ME2143/ME2143E Sensors and Transducers

Chui Chee Kong, PhD Mechanical Engineering NUS

1. Introduction 1.1 Sensor Classification 1.2 Transducer 1.3 Resistive Sensors 1.4 Potentiometer 2. Temperature-Sensing Devices 2.1 Resistive Temperature Detector (RTD) 2.2 Thermistors 2.3 Radiative Temperature Sensing 2.4 Thermocouples 3. Strain Gauges 3.1 Gauge Factor 3.2 Bridge Circuit Arrangement 3.3 Possible Arrangement of Strain Gauges 4. Electromagnetic Flow Meter 5. Signal Conditioning 5.1 Wheatstone Bridge - Measurement of Resistance 6. Smart Sensors 7. Selection of Sensors

Reference: Mechatronics System Design by D Shetty and R. A. Kolk. PWS Publishing Company. 1997

1. Introduction
Sensors transform real-world data into electrical signals. It provides a mechanism for collecting different information about a particular process. Definition. A sensor is defined as a device that produces an output signal for the purpose of sensing of a physical phenomenon. Sensors are also referred to as transducers. A transducer is a device that converts a signal from one physical form to a corresponding signal that has a different physical form. In a transducer, the quantities at the input level and the output level are different. Typical input signal could be electrical, mechanical, thermal or optical. The extent to which sensors and transducers are used is dependent upon the level of automation and the complexity of the control system.

1.1 Sensor Classification

Selection of a suitable sensor is important in the design of a mechatronic system. In addition to the objective of measurement, application, precision and environment of usage, we also need to consider subject of the measurement, dynamic range, cost, delivery time and ease of maintenance. Comparison with other sensors is usually required to justify the use of a specific sensor for an application. Sensors can be classified into two categories: Analog sensors and Digital sensors. Analog is a term used to convey the meaning of a continuous, uninterrupted, unbroken series of events. Analog sensor is also known as continuous sensor. Continuous sensors provide information over continuous range of operation of the process. They are commonly used in continuous control applications, where the process is being regulated based on continuously sensed attribute data. They are usually based on electrical, optical and acoustical technologies. Digital refers to a sequence of discrete events. Each event is a separate from the previous and the next event. Digital sensors are also known as discrete event, or on/off sensors. These sensors typically only give knowledge of two states based on the condition being sensed. They are usually based on mechanical, electrical or optical technology. Another form of classification: Active sensors and Passive sensors, is based on power supply. In an active sensor, most of the output is produced from a separate power source. In a passive sensor, the output is produced from the input parameters. Passive sensors are also known as self-generating sensors. They produce an electrical signal in response to an external stimulus. Sensors have also been classified based on the subject of measurement. These subjects include acoustic, biological, chemical, electric, magnetic, mechanical, optical, radiation, thermal and other. There are many sensing types including capacitive, electromagnetic, inductive, magnetostrictive, photoconductive, photovoltaic, piezoelectric, potentiometric, reluctive, resistive, strain gage and thermoelectric. Electromagnetic, magnetostrictive, photovoltaic, piezoelectric, and thermoelectric sensing methods are often used in passive sensors. They do not require external power supply since they could draw their energy from the process they are measuring. Examples are thermocouples, solar panels, and tachometers.

1.2 Transducer
A transducer is an element or device used to convert information from one form to another. A spring is an example of a transducer. When a certain force is applied to a spring, it stretches, and the force information is translated to displacement information. Different quantities of force produce differential movements that are a measure of the force. The displacement y is proportional to force F, which can be expressed as F=ky where F= applied force, y=deflection and k=constant. For converting temperature information into an electromotive force, a thermocouple is used as a transducer. Motion transducers are used for the measurement of mechanical quantities including force, pressure, displacement, flow rate and temperature. A transducer may measure one phenomenon in order to measure another variable. The primary transducer senses the preliminary data and converts them into another form, which is then converted into some usable form by a secondary transducer. It is common to have combination of transducer elements in a measurement system. A potentiometer is a displacement transducer that uses the variable resistance transduction principle, i.e. the principle of change in resistance of a material in the sensor.

1.3 Resistive Sensors

A resistive sensor is a transducer or electromechanical device that converts a mechanical change such as displacement into an electrical signal that can be monitored after conditioning. Definition. Resistive sensor is a sensor based on changes of electric resistance of an element due to the change of the particular quantity to be measured in according to the theory of resistivity. The simplest resistive sensor is the potentiometer which is based upon physical length. Other resistive sensors include resistive temperature detectors (RTDs) and thermistors which are based upon change in temperature. The strain gages based upon strain is another example of resistive sensor. Resistive sensors are often combined with Wheatstone bridges. Examples of Potentiometer

Examples of RTDs

1.4 Potentiometer
Definition. A potentiometer is a transducer in which a rotation or displacement is converted into a potential difference. A potentiometer can be manufactured with a rotary or linear potentiometer. As shown in the figure below, the displacement of the wiper of a potentiometer causes the output potential difference obtained between one end of the resistance and the slider. This device converts linear or angular motion into changing resistance, which may be converted directly to a voltage or current signal. The position of the slider along the resistance element determines the magnitude of the electrical potential. The voltage across the wiper of the linear potentiometer is proportional to the displacement. Voltage across the wiper of the linear potentiometer is measured in terms of the displacement, d, and is given by the relationship: V=E (d/L). E is the voltage across the potentiometer and L is the full scale displacement of the potentiometer. Note that the resistance of the potentiometer is not included in the equation.

2. Temperature-Sensing Devices
Temperature is an important engineering variable. Its measurement has been based on change in various material properties including electrical resistance, contact voltage between two dissimilar metals, and changes in radiated energy.

2.1 Resistive Temperature Detector (RTD)

Resistance temperature detectors, RTDs, are used to measure temperatures ranging from very cold to approximately 600 degree C. These transducers are sensitive, stable and do not need special circuitry. They are manufactured using materials such as Platinum, Cu, Ni, and tungsten, which all have high positive temperature coefficients of resistance. Platinum is the most common metal used with very high stability and wide operating range between -220 degree C to 750 degree C. A RTD is a length of wire whose resistance is a function of temperature. It is temperature detector that depends on the variation in resistance of metal. The design consists of a wire that is wound in the shape of a coil to achieve small size and improve thermal conductivity. In many cases, the coil is protected from the environment by a protecting tube. This enclosure inevitably increases response time, but it is essential when RTDs are used in hostile environment. Resistance relationships of most metals over a wide range of temperature are given by quadratic equations. A quadratic approximation to the R-T curve is a more accurate representation of the resistance variation over a span of temperatures. It includes both a linear term and a term that varies as the square of the temperature: R = R0 ( 1 + a (T T0) + (T T0)2 + ) where R0 is the resistance at absolute temperature T0, and a and are material constants that depend on the purity of the material used. T0 is the reference temperature. Over a small temperature range of 0 to 100 degree C, the linear relationship is RT = R0 ( 1 + a (T T0)), where a is the temperature coefficient of resistivity. Typical values of a for three materials are Cu = 0.0043 per degree C, Pt = 0.0039 per degree C and Ni = 0.0068 per degree C.

The disadvantages of RTD include (1) the typically relatively large and hence not suitable in small volume enclosures, (2) somewhat slow response, and (3) expensive. The advantages are: (1) very high sensitivity (10 times that of thermocouples), (2) high repeatability and accuracy (especially for platinum). RTD made of platinum is often used as temperature standards because of its stability and accuracy (0.005 degree C). 100O platinum probe (Pt100) is one of the most common sensors.

2.2 Thermistors
A thermistor is a temperature transducer whose operation relies on the principle of change in semiconductor resistance with change in temperature. Its name came from thermally sensitive resistor. The particular semiconductor materials used in a thermistor vary widely to accommodate temperate range, sensitivity, resistance ranges and other factors. The characteristics are dependent on the behavior of semiconductor resistance versus temperature. An in increase in temperature will decrease electrical resistance by improving conductance of a semiconductor. The semiconductor becomes a better conductor of current as its temperature is increased. This behavior is opposite that of a metal. Note that the change in semiconductor resistance is highly nonlinear. Individual thermistor curves are approximated by the nonlinear equation: 1/T = A + B ln R + C (ln R)3. T is the temperature in kelvins; R is the resistance of thermistor and A, B, C are curve-fitting constants. The temperature range measured with a typical thermistor is between --250 degree C and 650 degree C. Since the thermistor is a bulk semiconductor, it can be fabricated in many forms, and can be made to be as small as a bead with about 0.1 mm in diameter. The multiple forms enable it to be used for different applications. The high sensitivity of the thermistor is one of its significant advantages. The high sensitivity is due to its large change in resistance - changes in resistance of 10% per degree C are not uncommon. Since a thermistor exhibits a large change in resistance with respect to temperature, there are many possible circuits that can be used for their measurement. A bridge circuit with null detection is most frequently used. The response time of a thermistor depends primarily on the quality and quantity of the material present. It can be used in hostile environment with shocks and vibrations. Compared to RTD, thermistor is less accurate and less stable. The highly nonlinear response of the material can be a disadvantage. The self heating effect also limits the precision of measurement.

2.3 Radiative Temperature Sensing

Bodies at any temperature emit radiation and absorb radiation from other bodies. A body at a temperature greater than 0 K radiate electromagnetic energy in an amount that depends on its temperature and physical properties. A sensor for thermal radiation typically does not make contact with the surface to be measured. The radiation emitted by an object is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature: W = s T4 where W is the flux of energy radiated from an ideal surface and s is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. Commerical radiation thermometers, or radiometers, vary in their complexity and accuracy.

2.4 Thermocouples
Thermocouples are temperature sensors based on contact voltage between different metals. When two conductors of dissimilar materials are joined to form a circuit, the following effect is observed: Seebeck effect: When the two junctions are at different temperatures, q1 and q2, small emfs, e1 and e2, are produced at the junctions, and the algebraic sum of these causes a current. Peltier effect: When two dissimilar conductors that are joined together have a current passed through them, the temperature at the junction changes as heat is absorbed or generated. The Peltier effect is the inverse of the Seebeck effect. Another effect, Thomson effect, predicts that in addition to the Peltier emf, another emf occurs in each material of a thermocouple as a result of the longitudinal temperature gradient between its ends when it forms part of a conductor. When a thermocouple is used to measure an unknown temperature, the temperature of the thermo-junction, called the reference junction, must be known and maintained at constant temperature. Following figure shows a typical thermocouple circuit using a chromel constantan thermocouple, a reference junction, and a potentiometric circuit to monitor the output voltage. Calibration of the thermocouple is performed by knowing the relationship between the output emf and the temperature of the measuring junction.

The resultant emf of a particular transducer may be increased by multiplying the number of hot and reference junctions. If there are three measuring junctions, then the emf is enhanced appropriately. If the thermocouples in this arrangement are at different temperatures, then the resultant emf is a measure of the mean value.

3. Strain Gauges
Different situation in an automated manufacturing environment has different sensing requirements. Assembly tasks and automated handling tasks require controlled operations such as grasping, turning, inserting, aligning, orienting and screwing. The object may have to be moved through space avoiding obstacles. Electrical resistance strain gauges are widely used to measure strains due to force or torque. When a force is applied to a structure, it undergoes deformation. The gauge, which is bonded to the structure, is deformed by strain. The electrical resistance changes accordingly in a nearly linear fashion. Earlier strain gauges were manufactured from metal filaments. Current strain gauges are manufactured from constantan foil, a copper-nickel alloy, or single crystal semiconductor materials. There are two types of strain gauges: unbonded and bonded. Unbonded Strain Gauges In an unbonded strain gauge, a resistance wire is stressed between two frames. The first frame is called the fixed frame, and the second frame the moving frame. The wires are connected such that the input motion of one frame stretches one set of wires and compresses another set of wires. For a particular stress input, the winding experiences wither an increase or decrease in stress, resulting in a change in resistance. The output is connected to a wheatstone bridge for measurement. The measurement of motions can be as small as a few microns. Bonded Strain Gauges The bonded strain gauges have a backing material that aids the bonding process to a surface used to measure strain. The gauges are made of metallic or semiconductor materials in the form of a wire gauge or thin metal foil. When the gauges are bonded to the surface, they undergo the same strain as the member surface. The coefficient of thermal expansion of the backing material should match that of the wire. It is usually made part of a wheatstone bridge so that the change in resistance due to strain can be either measured or used to produce an output that can be recorded or displayed. The bonded strain gauge can be used to measure strain as low as a fraction of a micron.

A bonded strain gauge made of nichrome (Ni: 80%, Cr: 20%) which has a strain gauge factor = 2.5, resistance = 100 ohms, and temperature coefficient of resistivity per degree C = 0.1 x 10^-3^ is suitable for applications with temperature less than 1200 degree C. For high temperature application, a bonded strain gauge made of platinum (gauge factor = 4.8, resistance = 50 ohms, temperature coefficient of resistivity per degree C = 4 x 10^-3^) could be used. For large strain measurement, a bonded strain gauge made of silicon (gauge factor = 100 to +150, resistance = 200 ohms, temperature coefficient of resistivity per degree C = 90,000) could be used. A strain gauge should have the following desired properties for precise measurement: 1. A high gauge factor, which increases its sensitivity and causes a large change in resistance for a particular strain. 2. High resistance of the strain gauge, which minimizes the effect of resistance variation in the signal processing circuitry. The gauge characteristics should be chosen such that the variation in resistance is a linear function of strain. 3. Low temperature coefficient and absence of the hysteresis effect.

3.1 Gauge Factor

Gauge Factor, also referred to as strain gauge factor or sensitivity factor, is typically associated with strain gauge. This value is usually provided by the manufacturer of the strain gauge. Definition. Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of unit change in resistance to unit change in length. Suppose that a specimen is subjected to tension, causing an increase in length, its longitudinal dimension will increase and its lateral dimension will decrease. If a resistance gauge made of this conducting material is subjected to a positive strain, its length increases while its cross sectional area decreases. Since the resistance of the conductor depends on its length, cross sectional area, and specific resistivity, the change in strain is due to the change in dimension or specific resistivity. For a circular wire of length L, cross sectional area A, and diameter D, the resistance of the wire before straining is Equation (1): The wire is subjected to tension that causes the strain. Tension increases length and reduces the diameter, which in turn reduces the cross sectional area. Let the stress applied to the strain gauge be s in N/m2, L = change in length of wire, A = change in area of cross section, D = change in diameter, = resistivity, = Poissons ratio, and Strain, e = L/L.

In order to find how R depends on the material physical quantities, Equation (1) is differentiated with respect to applied stress s: Equation (2): Dividing Equation (2) throughout by Equation (1) yields Equation (3): The change in resistance is due to the unit change in length and the unit change in area. Since A=pD2/4, we have

Equation (4):

Equation (5): Equation (5) can be written as

Equation (6): Poisson ratio is defined as:

Equation (7): Equation (8): And for small variations, this relationship can be written as

Equation (9):

The gauge factor, Gf, is defined as the ratio of unit change in resistance to unit change in length.

Equation (10): Guage factor can also be expressed as:

Equation (11): The change in resistivity occurs because of the piezoresistive effect, which is explained as an electrical resistance change that occurs when the material is mechanically deformed. In some cases the effect is a source of error. If the change in resistivity or piezoresistive effect of the material is neglected, the gauge factor becomes Gf = 1 + 2. The gauge factor gives an idea of the strain sensitivity of the gauge in terms of the change in resistance per unit strain. The gauge factor for metal can vary from 2 to 6, and for semiconductor, it can vary from 40 to 200.

3.2 Bridge Circuit Arrangement

The Wheatstone bridge circuit is the device used to measure the small change in resistance that results in most strain gauge applications. The change in resistance can be either measured or provided as an output to be displayed or further processed by a computer. Following figure shows an arrangement of a bridge circuit.

In the balanced bridge arrangement, strain gauge resistance, R1, forms one arm (or leg) of the Wheatstone bridge, and the remaining arms have resistances R2, R3, and R4. Between the points A and C of the bridge there is a power supply; between points B and D there is a precision galvanometer. For zero current to flow through the galvanometer, the points B and D must be at the same potential. The bridge is excited by the DC source with voltage V, and Rg is the resistance in the galvanometer.

The condition of balance is R1/R4 = R2/R3. If R1 changes due to strain, the bridge, which is initially in balanced condition, becomes unbalanced. This may be balanced by changing R4 (or R2). This change can be measured and used to indicate the change in R1, and hence, the strain.

Calculating the Offset (or output voltage) With reference to the following figure, G is used to compare potentials of points B and D. The potential difference between points B and D is V = VD - VB. If all the resistance values (R1, R2, R3 and R4) in the bridge circuit are the same, then the voltage is the same at points B and D, ?V will be zero, and the bridge is balanced.

Let us consider R1 as the strain gauge. If R1 is strained, its resistance value changes, and the bridge becomes unbalanced, causing a nonzero V. The bridge can be brought back to a balanced condition if any other resistance value is adjusted. The adjusted value of the any resister necessary to force V to zero will be equal to the strained value of the strain gauge. The currents flowing through the bridge arms are computed as follows: Current through ABC, I1 = V/(R1 + R4) Current through ADC, I2 = V/(R2 + R3) The voltage drop across R3 is I2R3, and the voltage drop across R4 is I1R4. The voltage offset is given by V=VD VB = R3V/(R2+R3) R4V/(R1 + R4).

3.3 Possible Arrangement of Strain Gauges

There can be many different bridge circuit arrangements of the strain gauges. When more than one arm of the bridge circuit contains strain transducers and the resistances of these transducers changes, the bridge output is due to the combined effect of these changes. More than one strain gauge, if suitably arranged, can lead to a higher signal environment factor and a larger change in output voltage for a given strain. In many experimental situations, there are areas of tension and compression in the same object with strain similar but with opposite sign. In such situations care must be taken in arranging strain gauges in such a way that the adjacent arms of the bridge have strains of opposite nature. In Figure A, R1 measures changes due to axial tensile strain.

Figure A. Possible arrangement of strain gauge to measure P

In Figure B, strain gauge R1 is bonded to the elastic member to measure axial tensile strain. R1 changes because of axial tensile strain. R2 measures changes due to transverse compressive strain.

Figure B. Possible arrangement of strain gauge to measure P

In Figure C, both R1 and R3 are subjected to axial tensile strain of same amount, and R1 and R3 form opposite arms of the bridge. This causes a signal enhancement factor of 2.

Figure C. Possible arrangement of gauges to measure tension

In Figure D, R1 has tensile strain and R2 has compressive strain; R3 has tensile strain and R4 has compressive strain. Strain gauges R1, R2, R3 and R4 are bonded at the root of the cantilevers, where the bending stresses are at maximum.

Figure D. Cantilever deflection measurement

In Figure E, four active gauges are used with R2 and R4 arranged at right angles to R1 and R3 to produce a signal enhancement factor of 2(1 + v), where v denotes Poissons ratio.

Figure E. Alternative arrangements

In Figure F, the strain gauges are arranged in such a way that R1 and R3 measure axial strains whereas R2 and R4 measure the circumferential strains, which have strain of the opposite nature.

Figure F. Hollow cylinder, axial loading

4. Electromagnetic Flow Meter

The operating principle of electromagnetic flow meter is based on the voltage that is generated in an electrically conducting fluid as it moves through a magnetic field. This method is useful for measuring flow of conducting liquids that may have abrasive materials and are not suited for other measurement methods. It cannot be used for electrically nonconducting fluids like gases but produces satisfactory results for lowconductivity fluids like water. For monitoring corrosive fluids, solidcontaminated liquids, paper pulp, detergents, cement slurries and greasy liquids, the electromagnetic flow meters could be used. In electromagnetic flow sensing, a pair of electrodes is inserted on the opposite sides of a non-conducting and non-magnetic pipe that carries the liquid. The pipe is surrounded by an electromagnet, which produces the magnetic field. The voltage is induced across the electrodes. The magnitude of emf is proportional to the rate at which the fleld lines are cut. With a constant magnetic field, the magnitude of voltage across the electrodes is proportional to the velocity. The induced voltage, e, is given by the Faradays Law: e = Blv, where B is the magnetic flux density, l is the length of the conductor which is the pipe diameter and v is the velocity of the conductor.

5. Signal Conditioning
The output signal from sensor of a measurement system has generally been processed in some way to make it suitable for next stage of the operation. Signal conditioning can involve protection to prevent damage to the next element in a system, getting a signal into the form, getting the level of a signal right, reducing noise, manipulating a signal to perhaps make it linear. Commonly used signal conditioning elements are operational amplifiers which are high-gain DC amplifiers with gains of the order of 100 000 or more. Protection against perhaps a high voltage or current can involve the use of resistors and fuses, Zener diodes can be used to protect against wrong polarity and high voltages. Filters can be used to remove a particular band of frequencies from a signal and permit others to be transmitted. The Wheatstone bridge can be used to convert an electrical resistance change to a voltage change. Wheatstone bridge is an efficient method for measurement of resistance.

5.1 Wheatstone Bridge Measurement of Resistance

About 1843, Sir Charles Wheatstone designed a circuit called a bridge circuit which is an accurate method for measuring resistance. In the figure below, X is the unknown resistance, and P, Q, R are resistors. Suppose that R is adjusted until the galvanometer G between A and C shows no deflection balance condition. In this case the current Ig in G is zero.

At balance, since no current flows through the galvanometer, the points A and C must be at the same potential. Therefore, VAB = VCB and VAD = VCD, So VAB/VAD = VCB/VCD. Since Ig = 0, P and R carry the same current, I1, and X and Q carry the same current I2, therefore VAB/VAD = I1P/I1R = P/R and VCB/VCD = I2Q/I2X = Q/X. Hence, P/R = Q/X. So X = (Q/P)R.

The significance of Wheatstone bridge or bridge circuit is its ability to indirectly measure physical phenomenon such force, pressure, temperature etc., by measuring the unknown resistance. It has been widely used for signal conditioning in strain gauge which is an example of resistive sensors. Following figure illustrates a typical configuration of bridge circuit for temperature readings in terms of voltage. In this configuration, a thermistor has been installed as one leg (or arm) of a bridge circuit. A thermistor is a semiconductor device whose resistance changes with temperature. When a constant voltage is applied to the circuit, the heat source causes the thermistor resistance to change, creating a potential difference between points A and C proportional to temperature. This potential difference is known as offset voltage or output voltage.

6. Smart Sensors
A sensor can combine with its signal conditioning, for example Wheatstone bridge, in one package. However, this integrated sensor still requires further data processing. It is possible to have the sensor and signal conditioning combined with a microprocessor in the same package. This arrangement is termed a smart sensor. A smart sensor is able to have intelligent functions including the ability to compensate for random errors, to adapt to change in the environment, self-calibration and self-diagnosis of faults. IEEE 1451 is the standard for smart sensors. A sensor conforms to this standard can be used in a plug-and-play manner, holding and communicating data in a standard way.

7. Selection of Sensors
There are a number of factors to be considered in selecting a sensor for a particular application: 1. The nature of the measurement required, for example, the variable to be measured, its nominal value, the range of its values, the accuracy required, the required speed of measurement, the reliability required, environmental conditions under which the measurement is to be made. 2. The nature of the output required from the sensor. This determines the signal conditioning requirements in order to give suitable output signals from the measurement. 3. Identify and then Compare the various possible sensors taking into account factors such as the sensing range, accuracy, speed of response, reliability, maintainability, life, power supply requirement, ruggedness, availability and cost. The non-engineering factors - availability and cost, are very important considerations in practice. Reference: Mechatronics (4th Edition) by W Bolton, Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008.