrontino, M. Northeast cover crop handbook. Soil Health Series, Rodale Institute, Kutztown, 1997.