The Evolution of Marriage

Molly Rome 7/23/2011

Introduction

In Western Society, the traditional definition of a family has included a husband, wife and children. Other cultures around the world might have a different way of defining what a family is, but sociologists agree as Henslin points out family is so significant to humanity that every human group in the world organizes its members in families. (Henslin, 330). The issues related to marriage that are addressed and discussed in this paper reflect many changes that have occurred in the United States in the past 60 years. While the traditional American family is still considered to be two married parents and one or more children, the information shared will reveal a departure from conventional practice, what could be called the evolution of marriage. All societies involve some level of patriarchy, a structure in society based on men having more control than women. Not so long ago, this was the case in the United States. However, as numerous types of change develop and continue to permeate society, a more egalitarian framework is taking shape. The reason for this change in authority in American society is in part due to the evolution of marriage that has taken place over the past six decades. While the belief that family is universal still exists, one may begin to question if marriage is necessary to fulfill what functionalists claim are the six needs that are basic to survival of every society. These include (1) economic production, (2) socialization of children, (3) care of the sick and aged, (4) recreation, (5) sexual control and (6) reproduction. (Henslin). While family may still be the key ingredient to carrying out these functions, it is clear that marriage may not be as essential as it once was in the creation of a family. The key issues presented and analyzed

2 on the pages that follow will illustrate the many shifts regarding marriage that have taken place in the United States in the past 60 years. Among the issues discussed in this paper are the rise in cohabitation among couples, the rising age of first time marriages, the rise in feminism which has contributed to women becoming more educated and financially independent, the introduction of birth control, the rise in out of wedlock births and the decrease in social stigma attached to it, the shift in the division of responsibilities in the home, the change in attitudes toward divorce making it more acceptable in todays society, and the introduction of same-sex marriages.

Presentation and Analysis of Key Issues

A changing aspect of society today which contributes to the change of marriage deals with womens views on the necessity of marriage. In the past one of the most important reasons women married was to be financially supported. As things have changed today with many women supporting themselves, women no longer need to be married to survive financially. New social norms have appeared like cohabitation and even life-long single-hood. There are numerous reasons for these changes in chosen living arrangements or chosen singleness. Some women or men may be self absorbed, or perhaps using a nicer phrase, dont want to give up their independence. They dont want to make the sacrifices and compromises that go hand in hand with marriage. Others might be career obsessed and know that they cant make the time to fully develop a relationship. Another possible reason is that adults may fear the big C word: Commitment. Some people say that living together is like having your cake and eating it too. If it works out great, maybe youll get married in a few years. If it doesnt work out you can just pack up and leave, with no messy divorces and no worrying about which person has a legal right to which assets. It is understandable why some women are hesitant to marry early, because of their fear of divorce. As a result many people live together (sometimes for several years) and then decide to marry. The U.S. Census Bureau reports that the number of unmarried partner households rose from 5 million to 6 million, between years 2000 and 2006 (qtd in Debarros and Jayson). Along with that, about 70% of married couples have lived together first, according to Pamela Smock a

4 family demographer at the University of Michigan (qtd in Debarros and Jayson). With rises in cohabitation, another point to consider is that children are often born out of wedlock. More children now than ever before have been born to unmarried parents, with the percentage of children born to single mothers at 41 percent. (Wilcox and Wolfinger, 6). A few decades ago children born out of wedlock were an uncommon occurrence and the situation was heavily stigmatized in the past. Single parents and cohabitation have become much more accepted as new, diverse, family lifestyles are common in todays society. One reason that adults to want to live together first, is that Couples want firsthand experience with how their partner will behave in an intimate relationship. In addition, Many are conscious that as gender roles erode, marriage demands more negotiation and relationship skills than in the past. (Coontz, Is Marriage Becoming Obsolete?). Andrew Cherlins, a sociologist at Johns Hopkins University says that These livingtogether relationships are compensating for some of the postponement of marriage. (qtd in Debarros and Jayson). The number of people getting married has fallen for the last twenty five years and is at its lowest point in history (Stevenson and Wolfers). For those who do choose marriage over being single, waiting to make the commitment has developed into a trend in the United States. When my grandmother graduated high school it was socially acceptable and literally expected that she, as well as all girls in her generation, would be married by her early twenties or she would end up to be a lonely, old maid. According to a Newsweek article covering marriage trends, One psychiatrist wrote in 1953 that A girl who hasnt a man in sight by the time she is twenty, is not altogether wrong in fearing that she may never get married. Women made sure to set their sights on a potential husband early. (qtd

5 in Coontz, Three Rules That Dont Apply). In the United States, in the 1950s, the average woman was married at the age of twenty. Today things are drastically different. Many women are waiting to marry, with an average age at first marriage of twenty six (U.S. Census Bureau, Age at First Marriage) and sixty percent of women, ages twenty to twenty nine, have never been married (Debarros and Jayson). One societal change that has contributed to the delay in women getting married and has impacted traditional marriage in the United States, has been the rise in feminism since the 1960s. Feminists have criticized traditional gender roles in marriage for ages. The rise in feminism in the 1960s has discouraged these traditional societal gender roles; women being the weaker sex, and men being the dominant sex. Now women are considered to be equal to men. Women no longer are solely housewives or homemakers. They have the independence and ability to receive secondary education, and careers. Many women see themselves as more than just wives and mothers, but also as intelligent, ambitious and goal oriented career women. According to a Newsweek article The breakdown of the rigid, cookie-cutter life course of the 1950s created more variation when people left home, went to work and got married, so there was a wider range of dispersal from the average (Coontz, Three Rules That Dont Apply). A result of this departure from the 1950s Leave it to Beaver way of life means that women are now able to go out and experience many things before they decide to marry. They are able to receive an education, live on their own, and support themselves. More importantly they are exposed to a variety of viewpoints and experiences that shape how they feel about marriage. In the past men were counted on as being the sole bread-winners for families and

6 often chose their spouse based on appearance, homemaking skills or reputation. Now as women are equal counterparts, and are almost equally represented in the work field, men tend to base their proposals on love. The report The Future of Marriage in America, states that Until recent times marriages had little to do with romantic love, sexual passion, or even close friendship; they were functional partnerships in the intense struggle of life. The article explains that a marriages successfulness rests almost completely on how well couples get along with each other, both intimately and for the long haul. (Popenoe, 12). The 1960s were significant not only for the rise in feminism. The decade was also known for the invention that defined the 20th century which has definitely played a role in many womens decision to postpone marriage. This invention is known as birth control, which was first introduced and FDA approved in the pill form, in 1960. With its widespread availability, birth control creates a sexual freedom for women similar to that of men. For some women sex no longer has to be thought of as a reward for marriage. Living together arrangements and premarital sex have become more accepted social norms to many. With birth control availability, fewer young couples are forced into marriage because of an unplanned pregnancy. Birth control has allowed women to attain their educational and career goals along with fulfilling romantic relationships, without having to stop, get married, and raise a family first, as result of an accidental pregnancy. Betsey Stevenson, a professor at the University of Pennsylvania, states It [Birth Control] gives women more control over their career paths. An unplanned pregnancy was once really disruptive. But the business of birth control has affected what women are doing

7 and their incentive to be in the labor market" (Stevenson and Wolfers). Birth control has definitely given women the ability to put off marriage, and start a family, until the time is right. Another result of the rise in feminism is the fact that more women are receiving a college education than in the past. While this contributes to the fact that women are delaying marriage longer than ever before, it also contributes to the new roles that women and men are taking on within marriage. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, college attendance of women has doubled since the 1960s, and women now make up 57% of all college students (qtd in Zaslow). This indicates that many women have decided getting a college education is more important than ever before, and that it is socially acceptable for women to wait until they have completed an education to settle down and get married. The average age of women with a B.A. when first married is twenty seven years of age and for those with a masters or professional degree it is thirty (Coontz, Three 'Rules' That Don't Apply). In contrast to old beliefs that women who are highly educated are less likely to find husbands, new research shows that they are actually more likely to find husbands (Zaslow). According to John Myles an author for the Canadian Journal of Sociology, In Canada and the United States, the correlation between husbands and wives earnings has been rising, reflecting the fact that well educated men and women tend to marry one another and form families with higher earnings. (How and Myles, 338). This means that on average, men are more apt to marry women with similar if not equal wages. An interesting and surprising social change has occurred as well, which is that many women have no problem marrying men who are less educated. Myles states that This can be observed by the changes of the absolute rates of

8 educational attainment in marriages. For example, on average husbands were better educated than their wives in 1970. However as more women have attained a college education, the tables have turned. In 2000, women were reported to be more highly educated than their husbands (356).

Another change in the institute of marriage that has surfaced along with other trends is that marriage is no longer viewed in economical and practical terms. As women have gained ground in the role they fulfill in marriage, they no longer simply exchange labor for the financial resources provided by their husbands. Todays marriages focus more on intimacy as social norms have evolved with many of todays marriages being centered on romantic love and self fulfillment (Taylor, Funk, and Clark). More marriages than ever before rely on two paychecks to keep the family financially stable. This has had a significant impact on the division of household responsibilities. From 1965 to 2000, men more than doubled the amount of time they spend on housework and childcare while the amount of time women spend on these two areas has decreased. There are many challenges to overcome in the majority of marriages and those unable to deal with the stress or conflict often end in divorce. Unlike the post WWII generation, todays married couples no longer feel obligated to stay in an unhappy marriage. According to the Pew Research Center, even though many Americans believe children are better off in a two parent family, when the parents are very dissatisfied, many believe it is better for them to divorce. Between 1960 and 1980, the divorce rate in the United State more than doubled. While the 9

percentage of marriages that end in divorce has dipped in the past two decades, a new development that has surfaced is something called the divorce gap. (Taylor, Funk, and Clark). Statistics show that college educated people are much more likely to marry and are much less likely to get divorced which explains that although the overall divorce rate has dropped in recent years, the decline has been with college educated couples. The rate for high school drop outs has actually risen, resulting in what has been a called a divorce gap. This trend is illustrated by a surprising statistic offered by David Popenoe a Professor of Sociology at Rutgers University; when comparing divorce rates between college educated females and those who dropped out of high school in 1990, only 16.5% of college educated women as opposed to 46% of high school drop outs were divorced within 10 years of getting married. (6). A hot topic on the political scene across the country involves same-sex marriages. In 1993 the Hawaii Supreme Court ruled against denying marriage to gay couples. A year later, in 1994, Massachusetts became the first state to actually legalize gay marriage. According the Pew Research Center, since that time, more than 40 states have attempted to enact legislation to define marriage as a union between a man and a woman. Gay marriage is banned in more than half of the states in America. Public opinion on the issue supports those bans, with 57% of people opposing same-sex marriages. However, when it comes to civil unions, the public is equally divided in its opposition versus support. When examining opposition by political party, it is interesting to note the huge discrepancy that surfaces. Among Democrats, 48% oppose gay marriage while 42% support it. However, among Republicans, 78% oppose gay marriage while only 14% support it. Another difference in the level of opposition exists when it comes to the 10

idea of children being raised by gay parents. Men are much more likely to oppose gay parenting (59%) than are women (42%) according to the Pew Research Center. (Taylor, Funk, and Clark).

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Discussion and Sociological Conclusions

The role of marriage has transformed since the 1950s. This evolution of marriage has influenced and changed certain attitudes, social norms, and actions of various institutions. Americans have noticed the shift, and have come to realize that marriage is not at the center of every adult persons life, like it used to be. Many things have been affected by this change. Researchers have concluded that children who live with two married parents reap many more benefits than children of single, divorced, or cohabitating parents. A dramatic shift in family structure is said to have taken place, generated mainly by the growing trends of divorce, unmarried cohabitation, and unmarried births. (Popenoe, 24).Young people in our society have become more accepting of non-marital lifestyles. Furthermore religious and political organizations in fear of marriage becoming obsolete have implemented programs based on educating people about marriage. These institutions have also taken up the discourse and debate related to gay marriage. A cultural lag has been said to have been created since the invention of birth control and the changing social factors that followed. Conflict theorists have studied the inequality in marriage, something that is perhaps lessening in society today, but is still present. The critical role of marriage in American culture from 1800 to 1960 was due in part to the fact that fertility was poorly controlled. As sexual relations usually resulted in pregnancy, marriage was the only acceptable setting for sex. As norms restricted sex to within marriage, a societal and institutional arrangement was set up for raising a child. If children were born out of wedlock, mothers were heavily stigmatized for having sex outside of marriage. However when contraception was introduced in the 1960s, the possibility or expectancy of pregnancy was 12

removed from the act of sexual intercourse. Because of this the social justification for marriage (to have sex and most likely have children) no longer applied, as women could engage in sexual relations without having to worry about getting pregnant. Once sex and procreation could be separated, so could sex and marriage. But so, too, of course, could reproduction and marriage. (Nock, 16). In other words not only was sex outside of marriage becoming more acceptable, but so was having children out of wedlock. In the U.S. today, efforts are being made to promote marriage, reduce single motherhood, and promote responsible fatherhood. Society issues like this would have made no sense to Americans in the 1950s, with marriage as a central part of adult life. Today many people are far removed from a marriage-centered culture. (Nock, 27). These extreme changes have been created because of a cultural lag. As the new technology of birth control changed the relationship between sex and reproduction, the social and cultural repercussions contributed to the majority of the trends discussed in this paper. Another current trend that is affecting children today is cohabitation. Cohabitation rates are 10 times greater today than they were just 30 years ago. For some, cohabitation is temporary as 60% of couples live together before getting married, while for others future marriage is uncertain and there are even some that dont see marriage in their future at all. With this new living arrangement being so common, about 40% of children in the U.S. will have spent some time living with a cohabitating family. (Henslin, 347). Like stated earlier the biggest difference between marriage and cohabitation is the fact that cohabitating couples lack the commitment that is required for marriage. Cohabitation can sometimes mean that couples will stay together for as long as it works, in other words not until death do us part. Furthermore very few cohabitating 13

couples share bank accounts, so parting ways is much easier in the legal sense as well. Because couples are not legally tied together, its easy to see how fragile and unstable these relationships can be, especially for children if they are involved. Today there are almost two million children living with cohabitating adults. Another thing that affects children under cohabitating parents is the fact that many of them are the biological child of only one of the parents. In fact Seventy percent of the children in unmarried-couple households are the children of only one partner. (Popenoe, 25). Popenoe continues with the statement that Children who grow up with cohabitating couples tend to have worse life outcomes compared to those growing up with married couples. This conclusion derives from the research that Cohabitating couples have a much higher breakup rate than married couples, a lower level of household income, and a higher level of child abuse and domestic violence. (Popenoe, 25). Single parenthood is perhaps the biggest trend that has affected children and adolescents. Children in single parent families are said to have negative life outcomes at two to three times the rate of children of married parents. The concerns of one parent families are mostly driven by poverty than anything else. As single parents tend to be women, they are typically even more financially burdened because of womens inequality in the work place. As children with only one parent are faced with many more challenges they are more likely to drop out of school, get arrested, have emotional problems and get divorced. (Henslin, 344). With these discoveries it is apparent that single parent or broken families can be the cause of social deviance. A new pattern has also emerged with fathers of children of divorced or female headed households. Serial Fatherhood is when a father remains in close contact for a few years, (either the beginning of the 14

childs life, or first few years after a divorce) then if the man develops a new relationship with another woman, he may begin to play a father role to her children and reduce the contact that he has with his own children. The statistic holds that only one sixth of children who live apart from their fathers see them weekly. (Henslin, 353). With the weakening of marriage at the forefront of society, one thing that researchers have noticed and stressed is the importance of marriage as it relates to the well-being of children. According to David Popenoe this waning view of marriage produces many unintended negative effects for children. He states that the only way that childrens needs will truly be met is if a cultural shift takes place In which stable, predictable and long-term relationships with others come to be viewed as the best foundation for adult personalities, childrearing, and family life. (Popenoe, 12). As one million children a year experience their parents divorcing, studies have shown that children of divorced parents are more likely to experience emotional problems both in childhood and as they grow up. (Henslin, 351). Some researchers debate that divorce scars children for the rest of their lives, while others say that a majority of children that go through parental divorce adjust just fine. Children who are closer to both parents are said to adjust the best. One negative effect of having divorced parents is that these children are more likely to divorce themselves when older, than those children with two married parents. Paul Amato and Jacob Cheadle were the first sociologists to study divorce throughout generations. They found that grandchildren of divorce have weaker ties to their parents, dont go as far in school, and dont get along as well with their spouses. (Henslin, 352). It is obvious that divorce has such a prominent effect, one that can last through generations. 15

Current trends appear to be moving society away from traditional marriage in the U.S. An important sociological aspect related to the current views are on marriage involves how our youth feel about marriage. Findings from The State of our Unions 2007, indicate that the desire for a good marriage and family life by teens has slightly increased since the 1980s. Included in those findings, boys are slightly more pessimistic about marriages lasting long-term. Also both boys and girls have become much more accepting of alternative lifestyles to marriage; such as unwed childbearing and premarital cohabitation. There has been a moderate increase of teens who expect to marry. Teens are more accepting of out-of-wedlock child birth, now more than ever before, as 50 percent believe it is a worthwhile lifestyle. Well over half of teens also accept living together before marriage. (Popenoe, 27). One of the reasons that young people are much more accepting than in the past, than older generations, is that throughout their schooling they have been taught to have tolerance for alternative lifestyles. In other words many believe that Just because I believe something is right for me, doesnt mean that it is right for everyone else too. Many young people have also come from diverse family situations that werent of their own doing, that they then in turn believe should be accepted. As so many different family situations have become common, people in general are less likely to judge or stigmatize other adult lifestyles. Because of this newfound respect and acceptance some worry that the value and importance of marriage is not stressed like it should be. New societal norms and acceptance of diverse lifestyles, lower rates of marriage, high rates of divorce, and the overall weakening of the institution of marriage, have resulted in many religious activists participating in what is called the marriage movement. This movement is 16

something that religious leaders are hoping will reduce divorce rates and promote matrimony. (Nock, 14). These programs meet the new social aspects that affect marriage today by helping people develop the knowledge, attitudes and skills needs for making wise marital choices and having a successful marriage. Political organizations are joining up as well, in attempts to oppose the direction that America seems to be moving in, which is secular individualism. Secular individualism includes the gradual desertion of religious attendance and beliefs, and leans towards expressive values. Secular Individualism also values egalitarianism and the tolerance of diverse lifestyles. Furthermore the United States is made up of geographically based orthodox red and progressive blue states, which contrast between traditional family structures (red states), and diverse family lifestyles (blue states). Because the U.S. is made up of these two distinct groups, it seems as though our country is at a culture war and discussing on the national level, the weakening of the institution of marriage. (Popenoe, 9). In 2001 the Bush Administration spent around $300 million dollars of welfare funds in efforts to promote marriage in low-income communities. (Wilcox, 1). This was in efforts to lessen the marriage gap. The marriage gap is created when children follow the family behavior of their parents. If the married parents are educated and financially well off, their children are said to be better socialized and marry successfully. Its questionable if Bushs attempt really made a difference to promote marriage within low income families, or if the marriage gap has much of an effect on the overall shift in the U.S. Gendered division of labor is a sociological term that denotes husbands being responsible for financial support of the family while wives are in charge of housework and 17

childcare. The evolution of marriage has altered this idea, with wives devoting more of their time to earning a second income and the husbands spending more time taking care of the kids and housework. The conflict perspective focuses on the struggles that exist between husbands and wives. One of the issues that may develop in a two paycheck household involves power differences which are sometimes evident as married couples strive to balance their responsibilities. The symbolic interactionist perspective examines gender in regard to family responsibilities. A gradual change in culture has made it more acceptable, if not an expectation, for men to do more around the house and with the children. Henslin points out an intriguing discovery that contradicts widely held beliefs about the amount of time todays parents spend with their children. With more two income families, it is often assumed that less time is spent on childcare. However, research shows that from 1965 to 2000, the combined amount of time husbands and wives spend with their children has increased from 13.2 hours to 19.4 hours per week. In addition, during the same time period, a shift in time spent on housework for both husbands and wives combined decreased from 38.9 hours to 29.1 hours per week. The largest change during the 35 year span is that women increased the amount of paid work they do from 6 hours to 23.8 hours per week. A number of societal factors have helped married couples carve out more time for their children. More technology and modern conveniences have helped make housework less laborious. In addition, the McDonaldization of society, that is the fast food mentality, has also had an impact on marriage and families by freeing up time that in the past might have been spent on food preparation and kitchen duties. (Henslin, 335). 18

Sociology provides the vehicle to explore the questions surrounding the issue of gay marriage. Social conditions are said to exist when a neutral quality is present, with a topic such as marriage or divorce. However, when that topic becomes the focus of discussions, arguments and disputes, it develops into a social issue. Finally, society is faced with a social problem when many people view that issue as one that requires action. The current political and religious furor over gay marriage is a part of daily life as evidenced by the media. Social upbringing, culture and religious affiliation are powerful influences that may affect a persons view on gay marriage. In 2004, members of The American Sociological Association (ASA) overwhelmingly passed a resolution opposing a U.S. constitutional amendment banning same-sex marriage. The resolution constitutes an official statement of the association in opposition to a constitutional amendment defining marriage as between a man and a woman because such an amendment would intentionally discriminate against lesbians and gay men as well as their children and other dependents by denying access to the protections, benefits, and responsibilities extended automatically to married couples. The resolution stated that sociologists believe that the official justification for the proposed constitutional amendment is based on prejudice rather than empirical research (Ebner and Herring). The social problem of whether or not same-sex marriages should be legally recognized will likely elude society for some time. Future research may shed light on how children living with same-sex couples are affected which could influence attitudes and perceptions of gay marriage.

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The changes in the institutions of marriage and the family will continue to spark debate and discussion and trends continue. In 1897, sociologist Emile Durkheim shared her theory attributing lower suicides rates to married adults and higher rates to unmarried adults. In the article Marriage as a Public Issue, sociologist Steven Nock states that hundreds of quantitative research studies conducted at varying times and in various countries confirm the notion that marriage is associated with better health for both children and adults. The research indicates that higher life expectancy, greater happiness, improved sex lives, and better mental health are associated with being married. Reduced levels of illness, alcoholism, depression, suicide, and fatal accidents are also attributed to married life (Nock, 17). The future of marriage and family remains unclear, however as Henslin suggests, it is likely that trends involving cohabitation, out of wedlock births, and the age at first marriage will continue to rise. As the number of women joining the workforce increases, the sense of balance in marital powers will also be affected (Henslin, 357). Culture relativism is defined as not judging a culture but trying to understand it on its own terms (Henslin, G1). Perhaps this is what our society needs most as it considers the evolution of marriage.

Works Cited
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Nov. 2010. Web. 21 July 2011. <http://articles.cnn.com/2010-1122/opinion/coontz.marriage.pew_1_marriage-college-educated-women-higher-plane? _s=PM:OPINION>. Coontz, Stephanie. "Three 'Rules' That Don't Apply; A Historian Upends Conventional Wisdom.(Marriage, a History: How Love Conquered Marriage)." Newsweek (2006). Print. DeBarros, Anthony. Jayson, Sharon. "Young Adults Delaying Marriage - USATODAY.com." News, Travel, Weather, Entertainment, Sports, Technology, U.S. & World USATODAY.com. Web. 21 July 2011. <http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-0912-census-marriage_N.htm>. Henslin, James M. Essentials of Sociology: a Down-to-earth Approach. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2009. Print

Herring, Lee, and Ebner, Johanna. "Epstein Elected 97th President of the ASA; Marriage Amendment Opposed." American Sociological Association. ASA News, 16 June 2004. Web. 23 July 2011. <http://www2.asanet.org/media/election_04.html>.

Hou, Feng. Myles, John. "The Changing Role of Education in the Marriage Market: Assortative Marriage in Canada and the United States since 1970." Canadian Journal of Sociology/Cahiers 33.2 (2008): 337-66. Web. Nock, Steven L. "Marriage as a Public Issue." The Future of Children 15.2 (2005): 13-32. Print. Popenoe, David. The State of Our Unions 2007. Rep. Piscataway, NJ: National Marriage Project, 2007. Print.

Stevenson, Betsey. Wolfers, Justin. "Marriage and Divorce: Changes and Their Driving Forces." Journal of Economic Perspectives 22.2 (2007): 27-52. Print.

Taylor, Paul, and Funk, Cary and Clark, April. Genration Gap in Values, Behaviors As Marriage and Parenthood Drift Apart, Public Is Concerned about Social Impact. Rep. Washington D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2007. Print. United States. U.S. Census Bureau. America's Family and Living Arrangements. P20-553. Web. 21 July 2011. <http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/hh-fam/tabMS-2.pdf>. Wilcox, W. Bradford, and Nicholas H. Wolfinger. "Then Comes Marriage? Religion, Race, and Marriage in Urban America. The Design of a Multilevel Survey of Children, Families, and Communities: The Los Angeles Family and Neighborhood Survey." Academic Press, Inc., 2007. Zazlow, Jeffrey. "Marriage Report's Predictions Fall Short - 5/06." Lists101.his.com Mailing Lists. Web. 21 July 2011. <http://lists101.his.com/pipermail/smartmarriages/2006May/003033.html>.