A G ENERALIZED M ODEL FOR

T RANSITIONAL B LADE T IP VORTICES

Manikandan Ramasamy J. Gordon Leishman †

Alfred Gessow Rotorcraft Center

Department of Aerospace Engineering
Glenn L. Martin Institute of Technology
University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland 20742
Abstract Nomenclature
a b Empirical constants
A new mathematical model is proposed to represent the A Rotor disk area, m2
induced velocity of a rotor blade tip vortex at any vor- AR Aspect ratio of the rotor blade
tex Reynolds number. A complete description of the c Blade chord, m
tip vortex requires a solution to the Navier-Stokes (N-S) C0 Constant
equations, which can only be obtained by reducing these CT Coefficient of rotor thrust, = T ρAΩ2 R2
equations under certain assumptions and approximations. g Core circulation function
Such reductions give a completely laminar vortex model l Prandtl’s mixing length, m
when the Reynolds number is low, or a completely turbu- Nb Number of blades
lent model at very high vortex Reynolds numbers. How- rc Core radius of the vortex, m
ever, many rotating-wings operate at conditions where the r Radial distance, m
vortex Reynolds number is in the intermediate (transi- r Non-dimensional radial distance, = r rc
tional) regime when the vortex is neither fully laminar nor R Radius of the blade, m
turbulent. This is particularly true at model scale, where Rev Vortex Reynolds number, = Γv ν
most experimental measurements exist. A new analytical Ri Richardson number
model for a transitional vortex has been developed using t Time, s
an eddy viscosity intermittency function in such a way T Thrust, N
that this function smoothly and continuously models the VIF Vortex intermittency function
eddy viscosity variation across the vortex from its inner V1 Peak swirl velocity, m/s
rotational region into the outer potential flow region. This V1new Peak swirl velocity in new model, m/s
intermittency function is developed based on Richardson Vr Radial velocity of the tip vortex, m/s
number concept, which brings in the effects of flow ro- Vz Axial velocity of the tip vortex, m/s
tation on turbulence present inside the vortex boundaries, Vθ Swirl velocity of the tip vortex, m/s
and is incorporated into the N-S equations governing the αL Lamb’s constant, = 1 25643
development of an axisymmetric vortex flow. A unique αI Iversen’s constant, = 0 01854
aspect of the proposed model is the Reynolds number de- αnew New empirical constant, = 0 0655
pendency of the final solutions. Furthermore, because the γ Reduced circulation, = rVθ , m2 /s
solutions satisfy the N-S equations, vortex velocity pro- γv Reduced circulation at large distances, m2 /s
files can be solved for any given vortex Reynolds number. γ Non-dimensional circulation, = γ γv
The model is shown to correctly reduce to the solution Γ Circulation, = 2πrVθ , m2 /s
for a laminar (Lamb–Oseen) modelfor very low Reynolds Γv Circulation of the vortex at large distances, m2 /s
numbers. The proposed model is validated using high res- Γ1 Circulation at core radius, m2 /s
olution tip vortex measurements for a hovering rotor. δ Ratio of apparent to actual viscosity
ζ Wake age, deg.
η Similarity variable, = r2 4γv t
η1 Similarity variable at the core radius,= r2c 4γv t
Graduate Research Assistant. mani@glue.umd.edu
† Professor. leishman@eng.umd.edu ηa Empirical constant
Presented at the 60th Annual Forum and Technology Display of η Scaled similarity variable, = η αnew 2
the American Helicopter Society International, Baltimore, MD, κ Newly developed function, = αnew 2 VIF
June 7–11, 2004. c 2004 by M. Ramasamy & J. G. Leishman. µ Dynamic viscosity, kg/m s 1
Published by the AHS International with permission. ν Kinematic viscosity, = µ ρ, m2 /s
νt Eddy or tubulent viscosity fidelity vortex model that can be used in any flight regime.
νT Total kinematic viscosity, = ν νt This has been difficultbecause ofthelackofproperinstru-
ρ Density of the fluid, kg/m3 ments capable of measuring flow fields at the necessary
σ Shear stress, N/m2 high resolutions, and also the costs and time involved in
σe Effective rotor solidity, = Nb c πR conducting such experiments.
ψ Azimuthal position, deg. A comparison of vortex Reynolds number between full
Ω Rotational speed of the rotor, rad/s scale and sub scale rotor will throw some light in the scal-
ing issues involved. The circulation of the tip vortex, Γv
Introduction is given approximately (Ref. 20) by

The proper modeling of rotor blade tip vortices has been a CT

Γv kΩRc
challengetohelicopteraerodynamicistsformanydecades. σ
A better understanding of the blade tip vortices continues
to beessentialin predicting theaerodynamic performance, where k 2 in hover. This implies that the vortex
blade airloads and the resulting acoustics of the helicopter Reynolds number, Rev , is given by
rotor. Unlike their fixed wing counterparts, where the Γv 2 ΩR c CT
tip vortices trail well downstream, rotor tip vortices lie Rev
ν ν σ
in close proximity to each other for a longer time and
may closely interact with other blades. This interaction Most vortex flow measurements are performed using sub-
leads to impulsive aerodynamic loads, resulting in high scale rotors that match CT σ and blade aspect ratio,
rotor vibrations and noise production. Furthermore, the AR R c of the full-scale rotors. The above expression
rotor wake downwash on the fuselage, tail rotor and/or in terms of aspect ratio AR can be written as
the empennage can lead to further degradation in overall
helicopter performance. In each case a model of the tip 2 ΩR R CT
Rev
vortices is key to enabling adequate predictions of the air- ν AR σ
loads.
The ratio of the votex Reynolds number between model-
Numerous experiments have been conducted in the past
scale and full-scale is then given by
in attempts to understand the nature of flow inside a lift
generated tip vortex (Refs. 1–9). A detailed summary of Rev Model scale ΩR R Model scale 1
the experiments along with the relative capabilities, lim- Rev Full scale ΩR R Full scale n
itations, uncertainties and precision of the different mea-
surement techniques is given by Martin et al. (Ref. 10). The value of n varies with the scaling of the model rotor
Unlike fixed wing tip vortices, which are predominantly and the ratio of the tip speed between the model-scale and
rectilinear in nature, helicopter vortices are curved and full-scale rotors. The value of n for some experiments are
lie in close proximity to other vortices, producing mutu-
Experiments ΩR Scale n Rev
ally induced effects on their development. This makes the
Ratio
accurate measurement of their flow field properties much
HART II test 1 1/2.5 2.5 2.5 105
more difficult.
(Ref. 21)
Several mathematical models of vortex flows have also
McAlister, 2003 1/3 1/7 21 1 105
been proposed (Refs. 11–19). However, almost all the
(Refs. 22, 23)
proposed models have met only with limited success
in rotor analyses such as airloads, vibration and noise Ramasamy &
prediction. These models are developed either analyti- Leishman, 2003 1/3 1/15 45 48 104
cally by making various assumptions to the N-S equa- (Ref. 24)
tions, or semi-empirically based on experiments. The
most popular among the proposed models are the Lamb– Table 1: Value of n for various rotor experiments
Oseen model (Ref. 11) (which is fully laminar) and the given in Table 1. Clearly this raises issues about scaling
Squire (Ref. 12) and Iverson models (Ref. 18) (which are effects because the Reynolds number is known to affect
both fully turbulent). However, most rotating wings oper- both the structure and the viscous growth rate of the tip
ate at conditions where the vortex Reynolds numbers are vortices (e.g., Refs. 12, 13). This dependency is yet to be
in the intermediate (transitional) regime, when the flow quantified because of the dearth of high fidelity measure-
is neither fully laminar nor turbulent. This is especially ments over a sufficiently wide range of vortex Reynolds
true with sub-scale rotors, whichgeneratetip vorticeswith numbers. Vortex models derived from model scale exper-
much lower vortex Reynolds numbers. Comprehensive iments cannot necessarily be expected to give valid results
measurements of the complete vortex structure is essen- when applied to full-scale rotors at full-scale flight condi-
tial for the development and validation of a generic, high- tions.
 πcV / Γ
Various attempts (e.g., Refs. 14, 16) have been made to 0.8

θ
develop avortex modelbased on an analogy with abound-

Non-dimensional swirl velocity, 2

ary layer theory. Tung (Ref. 16) made measurements on 0.4
a sub-scale rotor in hover and proposed a semi-empirical,
multi-region modelfor the tip vortex (laminar, transitional
and turbulent). However, no attemptwas made to general- 0
ize the model to higher (full-scale) vortex Reynolds num- Increasing time

bers. Furthermore, such models do not include the effects

-0.4
of flow rotation on the turbulence present inside the vor-
tex. Flow rotation has been hypothesized to have a signif-
icant influence on the vortex structure (e.g., Refs. 15, 25, -0.8
26) and flow visualization tend to support this hypothesis. -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
The objectives of the present work were to consider the Non-dimensional distance from the vortex axis, r / c

effects of flow rotation on the structure of a tip vortex, Figure 1: Swirl velocity distribution for an aging vortex
and to develop a generalized mathematicalmodelfor rotor as predicted by the laminar Lamb–Oseen model.
tip vortices that is consistent with both flow visualization
where ηL is the similarity variable proposed by Lamb
and flow field measurements. The first approach towards
(=r2 4 ν t . For time t 0 the distribution of swirl veloc-
developing such a model for fully turbulent vortices us-
ity versus the non-dimensional radial distance is shown in
ing an analogy with boundary layer theory was made by
Fig. 1. It is apparent that the peak swirl velocity decreases
Hoffman et al. (Ref. 14). Iversen (Ref. 18) later de-
and the core radius decreases with time, indicating dif-
veloped a mathematical model for turbulent tip vortices
fusion of vorticity away from the vortex core. However,
that were a function of vortex Reynolds number. The
the Lamb–Oseen model approaches a singularity at time
present work combines and extends both these concepts to
t 0, which is not physically realistic. Moreover, because
the modeling of transitional vortices and provides a more
this model is developed by making a laminar assump-
generalized model to predict the vortex flow at any vortex
tion, molecular diffusion is the only source of momentum
Reynolds number.
transport. In this case, the growth of the viscous core with
time is given by
Theory rc t 4αL νt (5)
The incompressible Navier-Stokes (N-S) equation for one where αL is Lamb’s constant (αL 1 25643). This result,
dimensional, axisymmetric vortex in polar coordinates is however, is found to be unrealistically slow in light of ex-
given by perimental evidence (e.g., Refs. 10, 24, 23). Equation 4
DVθ ∂ ∂Vθ Vθ 2µT ∂Vθ Vθ can also be written in terms of core radius as
ρ µT µT (1)
Dt ∂r ∂r r r ∂r r Γv 1 e αL r2
Vθ r (6)
Writing Eq. 1 in terms of local circulation, γ, and kine- 2πrc r
matic viscosity, νT , results in
where r is the non-dimensional radial distance (r rc .
∂γ ∂ ∂ γ ∂ γ Squire (Ref. 12) modified the vortex core growth ob-
r νT r 2νT r (2)
∂t ∂r ∂r r2 ∂r r2 tained from the Lamb–Oseen model by including an eddy
viscosity component to account for the effects of turbu-
The exact solutions to this equation can be obtained by lence. Because the principal permanent characteristic of
assuming that the viscosity has the form a line vortex is its circulation at large distances from the
core axis, Squire assumed that the eddy viscosity was pro-
νT ν νt (3) portional to the vortex circulation, Γv . The total viscosity
was assumed to be of the form
where ν is the kinematic viscosity (a property of the fluid)
and νt is the turbulent or “eddy” viscosity. Γv
νT ν a (7)
The classic Lamb–Oseen vortex model (Ref. 11) is an 2π
exact solution to Eq. 2 under the assumption that νt 0
(i.e., fully laminar flow). The swirl velocity, Vθ , surround- where a is an empirical constant determined from exper-
ing an isolated vortex filament from this model is iments. It should be noted that the “eddy” component of
viscosity was assumed to be constant with r, and so it rep-
Γ resents an average eddy viscosity throughout the structure
Vθ r 1 exp ηL (4) of the vortex. In this case, the modified growth rate of the
2πr
 10

v
0.25

c/ Γ
Correlation ~ ( ζ - ζ0 )-0.5
McAlister, 2003
/c

~ ζ -0.5
c

Martin & Leishman, 2000

θ max
Non-dimensional core radius, r

0.2 Ramasamy & Leishman, 2003 δ = 16

Equivalent peak velocity, V

1
0.15 δ=8 Iversen Correlation
Ramasamy & Leishman, 2002
Martin & Leishman, 2000
0.1 Mahalingam et al., 1998
0.1
δ=2 McAlister, 1996, 2003
Bhagwat & Leishman, 1998
0.05 δ = 1 (Lamb-Oseen) Lamb-Oseen model
All fixed-wing data
Cook, 1972
0 0.01
0 180 360 540 720 900 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Wake age, ζ (deg) Equivalent downstream distance, ζ Γ v / Ωc2 f (Γv/ν)

Figure2: Vortexcore growth predicted by Squire’s model,
(ζ0 30 ).
vortex core is given by a simple modification to Eq. 5 as
ζ 4αL δνζ
rc ζ 4αL δν
Ω Ω
where δ is defined as the ratio of the total to kinematic
viscosity, i.e.,
νT a Γv Γv
δ 1 1 a1
ν 2π ν ν
Notice that the Squire model reduces to the Lamb model
when δ 1. The value of a 2π in Eq. 7 (which is nor-
mally represented by the coefficient a1 ) was estimated by
Bhagwat and Leishman (Ref. 27) to lie between the val-
ues of0 00005 and 0 0002 based on nearly all ofthe avail-
able experiments on tip vortices conducted over a wide
range of Reynolds number. Squire also proposed an ef-
fective or virtual origin offset to eliminate the singular na-
ture of the Lamb–Oseen vortex. As a result, Eq. 8 can be
written in the form for rotor applications as
ζ ζ0 4αL δνζ
rc ζ 4αL δν r02
Ω Ω
where r0 is the core radius of the tip vortex at time t 0
and ζ0 is the time offset.
Figure 2 shows the increase in size of the vortex core
with wake age for various assumed values of δ. Clearly,
increased values of δ lead to an increased core growth
rate. These two modifications have been shown to result
in a more physically realistic representation of the vortex
growth rate that correlates better with experimental mea-
surements (e.g., Ref. 10, 23, 24).
Iversen (Ref. 18) proposed a turbulent vortex model
using a variation of Prandtl mixing length theory. In this
model, the eddy viscosity was assumed to vary across the
radial dimension of the vortex. The mixing length pro-
posed by Iversen increased linearly with the radial dis-
tance; this linear dependency was modeled empirically
Figure 3: Iversen-type correlation of peak swirl velocity
with equivalent downstream distance for fixed-wing and
rotor tip vortex measurements.
based on various measurements. The total viscosity vari-
ation across the vortex was assumed to vary as
(8)
∂ γ
νT ν l2r (11)
∂r r2
where l αI r represents the mixing length. The value of
αI (Iversen’s constant) was determined by analyzing re-
(9) sults from a specific set of experiments (Refs. 1–3) to be
0 01854. Using dimensional analysis, Iversen determined
a similarity variable η r2 4γv t which is 2πηL Rev ,
where ηL is the similarity variable used by Lamb.
By performing a similarity transformation on Eq. 2, the
circulation distribution ofan isolated linevortex (based on
the form of the eddy viscosity variation given in Eq. 11)
is given by
∂γ ν ∂γ
4η γ (12)
∂η γv α2I ∂η
where η η α2I . Iversen obtained a similarity solution
to the above equation as a function of vortex Reynolds
(10) number, i.e., as a function of Γv ν. This unique nature of
the similarity solution helped Iversen derive a correlation
function that can be used to compare measurements per-
formed at various vortex Reynolds numbers, as shown in
Fig. 3. Swirl velocity profiles at different vortex Reynolds
numbers can then be obtained using the similarity solu-
tion, which isshown in Fig. 4. Itcan be seen that Iversen’s
model reduces to the laminar Lamb–Oseen model at very
low vortex Reynolds number, as it should.
Based on the variable eddy viscosity model given in
Eq. 11, Iversen predicted a core growth of a tip vor-
tex that is dependent on the vortex Reynolds number,
the result from which is shown in Fig. 5. At very low
Reynolds numbers δ 1, which is fully laminar. As
the Reynolds number increases above 103 , the value of
δ increases until it changes linearly with vortex Reynolds
number. Because Squire’s modelpredicts a linear increase
 1.2
1
/V
θ

1
Non-dimensional swirl velocity, V

0.8
1
0.6
2
0.4 Lamb-Oseen model
Iversen's model, Re V = 200
Iversen's model, Re V = 18000 3
0.2 Lamb-Oseen &
Iversen's model, Re V = 1X10 7 Iversen (Re V= 200)

0
0 1 2 3 4
Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r
c
Figure 4: Swirl velocity distribution predicted by Iversen Region 1: Fully laminar
model at various vortex Reynolds numbers. Region 2: Transitional
Region 3: Fully turbulent
Figure 6: A representative flow visualization image of a
1000 tip vortex emanating from a rotor blade showing three dis-
δ

tinct regions (1) Laminar region, (2) Transitional region,

Apparent to actual viscosity ratio,

100
Constant viscosity (Lamb-Oseen) model (3) Turbulent region.
Iversen's model

1.2
1
/V

10 Measurements, Re v = 48,000 (Ref. 24)

θ
Non-dimensional swirl velocity, V

1 Lamb-Oseen model
Squire model
valid Iversen's model at Re v = 48,000
1 0.8
Lamb-Oseen model Transitional
valid regime 0.6
0.1
1 10 100 1000 104 105 106 107 0.4
Vortex Reynolds number, Re
v
Figure 5: Variation of δ with Reynolds number based on 0.2
Iversen’s model.
0
of δ at higher Reynolds numbers, it can be concluded that 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r
Squire’s model is valid only at high Reynolds numbers c

(above 105 ). Even though the core growth predicted by Figure 7: Swirl velocity distribution of a tip vortex using
Iversen is more physically realistic compared to measure- Lamb–Oseen and Iversen models compared to measure-
ments, it should be kept in mind that the measurements ments.
used by Iversen in developing this model are subject to gion where there is no interaction between adjacent fluid
several uncertainty issues such as vortex core wandering layers. This is followed by a transition region that has
effects, and so the value of αI may be unreliable if not eddies of different sizes, outside of this there is a more
corrected for these effects (e.g., see Refs. 28, 29). unsteady turbulent region. This multi–region vortex struc-
Because flow field instrumentation has improved since ture conceptdiffers from the above mentioned models in a
the 1970s more accurate flow measurement techniques way thatitis neithercompletely laminar like Lamb–Oseen
have developed with the spatial resolution necessary for model nor completely turbulent like Squire’s or Iversen’s
measurements of vortex flows. This has resulted in more model. Recent velocity measurements made using LDV
reliable and higher fidelity measurements (e.g., Refs. 10, (Refs. 24, 30) also support the idea of a multi–region or
23, 24). New techniques have also been developed to transitional structure of the tip vortex, as shown in Fig. 7.
measure and correct for the effects of core wandering
(Refs. 28, 29). These measurements, which have been
Richardson Number Effects
performed over the past few years, have consistently sug-
gested a multi–region vortex structure. For example, flow The effects of flow rotation on the development of turbu-
visualization performed on a tip vortex emanating from a lence present inside the vortex has been hypothesized to
rotating blade is shown in Fig. 6. It can be observed that play an important role in determining the structure of a
the flow is laminar near the core, which is marked by a re- vortex (e.g., Refs. 14, 25, 26). Rayleigh’s centrifugal in-
 6
stability theory (Ref. 31), which uses a buoyancy force 10

concept, suggests that the vortex will never develop tur- 105 Lamb-Oseen model
Iversen's model
bulence provided that the product of velocity and radial 4

Richardson number, Ri
10 Measurements (Ref. 24)
distance increases with the increase in radial coordinate. Stratification line
1000
Few vortex models (e.g., Refs. 15, 17) have been devel-
oped that recognise this concept but have achieved lim- 100
ited success. The various properties of the vortex flow 10 1/4
Stratification Line Ri = Re V
predicted using these models, such as its core growth and
1
the distribution of velocity with radial distance, did not
correlate well with experimental results. 0.1
Bradshaw (Ref. 32) developed an analogy between ro- 0.01
tating flows and stratified fluids. His analysis is based on 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
the theory that the flow rotation causes the higher speed Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r
c

fluid to prefer the outside of the vortex while conserv-
ing angular momentum, even if the density is assumed
constant throughout the vortex. Using energy principles,
an expression was developed for the local strength of the
analogous stratification, expressed as an equivalent gradi-
ent Richardson number. This number comes directly from
the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) budget equation (e.g.,
Refs. 26, 32) and is basically a ratio of the turbulence pro-
duced or consumed inside the vortex as a result of buoy-
ancy (centrifugal effects) to the turbulence produced by
shearing in the flow. It can also be thought of as the ratio
of potential to kinetic energy in a stratified flow.
In a swirling flow Bradshaw’s “Richardson number” is
given by
2Vθ ∂ Vθ r ∂Vθ 2
Ri (13)
r 2 ∂r ∂r
which involves the velocity gradients in the vortex flow.
Bradshaw derived the numerator and denominator of the
above expression in two different frames of reference.
This is misleading because this results in a maximum sta-
bility at the core radius of the vortex (Ref. 25). Holzapfel
(Ref. 26) corrected the definition of Richardson number
by taking both the denominatorand numerator in the same
inertial frame of reference. The corrected Richardson
number proposed by Holzapfel is given by
Figure 8: Plot of Richardson number with radial coordi-
nate for a vortex flow.
below this threshold value. Any turbulence present inside
this boundary will be either relaminarized or suppressed;
even Kolmogorov size eddies will not be able to penetrate
this vortex boundary.
The local gradient Richardson number calculated using
the measurements from Ramasamy et al. (Ref. 24) are
shown in Fig. 8, along with the Lamb–Oseen and Iversen
vortex models. The Richardson number variation for both
the vortex models (and the measurements) is seen to ap-
proach infinity at the center of the vortex. As the ra-
dial distance from the center of the vortex increases, the
Richardson number quickly reduces in value and goes be-
low the assumed stratification threshold (i.e., for values
of Ri above the stratification threshold only laminar flow
is possible). In this region, diffusion at a molecular level
will be the only means to transport the momentum. This
concept helps explain the persistence of tip vortices, in
general, to relatively old wake ages (3, 4, or even 5 rotor
revolutions). Below the stratification threshold, flow tur-
bulencecan develop. This argumentserves to augmentthe
hypothesis of a multi-region vortex that is nearly always
laminar inside the core region, which then progressively
transitions to turbulence outside the vortex core. This
mechanism affects the induced velocity field.

2Vθ ∂ Vθ r ∂ Vθ r 2
Ri
r 2 ∂r
r
∂r
(14) New Vortex Model
It should be noted thatthis form ofthe Richardson number The newvortex modeldeveloped here recognizesthe fore-
has strain rate in the denominator instead of plane shear. going described effects of flow rotation on the turbulence
Cotel (Refs. 25, 33) used this stratification concept and developments within the vortex core. The incompressible
has determined a threshold value for the Richardson num- Navier-Stokes (N-S) equation for a one-dimensional, ax-
ber that is a function of vortex Reynolds number. Their isymmetric vortex in cylindrical coordinates is given by
analysis is based on a non-dimensional parameter called DVθ ∂ ∂Vθ Vθ 2νT ∂Vθ Vθ
a “Persistence Parameter,” which is defined as the ratio of νT νT (15)
Dt ∂r ∂r r r ∂r r
rotational to translational speed of the vortex. If the per-
sistenceparameter ishigh, which isthe case formostwing An assumption of one dimensional, axisymmetric vortex
generated tip vortices (including rotorcraft), the threshold results in the axial and the radial velocities of the vortex
value of the Richardson number was found to be Rev 1 4 . along with any variation in the axial and radial direction
This means that the vortex will be laminar up to a radial to be zero, i.e.,
distance where the local gradient Richardson number falls Vz Vr 0
and Step 1: Similarity transformation of the LHS of Eq. 22,
∂ ∂ i.e., transforming the term ∂γ ∂t
0
∂θ ∂z
This implies that DVθ Dt ∂Vθ ∂t and, therefore, Eq. 15 Step 2: Substituting νT ν into the RHS of Eq. 22 and
becomes reducing it.
∂ γ ∂ ∂ γ γ Step 3: Substituting νT l 2 σ into RHS of Eq. 22 and re-
νT νT 2
∂t r ∂r ∂r r r ducing it.
2νT ∂ γ γ
(16) Step 4: Finally, combining allthe three steps to get a non-
r ∂r r r2
dimensionalized circulation distribution in terms of
where γ is given by the product Vθ r. But we have that the similarity variable η, which is given by
∂ γ 1 ∂γ 2γ 1 ∂γ 2γ
r r (17)
∂r r2 r2 ∂r r3 r ∂r r ∂γ ν 1 4κ2 X ∂2 γ 1 2 X X ∂κ2
(23)
and also ∂η γv α2I α2I ∂η2 α2I η ∂η
∂ γ γ 1 ∂γ 2γ
(18) Part1 Part2 Part3 Part4
∂r r r2 r 2 ∂r r2
Here, γ γ γv and η η αI . From Eq. 23itcanbe noted
2
Substituting these lattertwo equations into Eq. 16, the dis-
tribution of circulation for a tip vortex with a variable ef- that the result reduces to a constant viscosity model when
the value of κ approaches zero and reduces to Iversen’s
fective viscosity is given by
model when the value of κ approaches αI . Notice that
∂γ ∂ ∂ γ ∂ γ Eq. 23 has four parts.
r νT r 2νT r (19)
∂t ∂r ∂r r 2 ∂r r2
Part 1: The variation of circulation, γ, with respect to the
This is made using an assumption that the flow inside the similarity variable η.
vortex is analogous to the time dependent flow of an infi-
nite line vortex. Part 2: The variation in circulation that results from the
A classical way (Ref. 34) of writing the total viscosity assumption of constant viscosity.
νT is
νT ν νt ν l 2 σ (20) Part 3: The circulation variation as a result ofthe assump-
tion of variable eddy viscosity.
where l κr is the mixing length and σ is the time aver-
age ofthe shearstress inside the flow ofthe tip vortex. As- Part 4: A result of the “transitional” eddy viscosity varia-
suming a value of zero for κ would result in constant vis- tion that is yet to be modeled.
cosity model. A constant value for κ (i.e., using Iversen’s
value of κ αI 0 01854) will result in a completely The new model would be complete by defining a function
turbulent flow model. In the new model, κ is considered for κ. As explained in the previous sections, the tip vor-
as a function of r and is varied in a manner analogous to tex can be assumed to be made of three regions: an inner
the intermittency function used in boundary layer theory laminar region, a transitional region, followed by a turbu-
(e.g., Refs 35, 36). Assuming the flow in the vortex to lent region. Therefore, the variation of κ should represent
be self-similar, a similarity variable η is obtained from a the variation of the eddy viscosity over all of these three
dimensional analysis that is given by regions. It can be observed from Fig. 8 that in the laminar
region (i.e., until a particular distance from the vortex core
r2 where the Richardson’s number falls below the threshold
η (21)
4γv t value)the vortex cannotdevelop orsustainany turbulence.
This will result in essentially zero eddy viscosity. The de-
which is in agreement with Iversen’s model. The next step
veloped function for κ should also be zero until that radial
is to get Eq. 19 in terms of the similarity variable η. Let
distance is reached in this region. As the radial distance
Eq. 19 be written as
increases, the vortex flowbecomes transitional, andfinally
∂γ ∂ ∂ γ ∂ γ the flow becomes completely turbulent at large distances.
r νT r 2νT r (22)
∂t ∂r ∂r r 2 ∂r r2 This would mean that the proposed function of κ should
also startincreasing and reach a value equivalent to that of
RHS
a completely turbulent vortex at large radial distances.
Transforming the above expression in terms of the simi- To satisfy all the above mentioned conditions, a new
larity variable η is carried out in four steps, the details of value of κ is defined as
which given are in the appendix.
κ αI VIF (24)
 1 is known to vary linearly with the normal distance. Also,
3
Vortex intermittency function, VIF
0.8
Intermittency function
0.6
2 results from turbulence is negligible. Also, the tangential
0.4
Core radius
0.2
1 stress because of the high tangential velocity gradients.
0 Therefore, the hypothesis by Hoffman et al. (Ref. 14) that
1 2
Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r
c dial distance is not valid inside this region. In the new
Figure 9: Eddy viscosity intermittency function across the
vortex: (1) Laminar region, (2) Transitional region, (3)
Turbulent region
1 locity increases linearly with distance (solid body rota-
3
Vortex intermittency function, VIF
0.8
Intermittency function
0.6
2
0.4
Core radius
0.2
0
1 viscosity) is zero near the center of the vortex. Here, αnew
1 3 5 7
Non-dimensional distance from core center, η / η
1
Figure 10: Eddy viscosity intermittency function across
the vortex: (1) Laminar region, (2) Transitional region,
(3) Turbulent region
where αI is Iversen’s constant and VIF is a vortex inter-
mittency function as given by
1 η
VIF 1 erf b ηa
2 η1
where η1 represents the value of the similarity variable at
the pointwhere the peak swirlvelocity is maximum, b and
ηa are empirical constants. The coefficient b represents
the rate at which the transition from laminar to turbulent
flow occurs, and ηa representsthe value atwhich the value
of VIF is 0 5.
A typical variation of the VIF with respect to non-
dimensional radial distance r rc and η η1 is shown in
Figs. 9 and 10, respectively. A value of VIF 0 corre-
sponds to κ 0 and VIF 1 corresponds to κ αI , i.e.,
values of κ that would result in a completely laminar and
turbulent values for eddy viscosity, respectively.
The new expression for the VIF is derived in a manner
analogous to the intermittency function in boundary layer
theory (e.g., 35, 36). Near the wall in a boundary layer
(viscous sub-layer) the turbulent fluctuations are damped
by the presence ofa solid surface. Here, the mean velocity
the stress is usually assumed constant and is equal to the
value of stress at its surface. Similarly, in a vortex flow the
turbulent fluctuations are suppressed by flow rotation ef-
fects (stratification) and, therefore, the eddy viscosity that
inertia of this “eye” or “equivalent viscous sub-layer” of
the vortex (represented by Region 1 in Fig. 9 where the
VIF 0) is very high when compared with the Reynolds
3 the circulation distribution varies logarithmically with ra-
model the VIF forces the eddy viscosity to be zero in this
region, resulting in laminar flow near the vortex core axis.
Furthermore, it should be noticed that the mean swirl ve-
tion) similar to that of the boundary layer. By writing the
expression for total viscosity as
∂ Γ
νT ν κ2 r 2
∂r r2
∂ Γ
ν VIF αnew2 r2 (26)
∂r r2
it is apparent from Fig. 9 that the VIF (and hence the eddy
9 is a new empirical constant yet to be determined. The
necessity and procedure to determine the value of αnew is
explained in the next section.
Region 2 represents a transition region where the flow
transitions from a laminar to a turbulent flow. Here, the
tangential inertia is much smaller than the Reynolds stress
because of the low velocity gradient. The Richardson
number in this region falls below the threshold value
(Ri Rev 1 4 ), and any turbulence present cannot be sup-
pressed by stratification– see Fig. 20. As a result both
(25)
types of shear: viscous (molecular) shear and turbulent
(eddy) shear are equally important here. Region 3 repre-
sents the potential flow regime (analogous to the outer re-
gion ofthe boundary layer), where the circulation remains
constant. Here, the eddy viscosity plays a significant role
and is more dominant than the molecular viscosity. The
variation of the eddy viscosity in all the aforementioned
three regions is modeled in a continuous manner using
the vortex intermittency function: an inner laminar region
when the value of VIF is approximately zero, a transition
region when 0 VIF 1, and then turbulent region when
VIF approaches unity.
Upon substituting the expression for the VIF (Eq. 25)
into Eq. 23 and replacing αI by αnew we get
∂γ ν 1 ∂2 γ
2X X ∂
4VIF2 X VIF
∂η γv αnew 2 ∂η2 η ∂η
(27)
Equation 27 requires the first derivative of the VIF with
respect to η, i.e., Upon substituting this in Eq. 30 gives
V1 c c Ωc 1 1 2
ν
∂ VIF 1 ∂ η γ η1 (31)
1 erf b ηa γv ψ γv 4η1 γv
∂η 2 ∂η η1
or
2 1 2
1 η b 1
exp b 2
ηa V1 c ψ Γv Γv
π η1 2 ηη1 C0 g (32)
Γv c Ωc ν
Substituting the above expression into Eq. 27 gives A B
where part A in Eq. 32 represents the vortex velocity
∂γ ν 1 ∂2 γ b scaling parameter, B represents the distance scaling para-
4 VIF2 X
∂η γv αnew 2 ∂η2 2 ηη1 menter that is also called an “equivalent downstream dis-
tance,” C0 is a constant as yet to be determined, and g is
2
1 2X X η the core circulation function.
exp b 2
ηa (28) Table 2 shows the average values of the quantity on the
π η η1
left-hand side ofEq. 32 versus equivalentdownstream dis-
tances for a set of rotor experiments. The average value of
Solving this expression numerically using a Runge-Kutta
all of data was found to be 1 641. By re-writting Eq 26 in
schemes provides the required distribution of circulation
terms of vortex Reynolds number as
for a given vortex Reynolds number.
Γv ∂ Γ
νT VIF αnew2 r2 (33)
Rev ∂r r2
Determination of αnew
it is apparent that the total viscosity will remain constant
It should be noted that Eq. 28 has three empirical con- at very high Reynolds number. This will result in the
stants, αnew, b, ηa . Iversen determined the value of αI core circulation function g (which is a function of vor-
from various measurements that are at large equivalent tex Reynolds number) and hence, the peak swirl velocity
downstream distances. The reason for doing this was to (γ η1 2 ) to asymptote to a constant value at higher vortex
ensure a more uniform turbulent decay of the trailing vor- Reynolds numbers. This implies that the value of C0 is
tices. Also, it should be kept in mind that the measure- 1 641 if the asymptotic value of g is assumed to approach
ments used by Iversen were performed with fixed wings, unity at large vortex Reynolds numbers.
including results at very high vortex Reynolds numbers. The value of αnew was determined, however, by using
Even though this model predicted a higher core growth the asymptotic value of γ η1 2 ( 0 539) obtained from
than the laminar Lamb–Oseen model, the distribution of Iversen’s model (as shown in the Fig. 11) to assure that
swirl velocity, Vθ , predicted by the model did not corre- the new model will approach the Iversen’s model when
late well with experimental measurements (Refs. 10, 24, the VIF approaches the value of unity. By writing Eq. 32
22, 23). as
An approach similar to that of Iversen is taken using
new measurements to determine a value for αI . Let the Vc ψ Γv 1 2
γ 1
(34)
new value be called αnew. Following Iversen let Γv c Ωc η 1 2
2αnew 2π 1 2

then αnew can be written as

Vθ c c ν
γ η (29)
γv r γv γ 2
αnew 0 0655 (35)
η 1 2
Iversen
4 π 1 641
At the core radius, Vθ V1 and r rc . Therefore, Eq. 29
at the core radius is given by Because this value is determined by averaging various
measurements that were performed over a range of vor-
V1 c c r2c ν tex Reynolds numbers, the velocity profile corresponding
γ (30) to the solution of Eq. 28 for any vortex Reynolds number
γv rc 4γv t γv
can be predicted.
But
rc2 r2c Ω
η1 constant Discussion
4γv t 4γv ψ
This would result in Swirl Velocity and Circulation
1 2
c c2 Ω A numerical solution to the circulation distribution given
rc 4η1 γv ψ by Eq. 28 can be obtained using Runge-Kutta integration
 Experiments Equivalent downstream distance LHS of Eq. 32
ψ c Γv Ω c V1 c Γv ψ c Γv Ωc 1 2

Martin & Leishman, 2000 0.5–8.9 2.197

Bhagwat & Leishman, 1998 0.19–10 1.9362
Mahalingam et al., 1998 0.41–3.48 1.4386
McAlister, 1996 0.06–0.4 0.9957
McAlister, 2003 0.02–0.6 0.741
Ramasamy & Leishman, 2003 0.4–28.6 2.5264

Table 2: Values of equivalent peak swirl velocity from various rotorcraft experiments.
1.2
1/2

1 3
γ/η

v
Γ /Γ
1
Equivalent peak swirl velocity,

Non-dimensional circulation,
0.8

0.6
0.1
Measurements (Ref. 24)
0.4
Lamb-Oseen model
Lamb-Oseen model Iversen's model
Iversen's model 0.2 New model
Tung model
0.01 0
4 6 8
1 100 10 10 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Vortex Reynolds number, Rev Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r
c
Figure 11: Variation of peak swirl velocity versus Figure 13: Ratio of circulation to circulation ar large dis-
Reynolds number for Lamb–Oseen and Iversen’s model. tance, Rev 48 000, (1) Laminar region (2) Transitional
region (3) Turbulent region.

1.2
1
/V

1.2
1
/V
θ
Non-dimensional swirl velocity, V

1 Measurements (Ref.24)
θ

1
Non-dimensional swirl velocity, V

New model
0.8 Lamb-Oseen model
Iversen's model 0.8 All results
overlap
0.6 here
0.6
0.4
0.4 Lamb-Oseen model
0.2 Iversen's model
1 2 3 New model
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0
Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
c
Figure12: Swirlvelocity distribution using new modelfor Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r
c

Rev 48 000, (1) Laminar region (2) Transitional region Figure 14: Predicted swirl velocity profiles at Rev 200.
(3) Turbulent region.
Figure 13 shows the distribution of the ratio of local
schemes, also satisfying the boundary conditions γ 0 0 circulation Γ to large radius circulation Γv versus non-
and γ ∞ 1. The resulting swirl velocity distribution dimensional radial distance. By plotting the measure-
versusnon-dimensionalradialdistance isshown in Fig. 12 ments from Ref. 24 it is evident that the new model pre-
along with the measurements obtained from Ramasamy et dicts the non-dimensional circulation distribution much
al. (Ref. 24) for Rev 48 000. This figure also includes better than the constant viscosity model (Lamb) or the
the velocity distribution obtained from the laminar Lamb– variable viscosity model (Iversen), or the multi-region
Oseen model and the completely turbulent Iversen model vortex model (Tung).
for comparison. It is apparent that the new model predicts Figures 14 through 18 show the predicted distribution
the velocity much better than either of the other two mod- of swirl velocities at four different Reynolds numbers of
els because the new model is able to demarcate the three 200 25 000 48 000 75 000 and 105 respectively. All
different regions of vortex. the figures include the swirl velocity distribution from
 1 1.2

1
1

/V
/V

Lamb-Oseen model

θ
θ

1
Non-dimensional swirl velocity, V

Non-dimensional swirl velocity, V

0.8 Iversen's model
New model
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4 Lamb-Oseen model
Iversen's model
0.2 New model
0.2

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r
c c
Figure 15: Predicted swirl velocity profiles at Rev Figure 18: Predicted swirl velocity profiles at Rev 1
25 000. 105 .
Lamb-Oseen model
1.2

1
/V
1 ReV = 200
1
/V

θ
ReV = 25 X 10 3

Non-dimensional swirl velocity, V

1
θ

Lamb-Oseen model
Non-dimensional swirl velocity, V

0.8 Iversen's model ReV = 48 X 10 3

New model 0.8 ReV = 75 X 10 3
ReV = 1 X 10 5
0.6
0.6

0.4 0.4 Increasing Re v

0.2 0.2

0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 2 4 6 8 10
Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r
Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r c
c
Figure 16: Predicted swirl velocity profiles at Rev Figure 19: Predicted swirl velocity profiles at various vor-
48 000. tex Reynolds number.

1 new model which includes flow rotation effects and sup-

1
/V

Lamb-Oseen model presses the turbulence near the vortex core axis, behaves
θ
Non-dimensional swirl velocity, V

0.8 Iversen's model like a laminar model near the core axis. As the radial dis-
New model
tance increases, it slowly transitions to the completely tur-
0.6 bulent flow model. The swirl velocity profiles obtained
from the new model for a range of vortex Reynolds num-
0.4
bersissummerized in Fig. 19. Itis apparentthattheveloc-
ity profile changes with increasing vortex Reynolds num-
0.2
ber, and becomes closer to a more fully turbulent profile
at high vortex Reynolds numbers.
The Richardson number predicted by the new model
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 along with the measurements from Ref. 24 is shown in
Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r Fig. 20. Again, this plot includes results from the Lamb–
c
Figure 17: Predicted swirl velocity profiles at Rev Oseen model and Iversen’s model for comparison. It is
75 000. apparent that the new model behaves exactly the same
way as that of the measurements by being laminar until
the laminar Lamb–Oseen model and the turbulent Iversen a particular radial distance from the center of the vortex is
model for comparison. It can be observed from Fig. 14 reached (where the Richardson number is above the strat-
that the predicted swirl velocity distribution from the new ification threshold).
model (as well as Iversen model) lie on the constant vis-
cosity results, indicating that all three models behave like Peak Swirl Velocity and Core Radius
the fully laminar model at low Reynolds numbers. As
the Reynolds number increases, however, the eddy viscos- The variation of non-dimensional peak swirl velocity
ity increases and the completely turbulent Iversen model obtained from the numerical solution of Eq. 23 versus
shows a different profile from the laminar profile. The Reynolds number is shown in Fig. 21. Values from var-
 6
10
105 Lamb-Oseen model ReV = 1x10 0 - 1x10 3
Iversen's model ReV = 1x10 4
104
Richardson number, Ri

Measurements (Ref. 24)

New model ReV = 1x10 5
Stratification line 1 ReV = 1x10 6

1
1000

Non-dimensional peak swirl velocity, V

McAlister, 2003
100 Martin & Leishman, 2000
0.8 Ramasamy & Leishman, 2003
10
Stratification Line Ri = Re 1/4
1 0.6

0.1
0.4
0.01
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Non-dimensional distance from core center, r / r 0.2
c
Figure 20: Variation of Richardson number for vari-
ous models with non-dimensional radial distance, Rev 0
0 180 360 540 720 900
48 000. Wake age, ζ (deg)
Figure 22: Variation of peak swirl velocity with wake age
Lamb-Oseen model for various vortex Reynolds numbers.
Iversen's model
New model which the peak swirl velocity reduces with wake age in-
Ramasamy & Leishman, 2003
Martin & Leishman, 2000
creases. Similarly, the vortex core size increases rapidly
Mahalingam et al., 1998 with wake age for high vortex Reynolds numbers. This
McAlister, 1996, 2003 is important because a small change in the strength or the
Bhagwat & Leishman, 1996
10 size ofthevortex can havesignificantimpacton predicting
1/2

Cook, 1972
γ/η

the unsteady airloads and propagated noise of helicopter

Equivalent peak swirl velocity,

rotors.
1
Core Growth
The ratio of apparentto actualviscosity for the new model
0.1 can be used to determine the growth rate of the vortex
core. The similarity variable η at the core radius is given
Model scale Full scale
by
0.01 rc 2
η1
1 100 104 106 108 4αnew2 γv t
Vortex Reynolds number, Re
v
i.e.,
Figure 21: Variation of peak swirl velocity with vortex
4
Reynolds number. rc 2 4γv αnew2 η1 t Rev ν αnew2 η1 t
2π
ious experiments are included in the figure. It can be ob- Rev αnew2 η1
served that the new model predicts the peak swirl velocity 4 νt (36)
2π
better than either of the Lamb–Oseen and Iversen mod-
els. Because this new model is developed based on the From the Squire model we have
Iversen model, both the new model and the completely
rc 2 4αL δνt (37)
turbulent Iversen model shows the tendency to asymptote
to a constant value at high vortex Reynolds numbers. The where αL is Lamb’s constant (αL 1 25643). By compar-
asymptotic value, however, is different in both models be- ing Eqs. 36 and 37 we get
cause ofthedifference in theway the eddy viscosity varies
Rev αnew 2 ΓvLamb
2
between these two models. It should be noticed that the
αL δ
peak swirl velocity V1 for large Reynolds number is pro- 2π V1new
portional to Γ1 1 2 t 1 2 , which is independent of Reynolds
where V1new is the peak swirl velocity obtained from the
number.
new model at a given vortex Reynolds number. This
The variation of peak swirl velocity and core radius
means that
with wake age for various vortex Reynolds numbers is
shown in Figs. 22 and 23 respectively. It can be observed Rev αnew2 ΓvLamb 2

that as the vortex Reynolds number increases the rate at δ (38)

2παL V1new
 5
10
0 3
ReV = 1X10 - 1x10

δ
ReV = 1x10 4 104 New model

Effective viscosity coefficent,

-5
ReV = 1x10 5 a1 = 6x10
ReV = 1x10 6 1000 Lamb-Oseen model
0.5 McAlister, 2003
a
/c

Martin & Leishman, 2000 1

c

100
Non-dimensional core radius, r

Ramasamy & Leishman, 2003

0.4
10
0.3
1

0.2
0.1
1 100 104 106 108
0.1 Vortex Reynolds number, Re
v
Figure 25: Variation of δ with vortex Reynolds number to
0 determine a1 .
0 180 360 540 720 900
Wake age, ζ (deg) By plotting δ from the Squire’s eddy viscosity model as
given by Eq. 9, i.e.,
Figure23: Variation ofcoreradius of thevortexwith wake
age for various vortex Reynolds number. a Γv Γv
δ 1 1 a1
2π ν ν
Lamb-Oseen model
Iversen's model
New model for various vortex Reynolds number against the δ varia-
Ramasamy & Leishman, 2003 tion predicted by the new model (as shown in Fig. 25)
Martin & Leishman, 2000
McAlister, 2003 the constant a1 (=a 2π) was determined to be 6 10 5 .
McAlister, 1996
Cook, 1972 This value lies within the range suggested by Bhagwat &
Cliffone & Orloff, 1975
Jacob et al., 1996 Leishman (Ref. 27), as shown in Fig. 26. The unique de-
Mahalingam & Komerath, 1998
Bhagwat & Leishman, 1998
termination of a1 will help rotorcraft analysts in various
Govindaraju & Saffman, 1971 applications better determine growth rate ofthe vortex in a
Jacob et al., 1995
Kraft, 1955 physically correctmanner and, therefore, predictunsteady
McCormick, Tangler & Sherrib, 1963
4 Rose & Dee, 1963
airloads and noise to a higher level of fidelity.
10 Corsiglia et al., 1973
δ

Baker et al., 1974

Effective viscosity coefficient,

Dosanjh et al., 1964

1000
100
10
1 model is developed using an intermittency function based
Model scale
0.1
4 5
1000 10 10 10
Vortex Reynolds number, Re
Figure 24: Variation of δ with vortex Reynolds number.
Aplotshowing thevariationof δ with Reynoldsnumber
for the new model along with Lamb–Oseen and Iversen
models (with rotating wing measurements) is shown in
Fig. 24. Clearly the completely turbulent Iversen model
overpredicts the core growth. Also, the laminar Lamb–
Oseen model under predicts the core growth because
molecular diffusion is the only source of momentum
transport. However, the new model predicts the core
growth betterthaneitherofthe Lamb–Oseen and Iversen’s
models. It can also be observed that at low vortex
Reynolds numbers, both the new model and the Iversen’s
model approach the laminar solution (δ 1).
Conclusions
A new generalized vortex model was developed from
the N-S equations that includes the effects of flow ro-
tation on turbulence present inside the tip vortex. The
Full scale
on the concept of local Richardson number. The func-
tion smoothly and continuously models the eddy viscos-
6 7
10 ity variation across the vortex and accounts for the effects
v of flow rotation on turbulence development. The vortex
cannot develop or sustain any turbulence until the local
Richardson number falls below a threshold value. This re-
sults in a multi-region vortex structure: an inner laminar
region, a transitional region, and an outer turbulentregion.
The new model is able to demarcate these three distinct
regions of the vortex clearly and is consistant with flow
visualization and velocity field measurements. It is shown
thatthe vortex velocity profile predicted by the new model
is initially laminar until a particular radial distance and
then slowly transitions to a turbulent vortex. The follow-
ing conclusions have been drawn from this work:
1. The swirl velocity and circulation profiles predicted
by the new model correlates well with experimental
 Laminar trend
eddy viscosity variation of the new model to develop
New model a simple model for the growth rate of the vortex core.
Corsiglia et al., 1973
Cliffone & Orloff, 1975
As a result, the value of the constant a1 that was
Rose & Dee, 1963 used in the Squire model was determined and was
McCormick, Tangler & Sherrib, 1963
Kraft, 1955
found to lie within the range suggested by Bhagwat
Jacob et al., 1996 & Leishman.
Jacob et al., 1995
Govindaraju & Saffman, 1971
Bhagwat & Leishman, 1998
Mahalingam & Komerath, 1998
Cook, 1972
Acknowledgments
McAlister, 1996
0.01 Baker et al.,1974 This research was supported, in part, by the National Ro-
Dosanjh et al., 1964
Martin & Leishman, 2000 torcraft Technology Center under Grant NCC 2944. The
Ramasamy & Leishman, 2003 authorswishtothank Mr.Karthikeyan Duraiswamyfor his
valuable suggestions in this work.
0.001

Range suggested by Bhagwat

References
1
Coefficient, a

0.0001 & Leishman, 2002

New model
10-5
Model scale
10
-6
4 5 6 7
1000 10 10 10
Vortex Reynolds number, Rev
Figure 26: Effective viscosity parameter, a1 , as a function
of vortex Reynolds number.
measurements, and much better than existing mod-
els.
2. The Reynolds number dependency of the model
helps understand trends shown in measurements that
are made both at sub-scale models and at full-scale.
The swirl velocity and circulation profiles obtained
from the new model changes with an increase in vor-
tex Reynolds number. It is shown that the model re-
duces to a constant viscosity laminar Lamb model at
very low Reynolds number.
3. It was found that the increase in vortex Reynolds
number corresponds to an increase in turbulence
present inside the vortex, and would result in an in-
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4. The new model also predicts that at large Reynolds
numbers, the peak swirl velocity V1 is proportional
to Γ1 1 2 t 1 2 and is independent of Reynolds number.
This is consistent with Iversen’s model and also with
the various measurements that are available.
5. An equivalent average eddy viscosity distribution
suggested by Squire was matched with the assumed
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Appendix
The following are the sequence of steps in deriving the
circulation distribution given in Eq. 23
Step - 1 Step - 3
To get ∂γ ∂t in terms of η we have Let νT κ2 r2 σ based on the assumed value of eddy vis-
cosity. Consequently the RHS of Eq. 22 becomes
∂γ ∂γ ∂η
(A1)
∂t ∂η ∂t ∂ ∂ γ
RHS r κ2 r 2 σ r
∂r ∂r r 2
Upon differentiating Eq. 21 with respect to t we get
∂ γ
2 κ2 r 2 σ r (A11)
∂η r2 1 η ∂r r 2
(A2)
∂t 4γv t2 t
Because the shear stress inside a one dimensional axisym-
Substituting Eq. A2 into Eq. A1 gives metric vortex is given by

∂γ ∂γ η ∂Vθ Vθ ∂ γ
(A3) σ r (A12)
∂t ∂η t ∂r r ∂r r2

Eq. A11 can be rewritten in terms of shear stress as

Step - 2
∂ 2 ∂
Substitute νT ν in the RHS of Eq. 22 to get RHS r2 σ σr κ κ2 r σσ 4κ2 σ σ (A13)
∂r ∂r
∂ ∂ γ ∂ γ
RHS r νr 2ν r (A4) A similarity transformation of the above expression re-
∂r ∂r r2 ∂r r2
quires the transformation of σ and its firstderivative. Sim-
The above equation can be written as plifying Eq. A12 results in

∂ ν ∂γ 2γ 2ν ∂γ 2γ 1 ∂γ 2γ 2
RHS r σ X (A14)
∂r r ∂r r r ∂r r r ∂r r2 r2
∂γ
using the relation from Eq. 17. Further simplification re- where X η ∂η γ. Substituting Eq. A14 into Eq. A13
sults in gives
∂2 γ 1 ∂γ
RHS ν (A5) 4 ∂ ∂ 4
∂r2 r ∂r RHS X X r κ2 κ2 r 3 XX
r2 ∂r ∂r r4
To write Eq. A5 in terms of η, we need both ∂γ ∂r and 4
∂2 γ ∂r2 . The first derivative of γ can be obtained using 4κ2 2 X X (A15)
r
∂γ ∂γ ∂η Expanding the middle term in the above expression and
(A6)
∂r ∂η ∂r canceling like terms results in
Differentiating again results in 4 ∂ 4κ2 ∂
RHS X Xr κ2 XX (A16)
r2 ∂r r ∂r
∂2 γ ∂η 2
∂2 γ ∂2 η ∂γ
(A7) Part1 Part2
∂r 2 ∂r ∂η2 ∂r2 ∂η
Notice that the above expression has two parts. A con-
The first and second derivatives of η with respect to r can stant value of κ will eliminate the first term and result in
be obtained by differentiating Eq. 21 with respectto r, i.e.,
a solution for an Iversen type of eddy viscosity variation.
∂η 2r 2η This would mean that the first term in the above expres-
(A8) sion is the additional term in the new model as a result
∂r 4γv t r
of having κ as the variable rather than a constant as as-
and sumed by Iversen. Equation A16 can be written in terms
∂2 η ∂ 2η 2η of similarity variable η as
(A9)
∂r2 ∂r r r2
2X X ∂ 2 4κ2 η ∂2 γ
Upon substituting the derivatives of η into Eqs. A6 and RHS κ X (A17)
γv t ∂η γv t ∂η2
A7, the resulting first and second derivatives of γ are in
turn applied in Eq. A5 to get
Step - 4
η ∂2 γ
RHS ν (A10) The next step is to combine all the previous three steps to
γv t ∂η2 get the circulation distribution in terms of the similarity
variable η. To get this circulation equation, we combine
Eqs. A3, A10 and A17, which results in

∂γ η η ∂2 γ 4κ2 η ∂2 γ
ν X
∂η t γv t ∂η2 γv t ∂η2
2 X Xη 1 ∂ 2
κ (A18)
γv t η ∂η

Letting γ γ γv and cancelling like terms, the above ex-

pression becomes

∂γ ν ∂2 γ 2X X ∂ 2
4 κ2 X κ (A19)
∂η γv ∂η2 η ∂η

where X is X γv . Let η ηα2I , where the value of αI

is obtained from experimental measurements, the above
equation takes the form

1 ∂γ 1 ν ∂2 γ
4κ2 X
α2I ∂η α4I γv ∂η2
1 2X X ∂ 2
κ (A20)
α4I η ∂η

∂γ
Here, it should be noted that X is given by η ∂η γ .
Further simplification results in

∂γ ν 1 4 κ2 X ∂2 γ 1 2 X X ∂κ2
(A21)
∂η γv α2I α2I ∂η2 α2I η ∂η

which is the required result.