DRILLING

Heavy Oil and Bitumen Recovery Michael Weiss

Drilling

Dictionary of Conventional Drilling Components:

Drilling mud is used to control subsurface pressures, lubricate the drill bit, stabilize the well bore, and carry the cuttings to the surface, among other functions. Mud is pumped from the surface through the hollow drill string, exits through nozzles in the drill bit, and returns to the surface through the annular space between the drill string and the walls of the hole. As the drill bit grinds rocks into drill cuttings, these cuttings become entrained in the mud flow and are carried to the surface. In order to return the mud to the recirculating mud system and to make the solids easier to handle, the solids must be separated from the mud. The first step in separating the cuttings from the mud involves circulating the mixture of mud and cuttings over vibrating screens called shale shakers.

The liquid mud passes through the screens and is recirculated back to the mud tanks from which mud is withdrawn for pumping downhole. The drill cuttings remain on top of the shale shaker screens; the vibratory action of the shakers moves the cuttings down the screen and off the end of the shakers to a point where they can be collected and stored in a tank or pit for further treatment or management. Often two series of shale shakers are used. The first series (primary shakers) use coarse screens to remove only the larger cuttings. The second series (secondary shakers) use fine mesh screens to remove much smaller particles. In general, the separated drill cuttings are coated with a large quantity of drilling mud roughly equal in volume to the cuttings Additional mechanical processing is often used in the mud pit system to further remove as many fine solids as possible because these particles tend to interfere with drilling performance. This mechanical equipment usually belongs to one of three types: 1) hydrocyclone-type desilters and desanders, 2) mud cleaners (hydrocyclone discharging on a fine screened shaker), and 3) rotary bowl decanting centrifuges. The separated fine solids are combined with the larger drill cuttings removed by the shale shakers.

If the solids collected by the shale shakers are still coated with so much mud that they are unsuitable for the next reuse or disposal step or if the used mud is valuable enough to collect as much of it as possible, the solids can be further treated with drying shakers utilizing high gravitational separation, vertical or horizontal rotary cuttings dryers, screwtype squeeze presses, or centrifuges. The cuttings dryers recover additional mud and produce dry, powdery cuttings

PDC Drill Bits

Polycrystalline diamond bits (PDC) use thin diamond layers bonded to tungsten carbidecobalt studs or blades. The extreme resistance of diamond to abrasive wear makes it possible to use the shearing action of the cutters for drilling. PDC bits are more efficient than the crushing action of roller-core bits. A typical bit in shallow heavy oil areas can be used about 3 times. PDC bits produce larger amounts of cuttings due to the speed of penetration and thus flush volumes should be adjusted to keep the bit clean and cooled.

Slant Drilling Slant drilling is well suited to shallow gas and heavy oil since conventional directional drilling could not provide sufficient lateral displacement to penetrate the targets. Even with a continuous build rate of 3 per 30 m from surface, the maximum lateral displacement achievable was 300 m with a terminal angle of 60 being realized. Using slant techniques, a 300 m displacement is achievable with the maximum allowable spud angle of 45 found on slant rigs. It is critical that azimuth and inclination is set to take full advantage of the target geometry. In order not to lose lead angles, the well should be spudded with a full gauge near the bit stabilizer. Slant rigs are spudded with left hand isolation until the rearbit stabilizer is buried. This prevents the tendency of the bit to walk at spud.

Photo: Husky well at Lloydminster

Interwell spacing of at least 5 m is necessary so that the service rig can be oriented for any workovers. The wellbore profiles will be smoother and thus rod and tubing wear should be less.

Photo: Slant well work at PetroCanada Fort Mackay

Slant drilling rig technology moved forward in the early 1990s when Precision Drilling Corp., in conjunction with PanCanadian Petroleum Ltd., designed and implemented a

new slant drilling rig. This new design represented an important milestone in heavy oil drilling. Its longer-than-standard drill pipe - 45 ft (13 m) vs. 30 ft (9m) - offered significant benefits of flexibility and operational capabilities, which led to the term, "Super Single."* (Precision Drilling) Background In the 1980s a new alternative appeared in horizontal drilling. The well would start vertical, then be deviated to horizontal with downhole mud motors, measurement-while-drilling (MWD) and bent-sub technology. The process increased production, but the mud motors, and sophisticated directional drilling techniques and equipment were expensive. The 1990s saw the revival of slant technology, which was used most successfully in heavyoil drilling at shallow depths. This differed from directional drilling in several ways: It followed a shorter, more direct route. Wells could be spudded at an angle usually 30 to 45- and then aimed straight at the target, Fig. 1. It was less expensive, faster and more productive than directional horizontal drilling. Slant drilling allowed shallow heavy-oil deposits to be developed from one or several pad locations, which vary in number of wells. Pad drilling also emerged as a way to minimize environmental impact because it allows multiple-well access to larger areas and targets beneath sensitive areas, such as lakes and towns.

The technique started by drilling from a slant angle at the surface (45 max. in 1.5 increments), and zeroed in on shallow-depth targets with a 150-ft (50-m) radius. The technique did not require downhole motors or MWD technology. Improvements to the technology, combined with customer cooperation reduced time and well costs up to 50% on heavy-oil pad projects. The Evolution Of Super Single Rigs Customer feedback and operational experience provided insight into a far-reaching set of issues including pad location and size, safety, drilling efficiencies, design innovations and other enhancements to leverage the benefits of the rig design. By 1993, the rig had a depth rating of 6,600 ft (2,200 m). With each generation, additional quantitative and anecdotal data enabled further improvement of the performance, capabilities and operational efficiencies. Today, with the fifth and sixth generations now deployed, the rig makes up 8.1% of the company's 246-rig fleet. The success of the rig can be attributed to technology that controls critical functions, makes the work environment safer for rig crews and improves equipment control. Combined with pad drilling, the slant concept offers fast and simple movement from site to site and the ability to perform more than just a single type of well drilling. Remote-Control Features Fully mechanized, using state-of-the-art technologies to minimize manual labor, the rig's remote-control features reduce the crew's exposure to harsh weather. These features include: Hydraulic tubular handling arm

Hydraulic power wrenches for make-up and break-out of tubulars Hydraulic power wrench carrier Hydraulic top drive Hydraulic BOP handler and hydraulic pulldown Pneumatic tubular slips Hydraulic pipe tables for gravity indexing of tubulars and casings to and from the catwalk Hydraulic tubular kickers and indexer systems that index tubulars from the catwalk individually into the tubular handling boom, or kick tubulars out of the handling boom and onto storage racks or tables.

In addition to efficiency gains, this high level of equipment control has the specific benefit of drastically reducing connection times. The hydraulic pipe tables lift joints of drill pipe to the catwalk, where the hydraulic pipe arm is located. The indexers then roll the joints onto the catwalk and into the pipe arm, which lifts the joints individually to the derrick. A top drive screws directly into each joint, eliminating the need for an awkward and heavy kelly. The entire connection process takes less than a minute, a fraction of the usual three to five minutes required by conventional single and double rigs, Fig. 2. Maintenance costs are the same as those for single, telescopic double and jackknife double rigs. The reliability of the system is reflected in mechanical downtime of less than half a percent.

Personnel requirements on the rig remain the same. Someone still needs to operate the controls, run the equipment, perform basic maintenance, disassemble the rig and rig up at the next drill site. The chief difference is that the equipment does most of the work,

eliminating the labor-intensive and dangerous component of tubular handling. This not only makes the entire process more efficient, but also improves safety considerably. Safety Most injuries to drilling crews occur while they are handling tubulars, with most of those injuries occurring on the rig floor and catwalk. The rig's control processes help to alleviate this problem. The remote-controlled hydraulic tubular handling boom enables the derrickmen to safely remove and add tubulars and accessories to the drillstring mechanically rather than manually. The boom also provides for the handling of casing. Drilling crews no longer must move tubulars from racks to the catwalk or position them on the rig floor. Beyond that, hydraulic safety lockouts for mast position pinning and crown maintenance reduce the need for personnel to climb the mast, Fig. 3.

Drilling Efficiency and Versatility The rig, which has reached drilling rates as high as 607 ft/hr (185 m/hr), can drill vertical, deviated wells, and underbalanced wells to 9,000 ft (3,000 m). The sixth-generation rig design uses programmable logic controls to monitor the position of traveling blocks and employ a fail-safe disc brake to control the block speed as it approaches the crown. The system also slows the block as it nears the rig floor. This level of PLC control enhances process efficiency and helps prevent potential damage to the rig floor and the crown. A triparameter auto-drilling system enables the controls to make adjustments on its own if

drilling should deviate from safe operating parameters, thus reducing the potential for human error. The rig can be moved quickly. For example, a typical double rig racks drill pipe and collars in the derrick in 62-ft stands. Before it can be moved to another well, the stands must be run back in the hole and broken into single joints before laying the pipe down. However, the slant rig's tubular handling system lays down each joint during every trip out. The tubulars can be moved at any time without breaking down stands. The rig design is also simple and compact, requiring only eight loads for well-to-well movements on a pad (including boilers and tubulars). In some cases, movements on a pad can be completed within two hours. The rig can also be moved one to two miles in four hours and is easily disassembled for highway transportation. Since 1990, 19 rigs have drilled more than 5,000 wells, and the global market is expected to grow as the rigs' benefits become known. They are now used in Canada, Mexico, Venezuela and Kazakhstan. Feedback From The Field Over the past five years, Lane Dunham, drilling manager with EOG Resources Canada, Inc., has used the rig for well depths of 1,500 ft to 7,500 ft (500 m to 2,300 m), because of greater flexibility and savings in rig time and operating costs due to the rig design's efficiencies and ruggedness. He experienced penetration rates of 500 ft/hr (150 m/hr), almost doubling the drilling efficiencies. Dunham also observed quicker connection times, reporting, "The drill pipe is 45 ft (13 m) long - that's 50% more than conventional single rigs, which use the standard 30-ft (9-m) drill pipe. This means you don't have to stop drilling as often to add joints to the drillstring. Connection times typically take one minute with the rig, and that can add up to time saved on the program." Dunham adds that because there are fewer connections, there is less wear and tear on the mud motor and drillbit components, and therefore, most wells can be drilled with one bit. Perhaps one of the biggest time savers, reports Dunham, is the rig's design of the remotecontrolled tubular handling equipment and the top drive. Rather than manually racking the drill pipe on the rig floor before logging, a hydraulic arm operated remotely by the rig crew lays the drill pipe on the pipe racks. "Once we are done logging, we can run the casing immediately because the pipe has already been laid down," he explained. For Dunham, the savings have been up to 12 hr for a typical 6,500-ft (2,000-m) well. These time-savings can be a significant advantage for oil companies with multiple well sites such as Petro-Canada's 50-well drilling program in northern Alberta. The intensive and demanding program, led by Drilling Superintendent Dough Fletcher, employs SAG-D (steam-assisted gravity drainage) recovery method for extracting oil. In this technique, one

horizontal well is drilled on top of another horizontal well. Steam is pumped down the top well to heat up the tar sand so the oil flows from the top well to bottom well. Since employing the rig in January of 2001, Petro-Canada has been able to reduce mechanical downtime to nearly zero, achieving an overall budget time savings of nearly 30%, and has eliminated lost time accidents completely. In addition to the same 50% reduction in connection time as Dunham, Fletcher has also found it easier to orient downhole motors and back-ream with the rig. Petro-Canada has been able to move the rig and spud the next well in less than two hours from the time it's released from the previous well. With four pads and 50 wells, the rig's mobility was a significant factor in improving the efficiency of Petro-Canada's drilling program. Part of the rig's efficiency also has to do with the top-drive design, as Fletcher explains, "The rig is much faster because you're operating at a higher range of rpms and you can have much quicker connection times." He adds that the top-drive capabilities also reduce the risk of experiencing stuck pipe. Petro-Canada has drilled more than 105,000 ft (32,000 m) in the last eight months and experienced zero stuck pipe incidents. That's drilling mainly in tar sand, sand and gravel, but also clay, shale and silt. One of Petro-Canada's most notable accomplishments has been its safety performance. The program has had zero lost-time accidents among its crew since employing the rig. With 50 to 60 people a day on the rig, drilling at a steady pace, an accident-free record is remarkable. Fletcher says he owes this in large part to the remote-controlled tubular handling features of the rig. This is true regardless of geographic location. In Venezuela, Pearl Turner, operations manager with PetroZuata, drills in the Zuata field - a heavy-oil sand / shale formation. His drilling program included 240 multi-lateral horizontal wells, which used the rig (PD735). Turner says that with the rig's air slips and iron roughneck and pipe handling arm, trips can be made without a crewmember other than the driver and derrickman. The driller and derrickman controlling the hydraulics can trip in and out of the hole. PetroZuata also experienced faster rig moves compared to conventional drilling rigs. Normally, conventional rigs take at least 30 hours to move from pad to pad. The rig (PD 735) used by PetroZuata took only 15 hours to move to another pad. Due to its size and compact design, the rig can be prepared to move in two hours and rigged up in the same amount of time. Continuous back-reaming was also listed as an advantage of the rig because each joint is handled by making up the top drive into the pipe. He adds that the rig can pick up casing joints as regular joints and run casing without needing a power tong. The necessary torque for the casing can be applied by the rig's top drive system.

In PetroZuata's case, PD 735 Super Single rig broke a world record in drilling time, achieving 5,193 ft in one day. The rig routinely drills 8,000-ft measured-depth horizontal wells at a true vertical depth of 2,100 ft without any issues. Overall, the rig had no significant limitations with the exception of its drawworks and pulling capacity. The small size may pose problems for some of the larger projects. Although Petro-Canada is using the rig only on horizontal SAG-D wells at a 45 slant for this particular program, the rig also works well on vertical wells. According to Fletcher, the company's SAG-D program in northern Alberta is expected to be completed four months ahead of budgeted schedule.

Photos: Precision Drilling

Underbalanced Drilling
In conventional drilling, the drilling fluid a) b) c) d) brings the rock cuttings to surface stabilizes the borehole cools the bit controls the formation fluids

The well is at balance if the borehole and formation fluid pressures are equal: there is no net fluid flow out or into the borehole. Usually, the drilling fluid properties are chosen in the overbalanced situation to prevent formation fluids from entering the wellbore during drilling. Materials are added to the drilling fluid to restrict this flow by depositing a low permeability filter cake on and adjacent to the borehole wall. In underbalanced drilling, the drilling fluid pressure in the borehole is less than the formation pore fluid pressure, and thus, when the formation is drilled, fluids flow into the wellbore. What are the advantages to underbalanced drilling? Increased penetration rate and bit life. Air drilling rates have been reported to be 10 times faster than for conventional mud drilling. The confinement imposed on the rock by the overbalance is also removed, decreasing the apparent strength of the rock and thus reducing the work needed to drill through the formation.
A.

Reducing drillstring sticking. If the drillstring becomes embedded in the filter cake, the drillstring is differentially stuck. Other mechanisms can cause sticking, but if there is no filter cake and no pressure acting to clamp the drillstring when the well is underbalanced.
B.

Minimizing lost circulation. It is possible for the drilling fluid to be lost by flowing into a very permeable formation or fractures and not returning to the surface. Lost circulation materials usually have to be added to the mud to plug off this path. In underbalanced drilling, there is no force driving the fluid into the formation.
C.

Earlier formation evaluation and production. Hydrocarbons will be carried with the drill cuttings and thus potentially productive zones can be determined earlier. With suitable surface equipment, oil can be collected while drilling.
D.

Reduced stimulation required. Formation damage can occur when solids or liquids enter the formation while drilling overbalanced. When the well is drilled underbalanced, formation fluids enter the wellbore from the permeable formation. Less stimulation will be required to reduce the formation damage. The interpretation of the openhole logs will be easier since there is no saturation change next to the wellbore which can mask the presence of hydrocarbons.
E.

Risks of Underbalanced Drilling Wellbore instability. Because the wellbore pressure is lower than the formation pressure, the wellbore support is no longer there.
A.

Water inflows. Formation water can moisten the drill cuttings downhole, causing them to form mud rings at the top of drill collars, trapping the string. By
B.

adding water, the drilling cuttings can be prevented from attaching to each other. Often, when water influx first occurs, dry gas drilling is switched to mist drilling. Downhole fires. These can be avoided by using non-flammable circulating fluids such as air foams or nitrogen.
C.

Horizontal and directional tool problems. When drilling these types of wells, the MWD tool cannot operate with the fluids used for underbalanced drilling since the pressure pulses through these fluids have low amplitude. Electromagnetic systems have to be used.
D.

Current Types of Underbalanced Drilling Fluids Four basic types of fluids are used for underbalanced drilling: a) b) c) d) Air / Nitrogen Mist / Fog Foam Aerated Fluid

Air is the simplest drilling fluid to use. The inert gas, nitrogen is also used. It is generated with membranes that remove oxygen from the air flow delivered by compressors before it is pumped downhole. Natural gas can be cheaper than nitrogen, particularly if drilling close to natural gas pipeline but fire protection guidelines must be followed. Air flow rates (min 3000/min) must be high enough for adequate hole cleaning.

Underbalanced Drilling in Estreito Heavy Oil Pool Brazil

Estreito field is in Brazil's northeastern region and has its production zones depleted, Fig. 1. Discovered in 1982, it has more than 700 wells. Estreito field's producing reservoir is very shallow, and the formation is very unconsolidated. This poses a special challenge to maintaining an underbalanced condition during drilling. Special care is required, not only during planning and execution of well operations. Four horizontal wells were planned and drilled underbalanced. In these wells, a compact, vertical gas-liquid separator was successfully tested with an automated control system and data acquisition system developed by Petrobrs. A skimmer was used for drilling solids, fluid-oil separation.

OVERVIEW Estreito field produces heavy oil with high viscosity (>1,000 Cp). Average output from vertical wells is between 3 and 4 m 3 /day (19 and 25 bopd). Horizontal wells produce 10 to 15 m 3 /day (63 to 94 bopd). The wells' low productivity increases lifting costs, requiring such special recovery methods as cyclic and continuous steam injection to increase output. Use of the UBD technique at Estreito tested this method's technical and economical feasibility to increase oil production. This four-well campaign offered the opportunity to field-test several new pieces of equipment and operational procedures that would be used offshore later, where wells with aerated fluid would be drilled for the first time from a drilling vessel. The objective of the four wells described here was to drain an area under the Au River. The horizontal section extension was approximately 150 m (492 ft), drilled with an 8-1/2-

in. bit. Original pressure of this unconsolidated sandstone reservoir was 20 kg/cm 2 . The estimated depletion is about 3 kg/cm 2 in the area under the river - still not heavily depleted. Formation fluid is basically oil with no associated gas. A 13-3/8-in. conductor was set at 40 m (131 ft), and the intermediate 9-5/8-in. casing was set at 90 inside the reservoir. Finally, the 7-in., slotted production casing was set in the horizontal section, Fig. 2. This casing was cemented using a stage tool inside the 9-5/8-in. casing. An external casing packer was used to avoid over-pressuring the formation during cementing.

DRILLING TECHNIQUE The 8-1/2-in. horizontal section was drilled underbalanced using a two-phase fluid comprised of water and xantham gum to keep it slightly viscosified. This fluid sustained the iron sponge used to avoid any H2S problems (which did not occur). Anti-corrosion measures were also applied, and pH was kept above 10.5. The gas was nitrogen pumped from trucks. Liquid and gas rates were planned to assure an equivalent circulating density lower than the reservoir pressure, estimated at 7.4 ppg. Because the reservoir is unconsolidated, wellbore stability studies were conducted to determine the collapse pressure. Best estimation was that this collapse pressure would be equivalent to 6.5 ppg, even though several uncertainties can affect the value's accuracy. Two static and one transient simulator were used to simulate well hydraulics, and liquid and gas rates. The flowrates found in the simulators were around 240 gpm of liquid (with an 8.5-ppg, liquid-phase density) and 350,000 cfgd. In the field, liquid rates of 150 to 200 gpm and gas rates of 500,000 to 700,000 cfd were used. The difference between predicted and actual flowrates was due to pressure losses at the surface, greater than originally estimated. Liquid phase density was also higher than the one used in the simulations.

The transient simulator was used to estimate the effect of pipe connections (adding new pipe joints to the drillstring as drilling went deeper) on BHP. This simulation showed that it was going to be very difficult to keep BHP between the limits defined by the collapse pressure (219 psi) and the reservoir pressure (250 psi). What happened was that when reinitiating circulation, a liquid slug formed during connection of new pipe that would provoke an increase in BHP. Conversely, when circulation was stopped, BHP would gradually drop, due to the absence of friction loss. This would cause BHP to go below collapse pressure, which consequently, would cause wellbore instability. Theoretically, the solution for this problem was to use a nitrogen pre-charge before connecting new pipe. In this case, liquid injection would be interrupted 90 sec before the gas, and the emergency shutdown valve on the flowline would be closed during connection, keeping the well pressurized. The goal of the pre-charge is to add more gas to the liquid that will remain at the bottom of the well due to gas segregation. By closing the valve, this segregation will be minimized, keeping BHP above collapse pressure. Connection time is also important - for simulation purposes, it was estimated at 4 min. An electromagnetic MWD was used to control the well's direction. A gamma ray tool and an annular BHP sensor were connected to the MWD. Both data sets were recorded in real time at a distance of 14 m (46 ft) from the bit. These data were recorded every 96 sec. SEPARATION/PROCESS SYSTEM While liquid nitrogen was pumped from trucks, gasified and then injected through the standpipe, the liquid phase was pumped by mud pumps. The mixture of both phases occurred in a Y connection at ground level before going up to the standpipe. On the return, a rotating control head (Williams 9000 model) was used above the regular BOP stack, allowing return flow to go to the separation system. This rotating head allowed a maximum 1,000-psi static pressure and 500 psi when rotating the string at a maximum 100 rpm. After the rotating head, the flow passed through a choke manifold specifically designed and built for underbalanced operation. Before the choke, there was a normally closed safety valve with a remote pneumatic actuator. For this operation, the system was changed to normally open. The 3,000-psi working pressure choke had three streams - one full, and two with a variable choke pneumatically controlled. A sample catcher was located after the choke that was also specially designed and built, with screens inside cylindrical reservoirs where the sample was retained when the flow was forced to pass through them, Fig. 3. Just after the sample catcher, the gas-liquid-solids mixture entered the Petrobrs vertical, two-phase separator. This cylindrical separator is 6-m high, has a 20-in. diameter and is built with two concentric pipes. The mixture enters the separator tangentially at its top. From there, the flow moves downward, passing through the annular of the two concentric pipes in a helical trajectory.

In this movement, the gas is separated, goes inside the inner pipe to the top of the separator and then proceeds to a secondary separator that retains any liquid still present in the mixture. After that, the gas goes to the burner. Conversely, the liquid-solids mixture goes to the separator bottom and from there to the skimmer. The separator works with a liquid seal (to avoid gas going to the skimmer with the liquids-solids mixture). Pneumatic valves automatically control the liquid seal's level. The skimmer receiving the liquids-solids (drilling fluid, oil and cuttings) mixture has three tanks able to collectively hold 280 bbl. The first tank holds cuttings, and the other two separate oil from the drilling fluid. DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM A dedicated, fully automated control system was developed and used during operations to control all parameters, as well as opening and closing control valves. A typical screen from the data acquisition system is shown in Fig. 4. In this case, the screen shows a zero liquid level inside the separator. This was before the operation. All equipment and valves are displayed in a manner that makes it very simple for the operator to control the whole process from the control cabin. Another monitor was remotely located at the driller's cabin that allowed the driller and rig floor personnel to follow the operation.

Meanwhile, when the data is shown in real time, it is also being recorded for future analysis. An example of some data plotted against time is shown in Fig. 5. Contrary to other standard UBD operations, this data set is more complete, including separator levels, pressures and actuation of the control valves. Also the system was linked to the MWD/PWD (pressure while drilling) tool. The list of recorded parameters includes: Injection liquid and gas flow rates Injection temperature and pressure Rotating control head pressure Separator liquid level Liquid and gas outlet flowrates Separator work pressure Outlet liquid density Control valves' percentage openings Bottomhole pressure Well depth.

Therefore, full control of the operation was in place at all times, even including observation of the influence of surface equipment on BHP. In many instances, when this is not possible, BHP might be above the desired value due to mishandling of chokes or valves at the surface. With this automated control system, some operational practices were changed to avoid overbalanced conditions. Since the separator and control system were new, some of

the practices implemented were different from current ones, improving the whole operation significantly. Alarms were in place for liquid injection, separator liquid level and separator work pressure. This allowed a much safer operation. OPERATIONS To save stand-by time for equipment and personnel dedicated to underbalanced operations, it was decided to batch drill the four wells. Therefore, the horizontal sections were drilled only after the four wells had been drilled and cemented to the intermediate casing string at a 90 inclination. Attempts to avoid an overbalanced condition after the connection, by using a gas precharge after shutting in the liquid, were not practical. This was due to difficulties in coordinating the mud pumps and extra time required for gas injection. This was especially difficult due to the wells' shallow depths. Conversely, closure of the emergency shutdown valve at the surface, to avoid reduction of BHP below the collapse pressure, caused a sudden pressure increase and big slugs that impaired separator performance.

During the first well, actual collapse pressure was lower than predicted. Consequently, after connection, BHP was allowed to go to a lower value, just by shutting in the injection without any special procedure. Accordingly, the pressure increase after the connection was not as high as the simulator predicted. Even though an underbalanced condition was not always guaranteed, only during small periods of time did BHP reach values slightly above the estimated reservoir pressure. Due to a problem on the nitrogen injection flowrate, which indicated a wrong value, the first well was drilled overbalanced during a majority of the horizontal section's initial portion. It was first supposed that the PWD was registering a wrong value, but, after everything was checked, it was concluded that the nitrogen flowmeter was wrong. Because oil production was being achieved - and half of the horizontal section had already been drilled - it was decided to keep BHP at the same level to avoid affecting formation stability.

The chart of BHP, and estimated collapse and reservoir pressures, can be seen in Fig. 6. In the remaining wells, this problem was solved, and the underbalanced condition was more stable.

Another interesting point to mention was a sudden, unexpected huge slug of nitrogen during the last third of one of the wells. A detailed investigation was conducted on all the measured and recorded values, and no apparent reason was found. One possible explanation might be gas accumulation on the upper side of the horizontal section. At a certain point, the gas slug suddenly migrates to the surface. This phenomenon deserves further investigation, as it can cause serious problems during underbalanced operations. Total drilling time for each well ranged from 8 to 9 hr., except for the first well, which took 13 hr. In the same field, four other horizontal conventional wells were drilled recently, and the average drilling time for each horizontal section was 13 hr. Oil production achieved during drilling averaged 150 bpd. Due to the oil's relatively high viscosity, skimmer efficiency was poor. Heating up the oil or adding some chemicals could have helped the oil/water separation, but these measures were not attempted. Oil content in the drilling fluid increased to 10% at the end of the well from the initial 0% value.

The well was planned for UBD and completion. Accordingly, a great effort was made to change the original well design, casing and cementing practices, and casing cleaning. After the slotted casing was cemented, from the intermediate casing shoe to the surface, the remaining cement plug and the slotted casing were washed and cleaned with nitrogen to avoid overpressuring the formation. Significant oil production during this period was observed. At this time, it is not yet possible to check well production performance in comparison to other wells drilled conventionally. The idea is to measure not only oil output but also productivity improvement, to verify the benefits of drilling wells underbalanced. Higher fluid levels were observed inside wells after they were drilled underbalanced, so it can be concluded that formation damage was lower than usual. Quantitative measurements will be conducted as soon as production reaches a steady state. CONCLUSIONS This project was a successful venture by an integrated team comprised of personnel from different areas - drilling, reservoir engineering, geology, research and service companies. Integration of the team from the initial stages of planning, through training and field operation, was a key factor in the project's success. After this first underbalanced campaign, one can conclude that UBD is a feasible technique, even in an unconsolidated formation. To cope with this more aggressive drilling practice, wellbore stability analysis should incorporate new failure criteria and methods. Current wellbore stability simulators tend to be very conservative. Both hydraulic simulators used - the steady state and the transient models - were accurate enough compared to field data, and were very important during the well planning stage. The automated data and control acquisition system is essential for having a safe, successful UBD operation. The new compact vertical separation was approved, and this same concept was used later offshore during a field test of drilling with lightweight fluids. Preliminary results indicate an increase in productivity from the wells drilled underbalanced, compared with conventional wells.

Cased Drilling

The concept of cased drilling is to drill the hole with casing instead of drill pipe. The casing is then permanently installed in the hole. The casing is in place when the casing set depth is reached.

Photo:Tesco Bottomhole assemblies are delivered by wireline, eliminating trips in and out of the hole with a drillstring. If the hole is dry, the last string of casing is recovered instead of being cemented in place. Wells can be completed quicker with no tripping and reduced pipe handling thus making it safer. The wellbore integrity is preserved. Reaming is not required. There are no kicks while tripping the drill string.

Photo:Tesco The expenses for drill pipe, drill collars, large setback areas if running double or triple rigs are also eliminated. There are lower mud and cementing costs due to the smaller wellbore. The rig move is easier, cutting fuel consumption and equipment wear. Casing drilling can reduce the time needed to drill a well by 20 to 30%, since the conventional rig is more designed for tripping than drilling. Hole problems resulting from surge pressures and swabs are also removed. A Casing Drilling Rig only requires a Range III single mast. This rig can drill as fast as a conventional rig (though it may be slower in soft rocks. There is less circulating and back reaming at connections when drilling with casing.

Casing drilling has 25% fewer connections because casing joints are longer. Time not spent drilling on conventional rigs takes 44 to 86% of total well time. Casing installation and tripping account for 34 to 58% of this total. Casing drilling uses the standard oil field casing to drill and case the well simultaneously. The casing provides the hydraulic and mechanical energy to the drilling assembly suspended in a profile nipple located near the bottom of the casing. The drilling fluid is circulated down the casing and back up through the annulus.

Photo: Tesco The bottomhole assembly latched into the bottom joint of casing is run and retrieved through the casing using a wireline (and not tripped with drill pipe-reducing costs). There are tools for the bottomhole assembly and drill lock assembly that secures the bottomhole assembly to the casing. The drill lock assembly gives the mechanical coupling and hydraulic seal to the bottom of the casing. It has a locator mechanism, and axial lock and torsional drive splines that mate with a profile nipple at the top of the first joint of casing.

Photo: Tesco The drilling assembly below the drill lock assembly ends in a pilot bit, but can include other conventional drillstring components, such as a mud motor, underreamer, coring or directional assembly. An underreamer above the pilot bit is normally used to open the hole to the final wellbore diameter. These are sized for casing drilling (e.g a 6 in. pilot bit and 8 or 8 7/8 in underreamer are used while drilling a 7 in buttress thread casing). The Casing drilling rig uses a top drive to rotate the casing. Single joints of casing are picked off the pipe rack and set into the mouse hole.

Photo: Tesco The top drive is connected to the top of the joint which is then stabbed into the top of the casing string in the rotary table and drilled down. The casing string is attached to the top drive with a Casing Drive System that eliminates the need to screw into the top of the each casing joint. This replaces the power tongs, and adapts to all top drives. The top drive rotates the casing at speeds similar to conventional rotary drilling. For directional and horizontal wells, the bottomhole assembly is equipped with mud motors and MWD tools (which are protected inside the casing). Torque rings can be included to increase the torque ratings of connections. Centralizers are also run.

Photo: Tesco The biggest remaining need is to have an effective way to do logging through casing pipe. The most common method is to hoist the casing above the zone of interest and then run conventional wireline logs.

Drilling Program at Cold Lake CSS

A deviated well is any well where the bottomhole location is drilled at a horizontal offset from the surface location (wellhead). Cold Lake CSS wells are almost always deviated, since the bottomhole targets are drilled from a centrally located surface location.

Through ongoing development at Cold Lake, the length, bottomhole angle (well deviation) and pumping capacity of deviated wells have increased. Conditions now require some wells to exceed 1000 m in length, with a 750 m horizontal offset from the wellhead to bottomhole target and an 80 degree angle at the target. Recent additions to Cold Lake CSS well designs include using short horizontal wells on some pads. Short horizontal wells typically access the equivalent of two or three deviated CSS-well bottomhole locations. About 20 m to 30 m of conductor pipe is commonly present on each well before the well is directionally drilled to target depth and logged, if required. Production casing (typically 177.8 mm L-80 with metal-to-metal seal connections) is then installed from target depth to surface. Wells are cemented back to surface with thermal cement. Cement tops are maintained at surface to reduce the potential for external corrosion. Surface casing is usually only installed on the first well drilled to confirm that the Clearwater Formation pressure is low enough to enable the remaining wells on the pad to be drilled without surface casing. Surface casing is set into competent shale below the glacial till and cemented in place with thermal cement. Alternatively, previous evaluation wells on or near specific pads are used to confirm that Clearwater Formation pressure and wellbore drilling conditions are suitable to drill selected pads without installing surface casing on the first well. Directional Control Wells are drilled using a downhole motor with a bent housing. To achieve directional control, a measurement-while drilling tool is used. Typical survey intervals are at: no more than 30 m in the vertical hole section every connection in the build hole sections 30 m in the hold hole and tangent sections Hole Section Vertical Section Build Section 1 Interval surface to kickoff point typically 25 m true vertical depth within the glacial till to typically 130 m below the glacial till, as required after build section 2 Planned Constraints none

maximum dogleg of 3 degrees per 30 m Build Section 2 maximum dogleg of 10 degrees per 30 m Hold Section maximum dogleg of 10 degrees per 30 m Tangent Section from end of hold section to maximum dogleg of 3 final total depth degrees per 30 m Table DRI-1 Wellbore Directional Profile

Factors Affecting Drilling Formation factors that affect the quality of the drilled hole include: gravel and boulders in the glacial till, which cause rough drilling for the first 60 to 80 m bridges in the glacial till, which make it possible to start a new hole while attempting to work the drill string through bridges in the original hole. To reduce the difficulty of re-entry, planned wellbore doglegs are kept less than three degrees per 30 m in the glacial till whenever possible. Casing Installation On all wells, 20 to 30 m of conductor pipe is preset to provide a stable wellbore for drilling operations. For wells requiring surface casing, the casing is typically set into a competent shale below the glacial tills, or at about 150 m. Production casing is installed after the well is drilled to target depth. Each CSS well is cased and cemented with thermal cement from total drilled depth to surface. In the production casing, metal-to-metal seal connections is used to provide connection integrity. The casing is sealed at the surface by a thermal wellhead for steam injection and production operations. Short Horizontals At specific locations, short horizontal wells are used to access two or three bottomhole locations from a single wellbore. A horizontal extension is drilled after installing a standard CSS well to an initial bottomhole location. The standard well is drilled and cased to an inclination of 85 to 90 degrees at the initial bottomhole target. Casing Grade API 5CT L-80 Type 1 or equivalent proprietary grad steel is used in production or intermediate casing strings. Casing Centralizers Casing centralizers are installed on the outside of the casing to centre the casing in the borehole. Casing centralization is important for achieving good mud displacement while cementing, particularly from the narrow side of an eccentric annulus. Currently, centralizers are installed on every joint of casing from the surface down to the top of the Clearwater Formation. Two centralizers are installed on every joint across the Clearwater Formation. Horizontal liners are typically set in an open hole, without cementing. Horizontal liners access the reservoir through perforations and wire wrapped screens.

Depending on the required well capacity, casing and production-liner designs use either: a 219 mm production casing and a 140 mm production liner a 244 mm production casing and a 178 mm production liner

Production casing size depends on wellbore configuration. Depending on the production and injection requirements, the production casing size varies from 140 to 244 mm in diameter. Production liner is a type of casing used in a lower part of a well. Where short horizontal wells are used, standard wellbore configuration requires a 114.3 mm diameter production liner to be run from the base of the 177.8 mm diameter intermediate casing to total drilled depth and set in the horizontal section. The liner, normally: is set in the open hole without cementing is equipped with perforations and wire-wrapped screens

Metal-to-metal seal casing connections are used to provide improved connection integrity throughout CSS operations. Imperial oil CSS developments typically use pads with 24 to 28 wells. Single bottomhole locations will cover 3.2 ha.

Photo: Drill pipe and collars

Directional Tool Inaccuracies

WELLBORE POSITIONING Calculated borehole position may be erroneous in over half of the horizontal wells drilled during the past 15 years, according to the results of an ongoing industry study of continuous vs. stationary survey measurements. In a typical horizontal well, positional error of as much as 25 ft true vertical depth (TVD) can accumulate. This study found that several generally accepted directional drilling and well surveying practices are primarily responsible for these errors. The directional well surveying industry has used the minimum curvature method as its standard means to calculate the position of a wellbore from stationary inclination and azimuth measurements, and the distance between surveys has crept up from 30 to 90 ft. The assumption in the minimum curvature method is that there is a constant radial arc of curvature between survey stations.

This study of continuous direction and inclination survey measurements taken over significantly shorter intervals has found many instances where the constant radial arc assumption was not valid and in each instance resulted in a small positional error. In cases where the positional error was systematically repeated en route to total depth, a significant overall error resulted. The accumulation of large positional errors during drilling can lead to poor and costly geosteering decisions that ultimately result in poorly placed wells, unplanned sidetracks, and lower recovery of reserves. The biggest impact of such errors to an operating company may be the mistaken addition or subtraction of hundreds of thousands of barrels of booked recoverable reserves per well. Four sources have been identified that cause nonconstant curvature to occur between relatively long-spaced, 90-ft survey intervals. They are directly related to the mechanical aspects of directional drilling. The simple, short-term solution to reduce the amount of accumulated error is to take more surveys, although this will add to project cost. Alternately, a long-term solution is being developed that will allow real-time monitoring of directional tendencies and borehole position using continuous direction and inclination measurements. This three-part section includes: Part 1: A look at where positional inaccuracies occur in horizontal wells and how frequently they happen when drilling with a conventional steerable, positivedisplacement motor system. Part 2,: A review of similar inaccuracies while using rotary steerable systems and (or) encountering lithology changes. Part 3: A set of recommendations and techniques that can help to minimize the problem. Illuminating the problem The minimum-curvature method has long been used as the standard means to calculate a wellbore's position from inclination and azimuth measurements by determining the smallest radius curvature between two survey stations. The black curve in Fig. 1 illustrates this assumption. In this example there are two surveys, X and X+1. The position coordinates of Point X are given. The position coordinates for the second survey point, in terms of easting (X), northing (Y), and true vertical depth (Z), are calculated by fitting a constant radial arc to tie the two positional vectors together. The inherent assumption with this method is that the entire section will be drilled at a constant radius of curvature. The late 1980s introduction of positive displacement motors (PDMs) with bent housings to the directional drilling market made it possible to freely switch between slide drilling with high curve rates (5-10/100 ft) and rotary drilling with curve rates usually less than 1/100

ft. Further, top drives on offshore and some land rigs have enabled drilling with three, 30-ft joints of pipe (a stand) without stopping to make connections.

As initial measurement-while-drilling (MWD) tools took three-axis, stationary directional measurements when the mud pumps were cycled off and on during connections, surveying intervals have also increased gradually to 90 ft from 30-ft spacing. Bottom line, the advent of PDMs and top drives has increased the probability that curve rates will vary dramatically between stationary survey points; that is, nonconstant curvatures will exist. Simply interpolating between these points will not reflect many of today's actual wellbore trajectories. The blue, green, and red curves shown in Fig. 1 represent the alternate well path trajectories that end up with the same measured depth, azimuth, and inclination for Point X+1. These are based on different combinations of sliding and rotary drilling between the two survey stations. In each case the arc length and radius of curvature for each curved slide-drilled section are the same (shown as dashed line sections). However, the placement of these curved sections is varied from being before (blue), in the middle (green), and at the end (red) of a rotarydrilled tangent section of hole (solid lines). The model illustrates the importance of knowing where changes of curvature exist along a well path trajectory. Early example

In the late 1990s, MWD service companies modified their downhole data streams to include sampling of accelerometer and magnetometer data during pumping operations, especially drilling. Simplified single-axis surveys now can be transmitted to the surface in the same way that gamma ray and resistivity data are transmitted. Specifically, continuous direction and inclination measurements (cDNI) are made every 30-90 sec, which results in surveys that are 2-4 ft apart when drilling. These continuous data are being used routinely by directional drillers for trajectory tendency work. However, continuous surveys are not yet deemed reliable enough to be used as definitive positional surveys, as work on error models for the cDNI data continues.

Fig. 2 compares stationary and continuous survey data over a 500-ft build section in a directional well. The straight lines connecting the stationary survey points, both inclination and azimuth, indicate a constant rate of curvature. The slope changes of the continuous inclination data indicate the vertical build and drop rates achieved while slide drilling vs. rotary drilling, respectively. The PDM motor delivered about 13/100 ft building when sliding with the gravity tool face (GTF) settings given. The bottom hole assembly (BHA) dropped at about 4/100 ft when rotated, which is a dramatic but not unusual occurrence resulting from a less than optimal choice of BHA. The curve rate calculated between the stationary surveys using minimum curvature is about 3.5/100 ft. Following are details of how these differences in assumed versus actual curvature rates result in positional error. Causes of positional error

Four primary sources of nonconstant curvature between long-spaced stationary surveys have been identified: 1.Slide or rotate directional drilling patterns accomplished with PDM steerable systems during the build, drop, and (or) turn sections of wells. 2.Systematic use of PDM steerable systems to compensate for build, drop, or walk tendencies when attempting to maintain or hold constant inclination and azimuth in a tangent well section. 3.Changing modes with rotary steerable systems between stationary survey points. 4.Lithology and (or) bed dip angle changes between stationary survey points. Currently, concerns about wellbore position concentrate on differences in TVD. The positioning of a horizontal drainhole relative to fluid contacts and the construction of geological structure maps are based on TVD position. Changes in azimuthal location, while a valid concern, are of lesser importance at this stage. Continuous direction (or azimuth) measurements have a wider fluctuation than continuous inclination measurements, as seen in the character of the Fig. 2 data. Thus, this article focuses on differences in TVD position, but the argument can be made for both TVD and azimuthal position. Slide or rotate patterns Fig. 2 shows a good example of applying a slide or rotate drilling pattern during the build section of a well. In this case the directional driller sets up a relatively consistent pattern of alternating between slide drilling and rotary drilling once per stand. Fig. 3 shows three sets of slide (rotate) drilling models. Each case uses a series of 50-ft slide sections (building at 10/100 ft) and 50-ft rotate sections with no build rate to go from an initial inclination of 0 to a final inclination of 90. The position of the 100-ft stationary survey stations (yellow squares) is varied from being immediately after (A), in the middle of (B), or immediately before (C) a slide interval. The red squares show the continuous survey dataset for each of the models. The difference between the TVD calculated using the stationary and continuous inclinations accumulates, as shown for each of the three modeled wells by the curves labeled A', B', and C'. These show a swing of 25 ft of accumulated TVD error. Note that when the slide section is placed in the center of the rotary drilled sections (B) the TVD errors cancel out (B'). While in practice directional drillers do not execute the perfect patterns shown, systematic patterns do present themselves.

A field study There is no standard set of procedures for incorporating continuous directional data into survey calculations for dogleg severity or hole positioning. To determine the extent of wellbore TVD error resulting from slide/rotate drilling practices, a study was commissioned in August 2001.

Stationary and continuous survey data for thirteen horizontal wells in Nigeria, Angola and Indonesia were captured and processed. Directional operations data, BHA reports and slide sheets also were gathered. Fig. 4 illustrates the general positional results of the study. (More detailed results can be found in Stockhausen and Lesso.1) Eight of the wells had TVD differences greater than 5 ft. The largest difference recorded (Well GBK "a") showed that continuous inclination placed the final TVD 22 ft deeper than the TVD calculated from the stationary surveys. The three smallest positional errors recorded were in wells AMP "a," BKPorg, and BKPst1, which were drilled in Indonesia with rigs without top drives and using a standard kelly. While these wells were being drilled, surveys were taken at every joint of pipe, about every 30 ft, and slide (rotate) section lengths varied widely. The shorter survey interval of 30 ft did not allow for large differences between the continuous surveys and the minimum curvature assumption to accumulate. Top-drive use in the other countries allowed for larger difference in inclination to accumulate between surveys, and thus a greater chance for TVD differences to occur.

Fig. 5 shows the stationary and continuous inclination data for one of the Nigeria wells. The data cover the entire directional well from kick-off to TD at 9,033 ft. TVD calculations from continuous and stationary surveys had a 22-ft differencedeeper on the continuous survey. The delta TVD curve reveals how the error accumulated to reach a maximum difference of 23.7 ft at 7,310 ft MD. Details of the same well between 6,000 and 7,000 ft MD, in its final build to horizontal, reveal the true nature of the slide (rotate) pattern used (Fig. 6). Continuous inclination data

show that angle builds while sliding and holds during rotary drilling. The stationary inclination survey points, taken at about 90-ft intervals, do not see this effect.

The line drawn between the stationary inclination points indicates the constant rate of curvature assumed by the minimum curvature method. When the nonconstant curvature shown by the continuous surveys is below this line, the delta TVD accumulates, indicating that the well is increasingly deeperor shallower when above the line. From 6,000 to 7,000 ft the overall delta TVD accumulates from 14 to 23 ft deeper. It is important to note that in this well (Fig. 5) almost all of the TVD difference occurs as a result of attempting to build or drop angle. During the drilling of the hold sections (3,600 5,700 ft and 7,1009,033 ft), the BHA did a good job of holding angle when rotary drilling. The continuous inclination tended to directly overlay the line connecting the stationary surveys and little or no delta TVD developed. Only when correction slides were made (near 4,700 and 7,700 ft) did TVD differences occur. Two conclusions arise from this study: 1. A significant positional error is possible on 60% of horizontal wells studied. 2. Positional error can be greatly influenced by directional drilling procedures. The probability is high that horizontal wells drilled with PDM steerable systems on a top drive rig will have a TVD positional problem large enough to cause well-placement problems. The obvious criticism of these conclusions is that 13 wells are not a large sample.

Additional wells have been reviewed from the study area, as well as from the North Sea and Gulf of Mexico. The process is ongoing, but to date the percentage seems to be holding. Landing horizontal wells TVD positional differences in horizontal wells, caused by nonconstant curvature in surveys, can lead to poorly placed drainhole sections or missing the target reservoir completely. Because neither operator nor service company personnel are typically aware of this problem, poorly placed wells usually are attributed to an unexpected change in geological structure. An earlier study by Lesso and Kashikar2 noted that about 40% of horizontal wells encountered a "geological surprise" that resulted in a 10-20 ft TVD shift. With current knowledge in hand, it is interesting to speculate on how many of these shifts actually were caused by nonconstant curvature in survey calculations. During geosteering operations, marker beds above the target reservoir are used to help determine wellbore position relative to the target. Trajectory adjustments are made accordingly, assuming that the vertical thickness and dip angles of the intermediate beds remain constant. Petrophysical data modeling and navigation techniques developed over the last decade have made it possible to deal with most unexpected changes by maneuvering the drill bit to land the horizontal wellbore on target. But, additional TVD positional error can accumulate during the final approach to target, resulting in overshooting or undershooting the desired location and perhaps losing some lateral section. WELLBORE POSITIONING Rotary drilling with positive-displacement motors can introduce positional inaccuracies that remain undetected with stationary surveys and lead to potentially mistaken drilling decisions. Part 1 revealed where positional inaccuracies occur in horizontal wells and how frequently they happen when drilling with a conventional steerable, positive-displacement motor system. This article further illustrates positional issues using PDMs and then discusses rotary steerable systems and the impact of lithology on accurate well placement. Tangent sections A tangent section is the angle hold section in a standard slant or "S" trajectory, or the lateral section of a horizontal well. It is generally expected that when rotary drilling with a conventional steerable PDM assembly, the borehole angle and direction will be maintained.

However, it is sometimes necessary to use active directional drilling; that is, perform slide sections when the objective is to hold angle in a tangent section. The build or drop and turn tendency of a bottomhole assembly (BHA) can change with differing formations and operational parameters such as flow rate, weight-on-bit, and rpm. To counter undesired rotary drilling tendencies, a directional driller can add short slide sections to the drilling sequence.

Fig. 1 shows a model of what stationary and continuous survey data can look like when rotary drilling a lateral section with a BHA that drops at 1/100 ft. To maintain the wellbore at 90, the driller has added a slide section of 14 ft, building at 6/100 ft, to neutralize a rotary section of 86 ft dropping at 1/100 ft in a 100-ft drilling section. Here the slide is placed immediately after the stationary survey depth. All stationary surveys read 90 when this pattern is repeated, and it would be assumed that the wellbore is perfectly flat. The continuous surveys show the actual inclination for this pattern and have values greater than 90, except at the stationary survey points. The wellbore TVD position calculated from the continuous surveys will drift shallow as compared to the position calculated from the stationary surveys. In this case the drift rate is 3.7 ft/500 ft drilled. The Fig. 2 models demonstrate how this drift can impact decisions in drilling a horizontal well.

Fig. 2a shows the well trajectory interpretation that likely would result using stationary surveys to guide the planned placement of a 1,500-ft lateral section below the top of a relatively horizontal pay zone and above the oil water contact (OWC). The stationary surveys show that the wellbore has been held at 90 with no change in TVD, yet the wellbore exits top of pay after drilling only 810 ft. The logical conclusion would be that the formation dips downward. Drilling would be stopped, and recoverable reserves estimates would be lowered since the full, 1,500-ft lateral drainage field was not achieved.

Fig. 2b shows the interpretation with the same drilling scenario using continuous surveying in a post-mortem analysis. It indicates that the well path had drifted upward and that the original structural interpretation was correct. By monitoring well position in real-time with the continuous (cDNI) measurements, one can avoid negative scenarios like these in the future.

Fig. 3 shows an actual case of using slide sections to compensate for a rotary dropping tendency during planned hold sections. Relatively long slides maintain approximately 90 to offset a relatively strong dropping tendency while rotating the BHA. This well was eventually sidetracked when the top of pay was encountered earlier than expected. Rotary steerable systems Rotary steerable (RS) systems have eliminated the need for large curve rate changes between slide and rotary drilling sections, which are required with steerable motors. RS systems produce curve rates by selecting a tool face angle and percentage of side force in the direction of the tool face angle. To increase angle and turn slightly to the right, a tool face of 20 could be used with 35% of total force available. The power setting would be changed to 100% in order to steer more aggressively. A neutral setting of 0% and the tool face angle would be irrelevant. One would expect the BHA to maintain a relatively constant hole angle and direction.

Directional drilling with an RS system can produce long, consistent curve rates that are smooth and predictable. These systems also allow greater overall penetration rates for a well; however, a TVD difference can develop when settings change between survey points, as in Fig. 4.

That figure shows an example from a North Sea well during its final build to horizontal. A bit run with a steerable motor finished at about 3,100 ft and was followed by an RS run. Four different tool settings were subsequently applied over the 3,100-4,000 ft interval. The continuous inclination measurements demonstrate the consistency in build angle for each set. Stationary surveys were taken after drilling each pipe stand. In two cases the steering settings were changed between stationary survey points resulting in an apparent "rounding the corner" effect between the continuous and stationary inclinations. Such corners can cause up to a 2-ft TVD difference-occurrence and in this case accumulated to about a 3-ft TVD difference. Effects of lithology Lithology changes such as tight streaks, changes in rock strength, and changing bed dip angle can alter directional tendencies. When these are encountered between survey stations, a rounding the corner effect, similar to what happens with RS systems, can result in TVD positional differences.

Typically isolated incidents, these events are difficult to detect with long survey intervals. Tight streaks can result in a large dogleg over a short interval and cause drilling and completion problems in addition to TVD differences. By monitoring the cDNI data in real-time, these events can be identified and remedial action taken to minimize their effects.

Fig. 5 shows the reaction of an RS drilling assembly with a high-density tight streak in a horizontal wellbore. The trajectory decreases to 82 from 95 inclination while drilling a sinusoidal horizontal well profile.

The bit hits the bottom of a hard streak at 5,750 ft and bounces down, as shown by the continuous inclination. Bottomhole assembly (BHA) stiffness causes the inclination to recover and the bit hits the hard streak a second time before the general downward tendency in inclination continues. The stationary surveys do not register this event. In this case, the TVD positional differences cancel out. The dip interpretation, using an image log and stationary surveys, would indicate folded beds and dip changes. Interpretations of continuous surveys, on the other hand, would indicate that the bed dip is constant and the wellbore is kinked. Changes in directional drilling and surveying practices could lead to a reduction in positional errors arising from nonconstant wellbore curvature. While drilling, postdrilling surveys

Many have believed that the nonconstant curvature caused by slide and rotate drilling with PDMs is reamed out by pipe rotation and tripping actions as the well progresses. Some have thought that wellbore tortuosity and positional difference were thereby eliminated, resulting in a smooth borehole. This assumption was long unquestioned until continuous surveys made while drilling could be compared with continuous gyro surveys taken after drilling each section. Fig. 1 shows stationary, continuous measurement-while-drilling (MWD), and continuous gyro inclination survey data from a 1,000 ft, 121/4-in. diameter section of a North Sea well. Angle was built during the slide sections and held during rotation, as previously demonstrated in Part 1.

Gyro data taken after drilling the 121/4-in. section show that some reduction in the curve rate tortuosity did occur as drilling progressed; however, a majority of the tortuosity remained. Positional errors, sensor accuracy The positional difference found when computing wellbore location from directional surveys with nonconstant curvature is not the same as the positional accuracy calculated with accepted error models. Be careful not to confuse the two; such a comparison is misleading. One is an accuracy based on sensor characteristics, while the other is an effect based on sensor use. Both of these attributes of survey analysis are real and independent of each other. There are distinct and separate methods for reducing the effects of both sensor accuracy and nonconstant curvature. The survey accuracy issue affects every directional well. The nonconstant curvature issue affects wells in which curvature changes significantly, and survey spacing is greater than 45 ft. The population of wells with this positional problem is clearly a subset of wells with sensor-accuracy issues. Back track or move forward? The problem of positional difference resulting from nonconstant curvature in wellbores has gradually crept into directional drilling practices. Several solutions are available based on modifying directional drilling methods, survey calculations, and procedures in drilling measurements. The obvious solution to this problem would be to go back to taking surveys every 30 ft. Analyses made during the studies cited in Part 2 indicate that positional differences would be reduced by more than 90% by returning to 30-ft surveys. Fig. 2 shows how using 30-ft stationary surveys reduces the TVD difference between continuous and stationary inclination measurements. Since there is yet no methodology for combining stationary and continuous survey data and maintaining manageable sensor error models, returning to 30-ft survey stations is the simplest way to minimize this problem consistently. It would not require the introduction of new procedures to the directional drilling industry. It would, however, greatly reduce a popular feature of top-drive drilling by interrupting the drilling of 90-ft hole sections. To return to 30-ft surveying would add time and, therefore, operational cost. One estimate showed that adding back the two surveys per stand would require another $50,000/offshore

well on average, more in deepwater situations. Yet why return to this older, less-efficient procedure when continuous survey data exist? Several alternatives exist.

A balanced sliding approach A closer look at how positional differences develop shows that the problem occurs as a result of where in the drilling sequence the stationary surveys are taken relative to where within each stand of pipe the directional driller chooses to slide. Two things could be changed: the surveys could be taken at different depths, and the depths of the slide sections could be changed. Currently, surveys are taken after drilling a stand and as close to the bottom of the hole as possible without increasing the risk of sticking the pipe. This procedure is nearly universal in directional drilling. Placement of the slide section for each stand of pipe is more discretionary, however. The directional driller typically decides the footage needed for each slide section to achieve trajectory objectives. The slide is usually placed in the first part of the stand being drilled, taking hole cleaning procedures and sticking avoidance into consideration. Taking positional issues into consideration at this point should not be a problem. The location of a slide section within the drilling of a stand of pipe can be balanced to minimize the effect of noncontinuous curvature on wellbore position. This would not eliminate the contrasting curvatures found with PDM drilling, but it would alter the locations of these curvatures so that they cancel out one another before positional differences can accumulate. Half of the difference between continuous and stationary survey data would be above the line drawn between stationary surveys, and half would be below. The net difference would be zero.

Factors that must be considered to balance a slide section include: the distance from the bit to the MWD survey sensor, the standard stationary surveying distance off-bottom, the stand length, and the slide section length. Fig. 3 shows how these factors come together to produce the desired result.

This is an easy computation that the directional driller can make for each stand of pipe to determine a recommended footage to drill in rotary mode in the stand before initiating sliding. Should hole cleaning, stability, or sticking problems override this recommendation, the stationary survey location can be changed to balance the slide. Operational procedures for implementing this solution currently are under investigation, including real-time analysis of continuous and stationary survey data to minimize the delta TVD difference between the two survey sets. Other alternatives It is feasible to develop a new method for calculating position from survey data that account for nonconstant curvature. Several approaches are possible, based on previous knowledge of the curve rates for slide and rotary directional drilling. The location and tool face for slide sections, commonly found in a directional driller's slide sheets, could be used in this type of survey calculation. This may be the best solution for historical data that do not include continuous survey measurements, but do include records of directional tactical operations in well reports. Simulated surveys could be added to the stationary survey data based on continuous survey results. These simulated surveys would have the effect of altering the positional calculation in the stationary surveys so that it matches the position calculated from the continuous surveys alone.

This approach achieves the desired result, but it has problems. One is that there are many ways to make the calculation. Another is the number of simulated surveys to be used between the stationary surveys. The availability of continuous surveying today will allow these solutions to be further developed and tested. Using these data in real-time to compare and contrast survey results would significantly help to improve the placement of directional wells. Findings Positional errors can result from nonconstant curvature between stationary surveys taken at spacings of 90 ft or greater. These errors have crept into directional drilling with the wide use of PDM steerable motors and top drive systems. Analysis of continuous MWD and gyro survey data has quantified two facts: survey frequency matters, and traditionally placed, 90-ft surveys are inadequate when TVD position is important. In fact, up to 60% of horizontal wells may have positional errors because of current directional drilling and surveying practices. Positional errors can result from the relationship between the location of stationary surveys and the nature of slide and rotate directional drilling patterns. Balancing the location of the slide sections is a nonintrusive, low-cost method that greatly reduces potential errors. Rotary steerable systems produce wellbores with a more constant curvature. Thus, potential positional errors are greatly reduced. Care must be taken to obtain survey data at points where the settings are changed. Monitoring positional differences between continuous and stationary measurements in realtime and taking additional stationary surveys when necessary effectively minimize the four primary sources of TVD positional errors. New methods of calculating the position of a wellbore from stationary survey data are possible and numerous. Long-term, accurate, continuous survey data, supported by a proven data error model, can be combined with normal stationary surveys taken every stand to provide unprecedented wellbore positional accuracy. At the same time, real-time surveys can be used for definitive survey purposes.

Drilling on Muskeg Using Mats

Mats are high density polyethylene

Photos: (Top) Spring Thaw, Middle: Using Mats Photos (Bottom Left) Lease Road, (Bottom Right) Lease Road with mats

Coiled Tubing

One of the greatest advantages of coiled tubing is the capability to re-enter a live well. This eliminates the potential of damaging the formation or reservoir by killing the well with heavy weight fluid before removing production tubing as is done with conventional workovers.

Coiled tubing runs in and out of the wellbore faster than conventional pipe since it is continuous tube. There is no need to stop and connect pipe joints (advantage in underbalanced drilling); it is also possible to circulate continually while tubing runs in and out of the wellbore.

Most coiled tubing (CT) applications are aimed at increasing production, by removing sand, scale deposits and debris from the wellbore or by stimulating the formation by acidizing or fracturing. Coiled tubing sizes range from 1 to 3 1/2 inch outside diameter high strength, low alloy steel. Exxon-Mobil is drilling 10,675 m wells on Sakhalin Island using 2 3/8 in. CT

The massive 19-foot diameter reel for Halliburton's new high pressure, high temperature coiled tubing system can handle 36,000 feet of 2 3/8-inch, 120,000 pound yield strength tubing. The coiled tubing string, the longest ever deployed, is constructed of 120,000 pounds yield strength alloy steel, which also makes it the strongest ever built. In addition, the system includes a 750-ton capacity tension lift frame, twice the size of normal lift frames, a gigantic 19-foot diameter reel capable of handling the 36,000 feet of 2 3/8-inch coiled

tubing and a 135,000-pound injector. "Other coiled tubing units that are available in the GOM typically have injectors with pull capacities of 40,000, 60,000, 80,000, 95,000 or 100,000 pound-force," explains Perry Courville, product manager, Production Optimization Division, Halliburton's Energy Services Group. "The 135,000 pound-force injector significantly increases the pull-off-bottom potential for this unit in comparison to other coiled tubing units in the Gulf of Mexico." The blowout preventor package for the new system, for example, is rated to 15,000 psi. While there are other coiled tubing units with an equivalent pressure rated BOP, they are not equipped with as large a flange and bore diameter. The primary element of the coiled tubing unit is the coiled tubing pipe itself, Courville says. "All of the surface equipment components were designed and constructed around the ability to deploy 2 3/8-inch diameter coiled tubing. The depth requirement relates to the ability to store on a reel package the necessary pipe footage and weight including the fluid inside the pipe." Specifications of the system include a zone 2 power package, H2S rated BOP, an air-purged zone 2 operator's cabin and an electronic data acquisition system.

Coiled Tubing: The Next Generation

A History of Coiled Tubing (Wright TR Jr and Sas-Jaworsky II A (eds): World Oils Coiled Tubing Handbook. Houston, Texas, USA: Gulf Publishing Co. (1998): Early coiled tubing (CT) technology can be traced to project PLUTO (Pipe Lines Under The Ocean)a top-secret effort to install pipelines across the English Channel during World War II.1 In June 1944, Allied engineers deployed several pipelines to provide fuel for D-day invasion forces. Most of the lines were fabricated from 40-ft [12-m] joints of 3in. inside diameter (ID), 0.212-in. wall thickness steel pipe welded together to form 4,000ft [1,220-m] sections. These larger pipe sections were welded end-to-end, spooled onto 40-ft diameter floating drums and towed behind cable-laying vessels. Successful deployment of 23 pipelines ranging in length from 30 to 70 miles [48 to 113 km] set the stage for future development and use of coiled tubing in oil and gas wells. Elements of modern CT injector heads can be found in a device developed by Bowen Tools during the early 1960s for deploying radio antennae to the ocean surface from submarines submerged as deep as 600 ft [183 m]. The antennae were stored on a spool beneath the injector for easy extension and retrieval. These basic concepts aided in the design of CT units and injector systems. The first such unit, built by Bowen Tools and the California Oil Company in 1962, included an injector rated for surface loads up to 30,000 lbm [13,608 kg] that ran a continuous string of 1.315-in. outside diameter (OD) pipe. The units 9-ft [2.7-m] diameter storage reel included a hub with a rotating fluid swivel to allow continuous pumping down the coiled tubing.

However, low yield-strength steels and the numerous end-to-end, or butt, welds required to fabricate continuous tubing could not withstand repeated bending cycles and high tensile loads. Weld failures, equipment breakdowns and fishing operations to retrieve lost coiled tubing caused operators to lose confidence in this technique. From the 1960s through the 1970s, manufacturing companies, including Bowen Tools, Brown Oil Tools, Uni-Flex, Inc., Hydra Rig Inc. and Otis Engineering, continued making improvements in CT equipment and injector heads. These changes allowed larger coiled tubing sizes to be used at greater working depths, improved coiled tubing performance and reliability, and reduced the number of surface equipment failures. Unfortunately, an overall poor success rate and a reputation for limited reliability continued to plague CT operations. The late 1970s and early 1980s represented a turning point for coiled tubing, which up to that time was milled, or formed, in 1,500-ft [457-m] sections. In 1978, improved manufacturing quality and continuous milling allowed fabrication of 1 in. OD pipe. In 1980, Southwestern Pipe introduced 70,000-psi (70-ksi) [483-MPa] high-strength, lowalloy (HSLA) steel for coiled tubing. The early 1980s saw the introduction of 1 1/2-in. and 1 in. OD coiled tubing. In 1983, Quality Tubing Inc. began using 3,000-ft [914-m] sheets of Japanese steel to reduce the number of required welds by 50%. Later in the 1980s, Quality Tubing introduced bias welding to eliminate butt welds. This process involved cutting flat steel strips diagonally to enhance coiled tubing strength and life by spreading the heat-affected weld zone spirally around the tube. In addition, a better understanding of coiled tubing fatigue enabled improvements in reliability and pipe performance. In 1990, the first string of 2-in. coiled tubing was milled for a permanent well completion. Soon after that suppliers began manufacturing 2 3/8-, 2 5/8-, 2 7/8-, 3 1/2- and 4 in. OD sizes for well-servicing applications. Today, coiled tubing is manufactured from steel with high yield strengths of 90, 100, 110 and 120 ksi [620, 689, 758 and 827 MPa], as well as corrosion resistant alloys. Higher strength steel, larger diameters and the need to reduce costs were key factors behind the CT revolution of the 1990s, and subsequently accounted for the extraordinary increase in concentric, or through-tubing, well-intervention work. Once considered high-risk and applicable only for niche services, coiled tubing (CT) is now an essential tool for many well-intervention operations. In the late 1980s and throughout the 1990s, this technology gained wider acceptance among operators because of its ability to reduce overall costs, greatly improved reliability and an expanding range of applications, which resulted in significantly increased CT activity Used generically, coiled tubing describes continuous lengths of small-diameter steel pipe, related surface equipment and associated workover, drilling and well-completion techniques. Since its introduction to oilfield operations in the early 1960s, CT utilization

has increased because of better manufacturing, larger tube diameters and advances in equipment that improved operational efficiency. Coiled tubing is spooled onto a reel for storage and transport. These strings can be 31,000 ft [9,450 m] long or more, depending on reel size and tube diameters, which range from 1 to 41.2 in. A hydraulic power pack, or prime mover, controlled from a console in a central control cabin drives the injector head to deploy and retrieve coiled tubing. The large storage reel also applies back-tension on the tubing.

The continuous tubing passes over a gooseneck and through an injector head before insertion into a wellbore through well-control equipment that typically consists of a stuffing box, or packoff, riser and blowout preventer (BOP) stack on top of the wellhead. This process is reversed to retrieve and spool coiled tubing back onto the reel. Modern CT equipment and techniques have several advantages over conventional drilling, workover and snubbing units. These include quick mobilization and lower cost, expedited operations with no need to stop and connect tubing joints, and reasonably high load capacities for deeper vertical and high-angle reach compared with wireline and slickline. The flexibility of working under pressure in live wells without killing a well and the

unique capability to pump fluids at any time regardless of position in a well or direction of travel are also advantages.

These capabilities are especially useful in wellbore cleanouts, jetting with inert gases or light fluids, perforation acid washes, acid or fracture stimulations and sand-consolidation treatments, cementing, fishing and milling, underreaming and underbalanced drilling. Adding an electric line, data or power cables inside coiled tubing strings facilitates well logging, downhole monitoring or control, directional drilling and electrical submersible pump (ESP) installations. Deeper high-angle wellbores are increasingly common and many are beginning to require remedial interventions. Going into deeper wells increases coiled tubing weight, requiring stronger pipe and injector heads plus improved fluids. CT is a viable option for these demanding remedial operations, but detailed planning is required to ensure job safety and efficiency. Better tubular manufacturing and quality control had a significant positive impact, but equipment optimization and improved operational techniques and procedures have been equally important in improving CT performance and reliability. Wellsite Efficiency A feasibility study in 2001 and subsequent engineering efforts resulted in a new offshore CT unit, which was launched in 2003. The automated, modular CT SEAS Coiled Tubing Safer, Efficient Automated Solutions system was first installed on a BP Valhall field platform in the North Sea Norwegian sector. A typical Valhall .eld horizontal well requires 5 to 12 separate fracture stimulations. To save time, BP performs drilling and completion

operations simultaneously on the platform. After well-completion equipment is installed, the drilling rig skids to the next wellhead slot. A large CT unit and a stimulation vessel complete the wells. The first CT run performs wellbore cleanout and perforating. The stimulation vessel then pumps a proppant fracturing treatment. The next CT run cleans out excess proppant, but leaves a sand plug to isolate the preceding fracture. The next interval is perforated, and this cycle continues until all zones are stimulated. In the past, conventional CT units operated with a 13-member crew. The equipment spread consisted of a control unit, reel and power pack, well-control equipment, two high-pressure positive displacement pumps, mud shakers, flow valves and chokes, and an injector-head stand. Recent extended-reach wells with 2,000-m [6,562-ft] horizontal sections drilled to tap outer areas of the field are more challenging than previous wells. The ability to use larger, heavier 2 7/8-in. coiled tubing would increase operational efficiency and allow completion of additional intervals, but required a redesigned CT unit. An evaluation of platform operations and requirements, and local regulations helped engineers develop the new CT SEAS unit. The new design targeted decreases in rig-up and overall operational cycle times to achieve a 15% efficiency increase and a 30% reduction in CT personnel. The resulting CT SEAS unit consists of modular components that are easy to deliver and assemble, produce zero discharge and optimize space utilization offshore. Flexibility in equipment layout reduces rig-up time and improves CT operations. Conventional offshore CT units typically involve 54 crane lifts during rig-up; the new unit cuts this number to 36. CT SEAS components travel to the wellsite preassembled and pretested on skids to reduce the number of crane lifts and the amount of manual equipment handling. The injector head is transported with the connector installed. A self-folding gooseneck and partially automated process for stabbing coiled tubing into the injector head limits personnel exposure to hazards. To simplify hookups and pressure testing, the improved skid designs have fewer valves and some piping is connected and tested in advance as modular components. Distributed electric control of valves in place of centralized hydraulic control reduces the number of hydraulic connections. The CT SEAS system has 36 hydraulic connections instead of the usual 84 of older units. Control cabin ergonomics allow operators to react quickly and efficiently to any situation. Automated process and equipment control reduces crew requirements from 13 to 9 members and allows the unit operator to focus on wellintervention efficiency. Process-control software incorporates automated safety features that reduce risk exposure in settings prone to human errors. During CT operations, job parameters are monitored, recorded and plotted by the CoilCAT coiled tubing computeraided treatment system for real-time data acquisition. The InterACT realtime monitoring and data delivery system provides secure Web-based, two-way communication that makes field data available at all stages of a CT operation.

The CT SEAS unit has improved wellbore cleanout efficiency and allowed completion of more difficult flank wells. The capability of running up to 6,000 m [1,829 ft] of 2 7/8-in. coiled tubing at faster rates has improved well cleaning, eliminated the need for frictionreducing chemical additives and reduced overall job times. In the new CT unit design, the current and future success of this technology can be attributed to platform designs tailored to CT requirements. To date, all of the targeted efficiency gains have not been realized on the Valhall platform, but with each campaign the team moves closer to those goals. The need for efficient CT technology is not limited to offshore operations. Schlumberger developed the CT EXPRESS rapid-deployment coiled tubing service for intermediatedepth onshore wells. This system comprises two trucksa purpose-built CT unit and combination nitrogen and liquid pumpoperated by three people. It provides the same capabilities as conventional units with five-person crews. The combination pumper includes a liquid nitrogen tank and liquid-additive systems, and provides electrical and hydraulic power. This unit is designed for applications involving relatively low pump rates, moderate pressures and continuous operations for long periods. Tubing remains stabbed in the injector head during transportation, and the bottomhole assembly (BHA) can be assembled and pressure tested prior to arrival on location. A dropin-drum tubing reel and innovative BOP pressure-test stand facilitate unit mobilization. For rig-up safety and efficiency, no hydraulic or electric connections have to be made on location. The unit operator controls the reel, injector head and BOP stack from a cyber-based control cabin, which utilizes available personnel more effectively and improves wellsite communication. There are also separate stand-alone control panels for operation of individual equipment components. Statistics from CT operations show that inaction or incorrect actions contribute to at least one-third of all failures. About 83% of the failures were triggered by a downhole event, resulting in forces that exceeded safe CT working limits. To address this problem, the Schlumberger IIC Intelligent Injector Control, which is compatible with both conventional and new CT SEAS units, provides automated control of CT conveyance. In conjunction with CoilCADE coiled tubing design and evaluation software, IIC technology ensures that CT operations remain within specified job parameters. This system performs automated injector load, or pull, tests and controls speed, applied load, depth and other parameters while running in or out of a well. This is particularly important during critical logging, cementing and high-pressure applications, or weight-sensitive milling or drilling operations. Predetermined trip schedules and slow-down points protect completion equipment, such as profile nipples. Programmed safety limits provide overpull protection and emergency shutdown for downhole obstructions. The automated IIC control system protects wellbore and completion equipment and helps prevent downhole failures caused by human error. In addition to improvements in CT units and surface equipment, a better understanding of stresses and fatigue and more effective pipe management have improved service quality and job safety.

Tube Reliability Results from an eight-year Schlumberger analysis of tube flaws and failures indicated that coiled tubing utilization efficiency is improving. A better understanding of tube failures and a focused pipe-management program contributed to increased CT reliability and improved service quality. As part of an ongoing Coiled Tubing Failure Analysis Program, Schlumberger investigated and classified failure causes and mechanisms. These data provide valuable input for research, development and engineering efforts, training and competency programs, and quality assurance plans. Based on identified trends and failure causes, Schlumberger implemented preventive field procedures to mitigate coiled tubing failures. The result was a steady increase in the number of Schlumberger jobs per 1,000 ft [305 m] of coiled tubing purchased from 2 in 1998 to 3.6 in 2003. The number of successful jobs between failures also improved from 100 in 1999 to a high of 235 in 2001. Schlumberger developed the CT Pipe Management Program to track and address tube flaws and failures. Failures while coiled tubing is in a well or being bent at the surface can have a catastrophic impact on safety, the environment and intervention economics. Significant improvements have been made to reduce the number of CT failures.

Tube materials, manufacturing processes and quality control before coiled tubing goes to the field have improved through an alliance with CT supplier Precision Tube Technology Inc. The CoilLIFE coiled tubing life prediction model helps assess fatigue damage and remove coiled tubing from service before it reaches the end of its useful life. The PipeSAVER coiled tubing storage inhibition system has improved coiled tubing handling by mitigating mechanical damage and corrosion. Training personnel in the proper use and maintenance of the pipe, and planning tools, such as CoilSAFE coiled tubing risk assessment system, help address operational safety. The Schlumberger global tubing inventory has aided in understanding coiled tubing performance by requiring that failures be recorded, analyzed and categorized. Fracturing and acid stimulation through coiled tubing erode or corrode the steel. Certain well environments, such as chrome tubulars, cause external coiled tubing abrasion, and CT

is being used at higher pressures, with the definition of high-pressure constantly increasing. These increased demands require a better means of monitoring CT integrity. Several CT inspection systems have been developed. The universal tubing integrity monitor (UTIM) measures tube diameter and ovality. Other systems that detect cracks and pits, and give an average wall thickness have niche applications, but none are completely satisfactory. These limitations drive ongoing research and development in CT inspection. Technology is currently being developed to address flaw identification and description, the effects of flaws on coiled tubing life, and assessment of related risks. The new ultrasonic CT InSpec real-time device, for example, monitors both ovality and wall thickness.

Wall thickness is directly related to tubular burst strength, remaining string life, string abrasion and erosion effects and critical load-conveyance effects. These measurements help users optimize string life and reduce tube failures in the field. The CT InSpec device does not address all CT inspection issues, but is a significant step forward. Combining this technology with existing magnetic-flux leakage or ultrasonic shear measurements may allow detection of localized flaws, such as pitting and corrosion.

In addition to improved CT string management, new developments are optimizing wellbore cleanout operations. Wellbore Remediation About 50% of CT operations involve removing formation sand, fracturing proppants or other solids from wells. These materials limit or prevent production, block the passage of wireline or other downhole tools, and interfere with completion and well-intervention operations. Conventional CT techniques often leave solids behind, requiring repeated cleanout attempts over an extended period, which increase costs and delay production.

To address this problem, Schlumberger conducted extensive testing directed at understanding solids transport by cleanout fluids. The resulting PowerCLEAN engineered fill removal service is an integrated approach that consists of specialized fluids, improved jetting nozzles, design software and a real-time system that monitors returning solids at the surface. Mixed with fresh water or seawater, PowerCLEAN fluids create a low-friction, high viscosity stable solution that extends cleanout effectiveness to 325F [163C]. Water, guar, hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), xanthan and viscoelastic surfactants (VES) can also be used with the PowerCLEAN system up to their temperature limitabout 250F [121C]. Previous CT nozzle designs commonly have forward-only or forward and backward jets that do not effectively remove solids from high-angle

wells. New PowerCLEAN nozzles have no moving parts, but create a swirling effect that provides continuous jetting; this utilizes fluid energy more efficiently and removes solids at greater than twice the rate of conventional nozzles.

The PowerCLEAN software integrates cleanout simulation with job optimization. Job parameters include circulating rate, CT running speed when penetrating .ll, particle-bed depth, CT pulling speed for sweeping solids uphole, and number and length of sweep before running back in. The software accounts for factors such as maximum surface pressure and pump rate, acceptable bottomhole pressure (BHP), entrained solids concentration, fluid leakoff or inflow and solids transport. Additional constraints ensure safe, problem-free cleanouts. The solids bed is not allowed to exceed a specified height that avoids drag on the coiled tubing, higher friction pressures and stuck pipe. In addition, the volume of solids that can be lifted above the nozzle is limited. This helps ensure that the coiled tubing can be pulled out in the event of lost circulation because of pump failure or excessive fluid leakoff. These safety constraints typically result in multiple sweeps to remove large fill volumes. The real-time PowerCLEAN solids monitor uses acoustic sensors to detect returning solids at the surface and help determine whether a cleanout is progressing as planned. This nonintrusive monitor mounts on an elbow of the flowback line. The PowerCLEAN system recently played a key role in wellbore-cleanout operations in continental Europe and the Gulf of Mexico. After hydraulically fracturing a gas well completed with a 7-in. liner, the operator needed to clean out the wellbore at balanced pressure conditions to avoid damaging the well. A 59bbl [9.4-m3] volume of bauxite proppant filled the wellbore from about 13,700 to 16,400 ft

[4,176 to 4,999 m], a length of 2,700 ft [823 m]. The maximum well inclination at this depth was 31 and the bottomhole temperature (BHT) was 304F [151C]. A 1 3/4-in. coiled tubing string pumping the new cleanout fluid penetrated fill at about 6 to 10 ft/min [1.8 to 3 m/min]. The PowerCLEAN software predicted that other fluids would not provide an effective cleanout because of the high BHT and large casing. It also determined that several sweeps would be required to remove solids that settled in highangle wellbore sections. Each CT penetration into the fill was limited to 80 ft [24 m], which minimized the solids dune height and prevented coiled tubing from becoming stuck if fluid loss occurred or pumping stopped. Sweep speed while pulling out of the well was 10 to 20 ft/min [3 to 6 m/min] to ensure complete fill removal. An optimal flow rate through the 21,000 ft [6,401 m] of coiled tubing was achieved at pressures below 4,000 psi [27.6 MPa] because of the low-friction PowerCLEAN fluid. Solids returns were monitored at the surface in real time. The well was cleaned without problems and 59 bbl of bauxite proppant were recovered. In another well, the PowerCLEAN service was used to remove excess bauxite from a Gulf of Mexico well in order to replace the gravel-pack screen assembly. This wellbore was completed with a 3 1/2-in. liner and had a complex trajectory with a 3 1/2-in. liner and had a complex trajectory with a maximum deviation of 70. At a BHT of less than 200F [93C] and a 0.75-bbl/min [0.12 m3/min] pump rate, the PowerCLEAN nozzle with a xanthan-base fluid resulted in an optimized cleanout. Based on real-time monitoring, cleanout operations removed 16,500 lbm [7,484 kg] of bauxite in 12 hours. A subsequent CT run tagged the gravel-pack assembly rope socket, confirming that the well was clean. After gravel-pack screens were replaced, well production increased from 0.5 to 2.5 MMcf/D [14,320 to 70,600 m3/d]. Downhole deposits of inorganic scales in wellbore tubulars are a serious well-intervention problem. Scale buildup changes the surface roughness of tubulars, increasing frictional pressure and restricting production. Additional scale growth decreases tubular flow area, prevents access to deeper sections of a well and ultimately may block the tubing completely. Extremely hard, insoluble scales, such as strontium or barium sulfate, may form when injected seawater breaks into a well. In Brazil, Petrobras used abrasive-jet CT technology to clean heavy barium sulfate scale from production tubing in an offshore well. The well was located on a fixed offshore platform and no workover rigs were available, so tubing replacement was not an option. CT provided a means of conveying mechanical scale-removal tools and circulating cleanout fluids without a conventional rig.

Methods such as chemical dissolvers, slickline brushes and downhole motors had successfully removed scale in other area fields. In some of these cases, however, residual debris fell to the bottom of wells and blocked the perforations, requiring additional cleanout operations. Schlumberger Blaster services use high-pressure jetting technology to remove downhole deposits. This specialized system uses solvents or special abrasive material to remove scale without damaging tubulars or completion equipment, such as profile nipples, subsurface safety valves or sliding sleeves. This technology comprises three techniquesJet Blaster, Scale Blaster and Bridge Blaster scale removal services. Jet Blaster techniques use conventional fluids or scale-dissolving solvents with a radial jetting tool. The Scale Blaster approach uses the Sterling Beads safe hard scale-removal system developed at Schlumberger Cambridge Research in England to remove hard, inert scales. By properly selecting particle hardness, shape, size, density and fracture toughness, researchers achieved unique properties that remove scale without damaging steel surfaces.

The Bridge Blaster technique combines a positive displacement motor (PDM) and a 1 5/8in. tapered mill with the radial jetting tool and the Sterling Beads system modified to prevent PDM clogging. This system drills scale deposits or cement plugs through tubing without damaging wellbore equipment. The small tapered mill partially removes the scale deposit while jetting removes the rest. Removal rates are higher than with conventional milling. Blaster design software helps select jetting tool geometrydrift ring, nozzle head, port size and configurationrequired fluid rates, expected treating pressures, abrasive material concentrations and scale-removal rates. The software also estimates consumables, such as gelling agents, mixing products and abrasive materials.

The coiled tubing BHA encountered scale at 2,546 m [8,353 ft] in the Petrobras well. Using a xanthan-gelled brine and 3%-by-weight Sterling Beads abrasive particles, the Jet Blaster tool achieved a cleanout rate of 12 to 15 m/hr [39.4 to 49.2 ft/hr] from 2,546 to 3,087 m [10,128 ft]. Pumping at 0.23 to 0.27 m3/min [1.5 to 1.7 bbl/min] with circulating pump pressures of 24.1 to 27.6 MPa [3,500 to 4,000 psi], this part of the job required 36 hours and three jetting tools. At 3,087 m, 60 m [197 ft] below the tubing and inside the 7-in. liner, the jetting tool was replaced with a PDM and a 21.2-in. three-step mill. This final stage took 12 hours to clean out 43 m [141 ft] to 3,130 m [10,269 ft] and completely consumed the mill. The total operation generated about 66,000 lbm [29,937 kg] of debris6,000 lbm [2,722 kg] of scale and 60,000 lbm [27,216 kg] of abrasive particlesthat were captured in the platform production separator. After the job, other platform wells had to be shut in for a short time to clean the production separator. Most scale-removal jobs now use a temporary separator to capture solids before they reach the production separator. Scale Blaster technology effectively removed barium sulfate scale from completion tubing and hardware in conditions under which conventional methods had failed in the past. As a result, oil production increased 1,025%, which resulted in a 19-day payout. It is common for wells in mature fields to experience scale deposition. Blaster services have been applied in several other locations to save time and money, including Duri field in Indonesia and several North Sea fields. In addition to use in wellbore cleanouts, CT has become an important tool in formation stimulation. Reservoir Remediation In Algeria, Sonatrach stimulates deep high pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) wells of the Hassi Messaoud field using coiled tubing-conveyed fracturing and new packer technology. Reservoir conditions allow low-rate, high pressure hydraulic fracturing treatments, which significantly increase productivity and prolong the economic life of these wells. Unfortunately, many wells require remedial cement squeezes or tubing replacement to address tubular-integrity problems before stimulation operations can begin. In the past, problems with conventional packers limited fracturing success because of differential pressures in excess of 9,000 psi [62.1 MPa] across the isolation packer. Some treatments resulted in costly fishing operations. CoilFRAC stimulation through coiled tubing treatments provided an alternative to conventional workover rigs. The availability of CT units was an additional advantage. Coupled with more reliable mechanical packers for downhole isolation, CT-conveyed fracturing protects wellbore tubulars from high treating pressures and abrasive proppants. CoilFRAC techniques are applicable for initial stimulation treatments in new wells, stimulation of bypassed pay and re-stimulation of previously treated intervals.

In October 2001, Sonatrach performed the first CoilFRAC treatment in Hassi Messaoud Well OMP843. Completed with a 4 1/2-in. cemented and perforated liner and 4 1/2-in. tubing, this well had pressure between the 7-in. and 9 5/8-in. casing. The CT packer was set at 10,660 ft [3,249 m] above a profile nipple in the production tubing. The treatment placed a total of 21,464 lbm [9,736 kg] of 20/40 proppant in the formation at a maximum concentration of 3.1 pounds of proppant added (ppa) per gallon of treatment fluid. The average surface treating pressure was 8,600 psi [59.3 MPa]. A 13,100-ft [3,993-m] 2 3/8in.coiled tubing string isolated wellbore completion tubulars. The packer withstood a maximum 8,800-psi [60.7-MPa] differential pressure at 9 bbl/min [1.4 m3/min]. Prefracture production was 860 B/D [137 m3/d] of oil; postfracture production was 2,280 B/D [362 m3/d] of oil. The treatment, including deferred production, paid out in 39 days. At that time, this was the deepest well fractured through coiled tubing. Excessive hydraulic forces

caused the packer to release twice during prejob injectivity and treatment-calibration tests. Bottomhole pressure gauges verified the modeling of downhole forces and guided modifications to the CT packer.

Development of the OptiSTIM MP mechanical packer for stimulation design led to consistently successful treatments. Modifications included optimizing the slip area,

designing a more robust J-type latching mechanism, and adding two equalizing ports and a pressure-balance section to the emergency release mechanism. Because coiled tubing-conveyed fracturing often induces difficult-to-predict, variable loads and stresses greater than those normally encountered by stimulation packers, software must be developed to optimize treatment designs and reduce excessive packer loads. This software can also be used to monitor job progress and make necessary corrections in real time. The new software and redesigned OptiSTIM MP packer were used on Well OML862, an oil producer completed with 41.2-in. cemented production tubing and a 5-in. slotted liner. This well had communication between the 4 1/2-in. production tubing and 7-in. casing, and between the 7-in. and 9 5/8-in. casing strings. The cemented production tubing made a conventional workover impossible. Performing a fracture treatment through coiled tubing isolated the wellbore tubulars from high treating pressures and abrasive proppants. With the packer set at 10,220 ft [3,115 m], a 10,000-gal [37.9-m3] calibration treatment pumped at 6.6 bbl/min [1 m3/min] and surface treating pressure of 9,400 psi [64.8 MPa] indicated a closure pressure of 10,300 psi [71 MPa], which gives a fracture gradient of 0.92 psi/ft [20.8 kPa/m]. The primary fracture treatment was pumped successfully at an average rate of 6.4 bbl/min [1 m3/min] with the packer set at 10,186 ft [3,105 m]. Sonatrach pumped 23,975 lbm [10,875 kg] of 20/40-mesh high-strength proppant at a maximum bottomhole concentration of 4 ppa, placing a total of 21,529 lbm [9,765 kg] in the formation. When a screenout occurred 24 bbl [3.8 m3] before the end of the flush, the pump rate was reduced to stay below the maximum allowable treating pressure of 10,000 psi [68.9 MPa]. The packer was then released and any remaining proppant was circulated out prior to retrieving the packer. The packer was exposed to an average differential pressure of 5,500 psi [37.9 MPa] and a maximum differential pressure of 9,600 psi [66.2 MPa] at screenout. The well is producing 65 m3/d [409 B/D] while Sonatrach optimizes the gas-lift system. Fracturing through coiled tubing in Hassi Messaoud field required modified packers and improved computer software to model downhole forces. These improvements increased the reliability of CoilFRAC treatments, which can now be performed in wells as deep as 12,000 ft [3,658 m]. Pumping rates can range from 8 to 25 bbl/min [1.3 to 4 m3/min] with 5 to 12 ppa. CoilFRAC technology can tap previously bypassed gas reserves and optimize well productivity, especially in low-permeability gas reservoirs. The latest OptiSTIM ST straddle packer provides added .exibility for selective isolation and stimulation of individual zones. Reservoir applications from perforating to selective zonal isolation and stimulation have generated several new downhole CT tools.

Advanced Downhole Tools Effective zonal isolation for CT applications requires inflatable packers that can pass through tubing, expand and then seal in larger casing. In the past, these systems were rarely used in hostile environments because of expansion limitations and susceptibility to high

temperatures and pressures, and corrosive fluids or chemicals. Schlumberger developed the 21.8-in. single-element CoilFLATE HPHT high-pressure, high-temperature through-tubing inflatable anchoring packer to address the limitation of conventional inflatable packers.

CoilFLATE HPHT packers extend critical concentric zonal isolation to previously inaccessible downhole environments. These packers can be run in vertical, high-angle or horizontal wellbores on coiled tubing or on jointed pipe using a snubbing unit. This eliminates the need for a workover rig and allows remedial operations without killing the well. Tapered slats in the tool body, or carcass, allow narrow sections near the end of a packer to provide the required load-bearing cross section, while the wider sections provide the necessary extrusion barrier and coverage for the inflation bladder. A CoilFLATE HPHT carcass restraint system (CRS), or internal crush sleeve, imposes a constant axial load on the slats during inflation that creates tension on the packer to ensure progressive inflation from the center toward both ends. This center-out inflation prevents end sections of the packer element from inflating first and trapping fluids, resulting in an inefficient seal, or soft set. The proprietary elastomer and packer elements are resistant to hydrogen sulfide [H2S], carbon dioxide [CO2] and other chemicals. Steel parts in the 2 1/8-in. setting tool are replaced by nickel-based high-strength alloy components to make the entire BHA fully H2S compatible. The composite elastomer bladder uses carbon fibers to eliminate axial strain and allows the packer circumference to expand freely. This design provides a reliable seal at final-to initial expansion ratios of greater than 3 to 1. CoilFLATE HPHT packers do not rely on a ballvalve to initiate inflation. A large internal diameter allows high-rate fluid treatments. A 2 1/8-in. CoilFLATE ST straddle tool version for stimulation applications uses the same principles as the CoilFLATE HPHT packer. CoilFLATE HPHT packers can isolate wellbore sections for pressure testing, temporary zonal isolation and permanent abandonment. These chemically resistant systems can also be used for sand consolidation, acidizing and fracturing, as permanent and retrievable bridge plugs for water and gas shutoff, and as a cement retainer or packer for throughtubing gravel packing. CoilFLATE HPHT packers were used recently for a deep, high-expansion, high-pressure cement retainer application in the Gulf of Mexico, a screenless sand-consolidation treatment in North Africa, and a high-pressure, high-temperature straddle packer for a stimulation treatment in the Middle East. In each of these applications, depth correlation was critically important. The wireless DepthLOG CT depth correlation log is used for well logging, perforating, setting sand plugs, bridge plugs or mechanical packers, and for positioning straddleisolation tools during selective stimulation treatments. This new tool combines a traditional casing collar locator (CCL) to detect magnetic variations at casing joints with pulsetelemetry technology that sends pressure signals to the surface.

Subsurface depth correlations are determined quickly and accurately by comparison with baseline well logs. Wireless technology decreases the number of trips into a well, saving up to 12 hours per operation on typical coiled tubing-conveyed perforating and stimulation operations. Flow-through capability provides unobstructed coiled tubing for pumping

services and stimulation treatments. The ability to drop ball-type actuators through the DepthLOG tool allows setting or inflation of CT packers, activation or release of downhole tools, and detonation of perforating guns. In Algeria, Sonatrach was first to use a CoilFLATE in.atable packer in combination with wireless DepthLOG technology. Remedial operations in Well MD 264 of the Hassi Messaoud field with two perforated zones required isolation and stimulation of an underperforming lower interval. To maximize workover economics, this acid treatment had to be conducted without a rig. A separation of only 10 ft [3 m] between zones at a depth of about 10,000 ft [3,048 m] presented additional challenges. The packer had to be accurately positioned to isolate a high permeability upper interval from the less permeable lower zone. An initial attempt without DepthLOG correlation resulted in packer inflation across the lower perforations and ineffective treatment-fluid diversion. The DepthLOG tool was added to the BHA, which was run in the well to a point below the lower zone. Two upward passes while pumping fluid and receiving pressure pulses from the DepthLOG tool clearly indicated casing collar locations. The CoilFLATE packer was positioned at the target depth and inflated to an internal pressure of 4,000 psi [27.6 MPa]. Set-down weight on the coiled tubing verified complete packer inflation before pumping an acid treatment. This operation created a maximum differential pressure across the packer of about 3,500 psi [24.1 MPa], significantly higher than other inflatable packers can handle. Immediately after completing the treatment, the packer was deflated, and nitrogen was pumped to flow spent acid back while pulling the coiled tubing out of the well. The production tubing did not have to be pulled and only one trip was required to achieve a sustained 326%increase in oil production from 238 B/D [37.9 m3/d] to 776 B/D [123.4 m3/d]. Inherent advantagesfast trip times and continuous circulation without pipe connections, live well intervention with improved pressure control and a smaller footprint for reduced environmental impactthat make CT attractive for remedial wellbore and reservoir applications are also advantages for coiled tubing drilling. Reentry and Underbalanced Drilling Since 1991, coiled tubing has been used to construct thousands of vertical and directional wells. CT drilling applications include deepening, sidetracking and drilling new wells, especially for shallow gas reservoirs and gas-storage projects and environmentally sensitive locations. After a decade of profitable operations, four CT drilling applications have proved technically and commercially viable: new wells to about 3,000 ft [914 m] safety-sensitive operations through-tubing reentry underbalanced drilling.

CT drilling is ideally suited for underbalanced drilling. In depleted zones, drilling underbalanced minimizes formation damage and differential BHA sticking. Schlumberger drills and completes more than 100 wells per year with coiled tubing. The majority of vertical CT drilling activity occurs in Venezuela where 30 to 60 surface-hole sections are drilled and cased each year. A self-contained CT drilling barge, designed specifically to minimize the impact of encountering shallow gas zones in Lake Maracaibo, was commissioned in 1995. Typically, this barge drills a 12 1/4-in. hole 1,000 to 1,800 ft [300 to 550 m] deep. Specialized equipment runs 9 5/8-in. casing, executes cementing operations and conducts wireline logging. Schlumberger has constructed more than 275 vertical wells in Lake Maracaibo, each requiring an average of four days to complete.

Operations on the North Slope of Alaska, including the Prudhoe Bay field, represent one of the most successful CT drilling applications of the past decade, clearly demonstrating CT efficiencies and economics. Two fit-for-purpose hybrid CT drilling units operate continuously on the North Slope, each capable of drilling and completing three wells per month. A typical North Slope CT drilling well involves a directional through-tubing reentry to access bypassed oil. To date, more than 400 North Slope wells have been reentered using CT drilling technology. In April 2003, BP-Sharjah embarked on an underbalanced CT drilling program to perform through-tubing sidetracks from existing wells in the Sajaa gas-condensate field, United Arab Emirates (UAE). The objective was to improve well productivity and unlock additional reserves with multilateral wellbores connected to existing primary vertical wellbores.

Since initial production in 1980, reservoir pressure in the Thamama limestone reservoir at 12,000 ft [3,658 m] true vertical depth (TVD) declined from 7,900 psi [54.5 MPa] to less than 2,000 psi [13.8 MPa]. Considerable gas and condensate reserves remain, despite a significant 20% annual production decline in early 2003. The operator believed that overbalanced drilling had caused formation damage, resulting in extensive well cleanup. Recent horizontal rotary drilling programs had suffered massive, incurable lost circulation and severe differential sticking, which prevented some wells from reaching their geologic and drilling-length objectives. Underbalanced CT drilling operations were designed for wells previously completed with free-hanging 5-in. tubing inside vertical 7-in.casing. Plans called for setting flow-through, through-tubing whipstocks in 7-in. casing above existing perforations.

After milling a 3.8-in. casing-exit window, the CT drilling BHAa specialized 3-in. wired CT drilling BHA attached to 2 3/8-in. coiled tubing and wireline heptacable, a PDM designed for compressible fluids, and either a 3.75-in. polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) or a 4.1-in. bicentered bitwould be used to drill underbalanced with nitrogen [N2] energized fluids. Three or more openhole laterals were to be drilled to access up to 10,000 ft [3,048 m] of additional reservoir per well. The initial phase of this campaign involved drilling 10 wells and 29 laterals with more than 66,000 ft [20,117 m] of new open hole. Up to five laterals have been drilled from a single exit window. Threefold production increases are common. In several wells, underbalanced CT drilling has increased production from about 5 MMcf/D [143,200 m3/d] to more than 25 MMcf/D [716,000 m3/d], limited by the flow restriction of 5-in. production tubing. These successes motivated BP-Sharjah to pursue additional CT drilling well candidates and extend the campaign. Directional hole sizes of 2 3/4-in. and 4 1/8-in. are considered optimal for CT load capacities, holecleaning fluid velocities and surface equipment specifications. However, 6in. hole sizes and larger can be drilled under some conditions, particularly in vertical wells. Because of BHA limitations, directional CT drilling plans should target build rates less than 50 per 100 ft [30.5 m]. Exit-window depths and CT drilling lateral lengths should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Over the past five years, average CT drilling lateral lengths have ranged from 1,500 to 3,000 ft [457 to 1,044 m]. With increasing activity, the CT drilling operating envelope continues to expand: a 15,800 ft [4,816 m] whipstock casing exit in Colombia during 2002 more than 9,000 ft [2,743 m] of open hole drilled underbalanced in a single reentry well in the UAE Sajaa gas field during 2003 the deepest whipstock casing exit at 16,240 ft [4,950 m] and deepest total CT drilling reentry depth of 17,515 ft [5,339 m] in Alaska during 2004. In addition to incremental production and improved reserve recovery, these worldwide CT drilling campaigns are yielding continual improvements in wellsite safety and operational efficiency. Accessing Lateral Well Branches In the past, reentry access to sidetracks from an openhole main wellbore (TAML Level 1 junction) or openhole drains and dropoff lateral liners in a cased well (TAML Level 2 junction) was not possible. This prevented remedial operations on individual laterals and precluded effective reservoir management. Schlumberger developed the Discovery MLT multilateral tool to selectively access all types of multilateral junctions using standard CT equipment.

The Discovery MLT tool provides CT-conveyed cleanout, stimulation, cementing and well-logging options for wells with previously inaccessible junctions and for multilateral completions without specialized diverter equipment. This acid-resistant tool operates solely on pressure and flow. Reentry operations are performed in a single trip into the wellbore.

A flow-activated bent-sub controls tool operation. Initially, the tool is indexed through 360 to establish the lateral orientation. After repeating this process to confirm the junction location, a pressure-telemetry signal to the surface confirms lateral access. Zakum Development Company (ZADCO) applied this tool in the UAE. Multilateral completions in the Upper Zakum field tap several reservoir layers with as many as 12 laterals drilled from a single main wellbore.

Previously, remedial access to individual branches was not possible, which prevented effective stimulation and production logging of individual laterals to evaluate treatment results and monitor production. Acid had to be bullheadedpumped from surfacedown wellbore tubulars or coiled tubing with the end of pipe near a lateral entrance. The majority of the acid reaction occurred at the entrance of the openhole section, leaving the remainder of the lateral branch untreated. This practice also created large voids that could collapse and prevent future access to the lateral or restrict production. ZADCO successfully acidized openhole laterals in two offshore wells using Discovery MLT technology. In the first use of this tool, ZADCO performed a selective treatment in one lateral of a well with four branches. In a second well, two of the five laterals were treated individually. These jobs took seven daysfour days of operations and three days of mobilization, demobilization and weather delaysand cost 65% less than using a drilling rig. Production increased by 11% in the first well and 30% in the second well, which paid back the investment in two days. The Discovery MLT tool has proved to be a simple, cost-effective lateral reentry solution that helps maximize the productivity and performance of multilateral wells. In another UAE well for a different operating company, the Discovery MLT system helped selectively cement a lateral and shut off water production utilizing coiled tubing.

In Oman, Petroleum Development Oman (PDO) successfully performed production logging in a Saih Rawl field multilateral well.23 PDO selectively reentered and logged three lateral branches to determine the water-injection profile and identify possible fractures in the formation. Artifical Lift

A CT-deployed ESP lifts fluid through the coiled tubing or up the annulus around a coiled tubing string. Prior to being purchased by Schlumberger, CAMCO company REDA installed the first submergible pump on coiled tubing in 1992 and the first coiled tubing ESP and power cable system in the UK in 1994. Today, REDACoil submergible pump technology installs and supports the ESP power cable inside 2-in. or 2 3/8-in. coiled tubing. The self-supporting Friction Deployed submergible pump power cable minimizes CT unit and installation costs. The cable is no longer banded to the coiled tubing during deployment at a wellsite, but remains protected in an inhibited fluid. The coiled tubing can also be used as a hydraulic conduit for pressure actuation of packers, subsurface safety valves or other downhole equipment. Controlling wells with kill-weight fluids prior to an ESP installation is expensive and timeconsuming, and often results in lower well productivity because of formation damage. The REDACoil system allows for quick, safe coiled tubing deployment into a well under pressure. Placing the power cable inside coiled tubing assures a secure seal within the BOP and stripper head during installation. Recent advances in REDACoil technology, including internal power, data and fiber-optic cables, have made it possible to produce high flow-rate wells at up to 20,000 B/D [3,180 m3/d]of fluid inside 7-in. casing. For well conditions that do not allow flow up the casing, placing a REDACoil system inside 7-in. production pipe isolates produced fluids from both the 9 5/8-in. well casing and the ESP power cable. CT continues to be a workhorse for many conventional well operations and services. Petroleum Development of Oman (PDO) used CT to optimize plug and abandonment (P&A) practices. Rigless methods with new cement and sealant technologies minimize costs while ensuring long-term environmental protection in these once prolific oil wells. CT saved up to 30% compared with P&A campaigns using conventional drilling and workover rigs. This represented a total savings of more than US$ 5 million in a recent 60-well program. As CT reliability improves, operators are reevaluating candidate wells and targeting more completions for through-tubing or concentric remedial interventions, including some wells previously considered too risky for CT operations. To that end, CT equipment and string reliability continue to be the focus of efforts to reduce downhole risks and decrease operational failures.

Offshore Rigs

Floaters The study identified feasible concepts for a deepwater harsh environment reasonably quickly because of the industry's experience with deepwater developments and extensive study of various concepts over the past 10 years. The six such concept types or groups (Fig. 2) are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Tension leg production (TLP) platform with and without drilling. Spar or deep-draft caisson (DDCV) production unit with and without drilling. Deep-draft semisubmersible (DDsemi) unit with and without drilling. Semisubmersible (semi) production unit with and without drilling. Floating production, storage, and offloading (FPSO) vessel without drilling. Floating production, drilling, storage, and offloading (FPDSO) vessel.

New concepts continue to appear, but these are mostly variations on the basic six themes. These new concepts also involve a long lead-time for proving acceptability in the industry and with regulatory authorities. This is particularly true for deploying new concepts in deep water and in a harsh environment. This article, therefore, does not discuss them.

The floating facility functionality covers the following five combinations: 1. Wellhead platform. 2. Production only. 3. Production and storage. 4. Production and drilling. 5. Production, drilling, and storage. The study matched these five functualities with the six concepts in a matrix shown as Fig. 3. The figure represents only the potential functionality of the concept and does indicate the technical feasibility for using it in a deepwater harsh environment.

Fig. 4 shows the main results from the ranking of floaters.

TLP

TLPs have been installed in up to a 350-m water depth in Hutton, Snorre, and Heidrun fields off the UK and Norway and up to a 1,200-m water depth in the Gulf of Mexico fields Ram-Powell and Ursa. TLPs have the main benefit of minimizing heave response, and therefore the concept is essentially for production with dry trees. A TLP also can combine wet and dry trees or include only wet trees, but it likely is uneconomic for the latter. The study, therefore, considered the TLP primarily for dry trees only. While a TLP provides a stable platform for drilling, it does not allow for storage of produced fluids. Also it can accommodate most riser systems because of its excellent motion characteristics. The TLP usually is a highly optimized structure, requiring highly qualified construction yards. This fact severely restricts late changes either in well count or topsides weight. TLP installation requires calm weather, and is thus exposed for waiting on weather. The greatest technical risks for TLPs relate to tendon design and installation. Hence, the extreme metocean criteria combined with water depth targets encompasses significant challenges for TLPs. Spars The industry has installed spars or DDCVs in up to 1,460-m water depths in the Gulf of Mexico's Hoover-Diana field and has undertaken several studies on installing the structures off Northern Europe. The spar provides a stable platform for dry trees and drilling, and the concept may also include wet trees. The design concept also can accommodate storage of produced fluids in the hull, but will require oil on water storage to be economical. The spar concept is insensitive relative to water depth, but the risers and platform motion (heave, pitch and roll) issues in the Northern Europe metocean conditions are a challenge, and will require large riser strokes for the top-tensioned risers. The spar may accommodate most riser systems. The spar also is an optimized structure that restricts late changes. It, however, is somewhat less sensitive to topsides weight changes than the TLP. Completing the spar would probably require a challenging float-over deck installation in order to be competitive. Other challenges relate to inspection, maintenance and repair of hull, air-cans, risers, and keel-joint in a harsh environment location. The greatest technical risks relate to motion behavior and mooring system design and performance.

DDsemi The industry has not deployed any DDsemis; however, several design concepts-studies demonstrate their potential feasibility. The DDsemi is principally for dry trees and drilling but also may include wet trees. Concept studies also have proposed storing produced fluids in the hull. The dry-tree case has challenges related to motion (heave, pitch, and roll) and the required riser stroke. The DDsemi accommodates most riser concepts and has less sensitivity to late changes in well count and topsides weight than TLPs and spars. Other challenges relate to fabrication (draft, height requirement), transportation, and installation. The greatest challenge or hurdle for the DDsemi is that it would be a "first of a kind" and the potential upside of using it may not be sufficiently great to counteract the associated risks. Semisubmersibles The industry regards semi technology as mature for drilling vessels in deepwater and production vessels, for harsh environments in relatively shallow water. sgard B in 300-m water depth in the Haltenbanken area is at present the largest production semi in operation. The deepest moored semi was P-36 in 1,360-m water depth in the Campos basin off Brazil. The production semi for the Thunder Horse development in the Gulf of Mexico will be in deeper water, 1,840 m, and it will be larger. Because of the motions a semi would experience in the North Atlantic, the study expects the semi concept to be considered for wet trees only, although drilling from the semi remains an option. A semi accommodates many risers and most riser systems tailored for wet trees. Its design is less sensitive to changes in well count than TLPs and spars; however, it is sensitive to topsides weight changes and cannot accommodate oil storage.

FPSO The industry regards FPSOs as proven technology for harsh environment such as Foinaven, Schiehallion, Norne, sgard A, etc. The extension of FPSOs to deepwater harsh environments will require improved mooring, riser, and turret-swivel systems. Again, due

to the magnitude of FPSO motions, the study considered FPSOs only for wet-tree applications with produced fluid storage in the hull. The FPSO can accommodate somewhat fewer riser concepts than the semi; however, it is less sensitive to late changes provided that it has sufficient slots in the turret-swivel system. The FPSO, furthermore, is robust against late topsides weight changes, assuming adequate space is available. FPDSO FPDSOs extend FPSO technology by including a drilling capability. The industry has undertaken some studies on this concept but has deployed no FPDSO. The FPDSO also was considered only for wet-tree application, with storage in the hull. The drilling function complicates the turret and fluid-transfer system. Also the simultaneous multi-functionalities (production, drilling, and offloading), increase the design and operational complexities and the associated risks. The largest hurdle for the FPDSO will be the same as for the DDsemi, which is the "first of a kind" risk. Its size and complexity, furthermore, imply that it will be very challenging to design, fabricate, and install on schedule and budget. Floaters concepts The study considers floater concepts targeting subsea completed wells as somewhat more mature than concepts for platform-completed wells. The six concepts were categorized in three groups with priority as follows: FPSOs and semi's are relatively mature. Some issues remain that need further development, but the concepts have no major constraints. TLPs and spars require significant development in some areas for application in harsh environment and 1,000-m water depths. DDsemi and FPDSO concepts also require significant development in some areas, and in addition these concepts have some aspects where technical feasibility has not been confirmed or the time and cost for deployment may be excessive. Risers The selected riser concepts (Fig. 5) include the following five main categories: 1. Flexible risers, flexible pipe only, and combined steel and flexible pipe (hybrid system).

2. Top-tensioned risers (TTRs). 3. Highly compliant (metallic) risers (HCRs). These include steel catenary risers (SCRs) that have single pipe with insulation, single pipe without insulation, and pipe-in-pipe (PIP) as well as lazy-wave risers; and compliant vertical access risers (CVARs). 4. Hybrid risers such as J-legs/Catenary hybrid riser (CHR), riser tower, single-line offset riser (SLOR), and concentric offset riser (COR). 5. Combined riser and mooring (CRM).

The riser screening exercise did not intend to rank the risers because each may serve a different purpose and apply to different floater types, but the exercise highlighted their advantages and disadvantages. Fig. 6 shows the main results. Fig. 7 defines the assessment of compatibility between riser and floating systems. Note that it does not reflect the advantages and disadvantaged for each system as presented in Fig. 6, but it presents the overall compatibility, which is mainly related to motion compliancy, technical maturity, and installation aspects.

Flexible risers Flexible risers are compatible with all the screened vessel types. The study considered them to be reasonably mature with a relatively well understood technology, unless the industry introduces new products (such as new materials or components, cross-section profiles, etc.).

These risers primarily are for production and injection with wet trees. Tieback of satellite wells to dry-tree platforms, however, is possible. These risers also can serve as export lines, although they have diameter limitations, which may require multiple lines. Conventional flexible risers have considerable worldwide shallow-water experience, including harsh environments, but limited deepwater experience. These risers have short installation times that may reduce installation costs, although the pipes are fragile and therefore may require dedicated installation vessels and crew. The risers also do not have much design flexibility because they are "tailor-made" with respect to diameter, pressure, temperature, water depth, dynamics, and service application. The risers have flow assurance issues related to slugging (shaped configurations) and thermal management because of a relatively high overall heat-transfer coefficient (U values). Other issues relate to accommodating pigging operations and chemical use. Long-term pipe integrity is another key issue because deterioration or ageing of polymers and fatigue performance of steel components. Limited IMR (inspection, maintenance, and repair) methods amplify this issue. Also undesirable are the high weight to tension (except for the hybrid solution with flexible and steel, or use of composite armors, both of which are new unproven products for harsh environment application) along with high pipe costs (in particular for new products) of these risers. Top-tensioned risers Top-tensioned risers are compatible only with floaters exhibiting low-heave motions and are applicable for dry trees on all types of wells, such as production, injection, and export. The risers may provide direct well access. TTRs have considerable worldwide experience in deepwater benign environments on TLPs and spars, and on TLPs in shallow-water harsh environments off Norway. The risers accommodate most flow assurance aspects well and are compatible with gas lift. Installation and fabrication practices are well established and understood, yielding low cost risks. These risers have a downside related to well-bay spacing requirements because of riser interference, in particular clashes with the drilling riser. The high-tension requirement, furthermore, penalizes payload sensitive floaters and may raise significant hull design issues. Also key components such as stress joints and keel joints (for a spar) face critical design issues, along with stroke requirements and design of tension providers. Highly compliant metallic riser The highly compliant metallic risers include several significantly different concepts.

Free-hanging steel catenary risers are sensitive to vessel motions and hence not compatible with an FPSO and FPDSO in harsh environment but may work for certain applications for a semi. Free-hanging SCRs comply best with floaters exhibiting low motions (TLP, spar, and DDsemi), with a potential use also on a semi. Risers without insulation only are likely for export, while insulated (external foam) and PIP solutions may serve as tieback risers for production and injection. SCR technology is relatively mature and numerous SCRs have been installed, albeit in less harsh environments. They represent relatively simple and low-cost systems (except the PIP solution). The systems have no severe flow-assurance issues, although they represent high U-value systems (except the PIP solution), and they accommodate pigging and chemical treatment. The industry understands well their design, fabrication, and installation, thereby lowering costs and risks. The PIP solution is an exception because of less mature design experience and analysis tools and methods. The systems have such critical areas as thermal buckling, pipe centralizers, and long-term integrity management of PIP systems. Key issues for all SCR systems relate to fatigue, soil-structure interaction, vortex induced vibrations (VIV), upper termination (stress-flex joint), and welding procedures linked to fatigue performance. Pre-installation of the systems is not considered possible, and this may affect schedules, particularly if a project has many SCRs. The lazy-wave steel riser exhibits good in-place motion performance and could be used for different applications on all vessels. Tie-in, however, to an FPSO or FPDSO turret is complicated. The study considers the compliant vertical-access riser only for heave-restrained floaters (TLPs), where they may serve as production and injection risers. It offers direct access with step out of wells. These risers have the same key issues as raised for SCRs and TTRs, but they have less fatigue and risen interference concerns. The riser tension and hence impact on payload are lower than for TTRs. The riser offers good flow-assurance properties and easily can accommodate gas lift. Its main drawbacks relate to accommodating a large density variation and riser buckling, installation (requiring floater to be pushed-pulled over), and mooring restrictions (including riser-mooring clashing). It also has a high risk because of the lack of a track record. Only desk studies have been made on the concept. Hybrid risers Hybrid riser systems also have several systems that vary significantly. They, however, do have in common the same advantages and disadvantages offered by the flexible risers.

All vessels may consider hybrid riser systems. Field experience in deepwater benign environment, however, only exists for the riser-tower alternative, which may serve as a subsea tieback for production and injection. Hybrid risers may also serve as export solutions, although there may be some diameter limitations on the flexible jumpers, requiring multiple lines. All vessel types can accommodate the J-legs/Catenary hybrid riser system, although no field experience exists. The system consists of well understood and mature components. The SCR response is decoupled from vessel motions but susceptible to localized VIV induced fatigue. The system can be partly pre-installed, thus reducing schedule risks (SCRs and long lead items such as the buoyancy tank). Multiple vendors and fabrication yards can provide the systems. The disadvantages of these systems relate to poor flow-assurance properties because of potentially severe slugging, limited remediation means (chemicals and pigging restrictions of flexibles), and complicated gas lift system. Key critical issues are long-term integrity of the tank and flexible jumpers, erosion of goosenecks, and installation of the tank and risers in a confined area. All vessel types can include riser tower systems, and SLOR and COR concepts. These systems also can accommodate easily gas lift at the riser base. The systems consist of well-known components, except the COR concept that has similar design challenges as the PIP solution. Because they can be partly pre-installed, the systems have reduced scheduling risks. Riser towers in less harsh environments have a track record. But it would not be recommended to have a dual structural and flow-path role for central pipe or a dual insulation-buoyancy role for the tower in harsher environments. The SLOR and COR concepts can be added when needed, whereas the riser tower has limited inbuilt redundancy. Key critical issues are long-term integrity and IMR of flexible jumpers, flow assurance (slugging, thermal properties, restricted pigging operations and use of chemicals), VIV fatigue of vertical section and installation (if towed, imposing weld fatigue issues versus using threaded connections not being qualified). Combined riser, mooring The combined riser and mooring system is an innovative solution, which is considered applicable for spread-moored FPSOs in benign environments, but less compatible with a weather-vaning FPSO in harsh environments because of significant dynamic loads in the SCR risers. Although technically feasible for TLP, spar, DDsemi and semi, the systems are unlikely to be cost-effective and they lack field experience. Furthermore, they are unlikely to be installed with a TLP, spar, or DDsemi.

Their main benefits are a saving of mooring-line costs and the fact that the systems may be partly pre-installed. Critical areas include combined use of riser and mooring (potential regulatory issues), tether design (including snatch loads), vessel-buoy-riser interactions, long-term integrity, complexity of buoy, and installation complexity and risks. Also, flexible jumper design and capabilities have potential limitations. Considerations The technical challenges of deepwater harsh environments are more similar to those already faced in existing (relatively shallow) harsh environment developments than to those for existing deepwater developments in mild environment. One, therefore, should mainly use the harsh-environment experience as the starting point for new developments in deepwater harsh environment. At present, concepts that target subsea completed wells are somewhat more mature than concepts for platform completed wells. This implies that more effort must be put into drytree than wet-tree solutions in order to achieve comparable maturity between the two main categories. One can combine several riser systems with the different floater concepts. The dry-tree units provide more flexibility to the riser designer than motion exposed floaters used for wet trees. A variety of riser systems is needed because of various service applications and fluid properties. Recommendations for development work for each concept are inherent in the colors used in the figures, as follows: Dark greenThis technology is applicable to deepwater harsh environments with some limited development work. Light greenThis technology is applicable to deepwater harsh environment, but it needs more extensive development work. YellowThis technology has a high priority for development to improve the concept's maturity. RedThis technology needs more extensive development and requires an estimation of the development time and cost. It is essential to recognize that the ranking matrix should not be read in isolation from the text of this article that explains the discussions at the workshops and sets the context and rationale behind the assigned colors in the ranking matrix.

Offshore Heavy Oil in Brazil-Marlim Field

Phased program lessens Marlim Sul development risks

To lessen risks, Petrleo Brasileiro SA (Petrobras) selected a four-module program for developing its large deepwater Marlim Sul oil field. Discovered in 1987 in the Campos basin off Brazil, the field has been under development since 1994. It contains 1.47 billion boe of proved reserves and an additional 1.15 billion boe of probable reserves. It currently produces 185,000 bo/d, 13% of Petrobras' oil production in Brazil, and 2.5 million cu m/d of gas. Lying in 800-2,600 m water depths, the field contains 14 reservoir blocks in a large 600-sq km area that require various development techniques because of the large variability in water depth and oil characteristics. The main development challenges include:

Subsea flow through long flowlines at low temperatures.

Drilling extended-reach wells or horizontal wells in unconsolidated, thin sandstones lying under a thin sediment section. Sand control systems for preventing sand production. Availability of lay-support vessels, drilling platforms, deepwater equipment, etc.

Geological and reservoir uncertainties during technical and economical feasibility studies.

Current plans
In 1985, Petrobras discovered the Marlim field in 853 m of water. The Marlim Leste discovery, 1,260 m of water, followed in 1986, and in 1987 Petrobras discovered the Marlim Sul field in 1,124 m of water (Fig. 1).

The field development plan includes four modules (Fig. 2).

The first phase of the Marlim Sul development, Module 1, consists of 35 wells (21 producers and 14 water injectors). As of September 2003, in operation were 14 producers and 9 water injectors in 1,000-1,500-m water depths. Of these wells, 20 tie-in to the P-40 semisubmersible floating production unit (FPU). Another 3 wells connect to the P-37 and P-26 FPUs, moored in the neighboring Marlim oil field. In mid-2004, Petrobras plans to start operating the Marlim Sul floating production, storage, and offloading (FPSO) vessel. The vessel will increase the oil producing capacity to about 250,000 b/d from the current 185,000 b/d. Nine of the 35 wells in Module 1 will tie into this FPSO.

Module 2 development started in 1999 with two-wells connected to an FPSO for an extended production test. This pilot test lasted until December 2001 and provided important reservoir and production information. To reduce development risks, Petrobras also drilled several appraisal wells in the Module 2 area. The company expects to start producing from Module 2 in 2006. Module 2 will include 10 producers and 9 injectors in 1,200-1,700 m water depths. The producers will tie into an FPU capable of processing 180,000 bo/d. The initial feasibility studies indicate Module 3 will need 23 wells. This phase has many technological challenges that will require innovative solutions. The area is in deeper 1,7002,500 m water depths and the reservoirs contain a highly viscous, heavier 14-18 crude. The wells in these ultradeep waters will require long horizontal laterals drilled in a thin sedimentary section. Feasibility studies for Module 4 will follow, with production expected to start in 2012. Reservoir engineering Marlim Sul has many separate reservoirs. Petrobras initially identified 20 reservoirs but newer interpretation indicates that the field has 14 separate blocks, consisting basically of Oligo-miocene and Eocene turbidity sandstones. Gas in solution provides the producing mechanism, so that the reservoirs require water injection for maintaining reservoir pressure. The pay zones typically are thin, between 10 and 20 m, with a maximum 100-m thickness. The zones have excellent rock quality with 25-38% porosity and 2-16 darcy permeability. The oil gravity is 23-27 in Module 1, 20-22 in Module 2, and 14-18 in Module 3. The development strategy involves having lateral continuity between producers and injectors. This requires both seismic control and high-performance horizontal wells. Petrobras obtained 3D seismic during the exploration phase and used it as a basis for determining exploratory and appraisal wells locations. These well provided information for calibrating the seismic interpretation and the geological characterization. The appraisal wells in Marlim Sul reduced data uncertainties because of the reservoir fluid and rock samples collected and the logging information obtained. Pilot production systems allow evaluators to obtain important reservoir information, besides contributing to production and revenues. But, these systems do not provide all necessary reservoir information and using only this information may lead to incorrect conclusions. The Marlim Sul development, therefore, has used an approach that evaluated various alternatives. This evaluation led to adopting horizontal wells for developing all of the modules.

Because of the effective synergy between the reservoir and well construction groups, the groups have reduced the horizontal well damage ratio to an expected 1.5 from the initially expected 2, with most wells now having a damage ratio less than 1. These low damage ratios have contributed to P-40 reaching its processing limit with fewer than the initially planned 30 wells. It was therefore necessary to install another processing unit, FPSO Marlim Sul, to tie into the other 9 wells. Well construction Module 1 has horizontal wells with potential productivity up to 5,000 cu m/day (30,000 b/d). Sand control and openhole gravel packs are mandatory in the wells because of the unconsolidated sandstone reservoirs. The typical casing program has 30-in. conductor casing, 133/8-in. surface casing, 95/8-in. production casing, and a 51/2-in. base-pipe screen that is gravel packed in an 81/2-in. horizontal section. Until 1997, Petrobras had drilled only 19 horizontal wells in water depths up to 900 m. Most of these were in shallow water. Now, it plans to drill all Marlim Sul with horizontal sections of at least 500 m. Its standard horizontal well design has four sections:

Three joints of 30-in. built-in conductor. A 171/2-in. hole with 133/8-in. casing. A 121/4-in. hole with 95/8-in. casing to the top of the reservoir at about 90. An 81/2-in. hole with 63/8-in. screen (51/2-in. base pipe) and openhole gravel pack.

Azimuth tools with an inclination sensor positioned near the bit have reduced the time spent on navigation while drilling the horizontal section. Also rotary steerable tools have improved the quality and lessened the time for drilling the build up and horizontal sections. These tools allow the bit to stay inside the pay zone and obtain a smoother trajectory. The polycrystalline-diamond compact (PDC) bits used have increased penetration rate and bit life. The drillstring includes logging-while-drilling (LWD) tools with gamma ray, resistivity, density, and sonic sensors. Drillers use a pressure-while-drilling (PWD) sensor to check for hole cleaning. Petrobras no longer uses the practice of drilling a vertical pilot hole to check for reservoir depth before drilling the horizontal lateral. Now, the practice, which has reduced total drilling time, is to drill the pilot in the high angle section and then set the 95/8-in. casing shoe at the top of the reservoir. Well completion

Completion programs typically use only one packer, inside the casing, whenever it is not planned to abandon a well temporarily. A well includes a tubing seal receptacle (TSR), without a packer specified. The packer is inside the horizontal lateral. Wells have 65/8-in. tubing instead of 51/2-in. inside the 95/8-in. casing. All producers typically have a permanent downhole gauge (PDG) and a temperature and pressure transducer (TPT). Injectors have a digital TPT inside the subsea tree. Petrobras does not include a downhole safety valve (DHSV) in wells because its Marlim Sul reliability study indicated that DHSVs were unnecessary for isolated wells. Eliminating the DHSV reduces operating expenditures. Damage ratio Petrobras stimulates all injectors in Marlim Sul to reduce the damage ratio. In the past, these jobs were done through wash pipe without mechanical diverting equipment. This often did not achieve damage ratios less than 2. But new technologies with diverter equipment are giving better results. Selective acid-stimulation tools allow stimulating preferentially in multiple stages in the same run. This reduces the time spent as well as providing good diversion and consequently efficient damage removal.
Petrobras usually does not stimulate Marlim Sul producing wells.

Chrome casing Because of the presence of CO2, producing wells have 13% chrome production casing for the 10 first (lower) joints. The chrome joints prevent damage to the casing below the packer from the produced fluids and galvanic corrosion. In the program, Petrobras increased the initial 5 joints to 10 joints to permit setting another packer inside the 13% chrome section if it became necessary to redrill the horizontal lateral and run a new gravel-pack assembly. Injection wells have a chrome 1% chrome injection string and a 13% chrome gravel-pack assembly. The wells, to prevent galvanic corrosion, also include fiberglass internally cased transition joints in the interfaces between the injection string and gravel-pack assembly and between the injection string and 13% chrome subsea tree. Subsea tree Marlim Sul producing and injection wells have guidelineless subsea trees with three independent vertical connection modules (VCMs) for 1,500-m water depth. A temperature and pressure transducer (TPT) monitors the production and annulus bores. The installation of subsea production trees on injection wells provides advantages for controlling hydrates and also provides more flexibility in planning. Petrobras requires that subsea tree manufacturers test all valves with gas, in order to reduce hydrate risk.

Petrobras uses a production adapter base (PAB) set on the wellhead housing before it installs the subsea tree. This allows it to connect-disconnect flowlines directly to and from the PAB, without depending on having the subsea tree installed. The PAB has the other advantage of allowing the subsea tree to be pulled for repair without needing to disconnect the flowlines. The conventional PAB is set after drilling the 121/4-in. hole because its drift is smaller than the 121/4-in. hole. It is set after drilling the 121/4-in. and pulling the BOP (blowout preventer) stack. The BOP is rerun after installing the PAB. Petrobras technicians have designed a new PAB with a 121/4-in. drift that will be installed after the 171/2-in. phase (133/8-in. casing) and before running the BOP. The 121/4-in. hole is drilled with the PAB and BOP installed. This practice saves about 4 days of rig time. Artificial lift The artificial lift method for both Modules 1 and 2 is continuous gas lift. Produced gas after being treated and compressed on the FPU enters a surface gas-lift manifold that distributes the gas to the wells annuls lines. Chokes control the gas rate and there is no subsea gas distribution manifold. All production strings have a single orifice gas-lift valve. Module 2 will include gas-lift automation for optimizing production and multiphase metering for increasing reservoir management control. Planned maximum gas-lift injection rates are 200,000 and 250,000 cu m/ day/well, respectively, in Modules 1 and 2. Wax Analysis reveals that oil from Modules 1 and 2 has about a 20 C. wax appearance temperature (WAT), indicating a potential for wax deposition inside the flowlines. To prevent wax deposition, the flexible flowlines have thermal insulation. Also, lowdensity pigs can remove mechanically some wax deposition. These pigs are used because annulus lines and production lines have different diameters. The pigs are pumped through the annulus lines from the FPU to the subsea tree and return through the production line, without interrupting the production. Other options are also available in case the wax deposition decreases production. For instance, Petrobras has developed and patented a nitrogen generating system that consists of an in situ chemical reaction between two nitrogen salt-containing aqueous solutions. The reaction generates a large amount of heat and nitrogen gas that fluidizes the wax deposition and consequently unplugs the flowline. Hydrates Hydrate crystals that form and plug lines and valves pose major problems in deep water. Removal is difficult because of the high hydrostatic pressures and low temperatures in this environment.

In Marlim Sul, the thermally insulated flowlines maintain higher temperatures during flow. This delays the temperature drop in case flow ceases, thus providing more time for reducing the pressure and fluids that make hydrate formation possible. The process facilities have a dehydration system and a means to check the gas humidity before the gas enters the gas lift or export lines. This helps minimize the possibility of forming hydrate. Also, operators can reduce the hydrate risk by injecting a thermodynamical hydrate inhibitor (ethanol) through the electrohydraulic umbilical from the FPU to the subsea tree. The annulus line serves both as gas lift line and also as an auxiliary line for displacing fluid through the production flowline. Flowlines Marlin Sul has flexible flowlines that have been upgraded for water depths of 1,500 m under dynamic conditions and up to 2,000 m under static conditions. Modules 1 and 2 have 6-in. or 8-in. static and riser flexible flowlines. An offshore laying simulation (DIP tests) qualified them for this application. The Marlim Sul development does not included any subsea manifolds because of the high well flow rates and short distances between wells and FPUs. This also eliminates the extra cost of manifolds. The program in Module 1 allowed for both bundle and individual flowline launching. For Module 2, Petrobras plans only individual launching of flowlines mainly because of the flexibility in having a wider range of lay support vessels (LSVs) available that can lay individual lines. Also, pulling a single line for maintenance is easier. So far, the project has had no severe wax problem in the 6-in. production flowline. Therefore the new wells will include a 21/2-in. gas-lift line instead of a 4-in. line. Each Module 2 subsea tree will have three vertical connection modules (VCMs). Petrobras developed and in 1992 introduced the vertical connection system (VCS). After some improvements, it has used the VCS in Marlim Sul. VCS is a diverless system (Fig. 3) that is simpler and costs less than other approaches. In the system, the approaching and positioning phases depend more on operational procedures than equipment, and the locking and sealing phases include connectors similar to those on the subsea trees and wellhead systems. The flowline, instead of being pulled to the position, is slacked off above the sea bottom. This allows the VCM to be moved towards the wellhead position without pulling the line. A cable or drillpipe string can handle the VCM. FPU

Petrobras 40 (P-40) is a semisubmersible platform that can process 150,000 bo/d, inject 220,000 bw/d, and compress 212 MMcfd of gas. Fig. 4 shows the forecast for the production processed by P-40.

Converted in 2000 from a heavy-lift crane barge, P-40 started operations in Marlim Sul December 2001.

P-40 is taut-leg moored (Fig. 5).

The taut-leg system is one of the technologies validated in Marlim Sul. Petrobras pioneered its use and currently has this system installed in four production units. Moreover, the company plans to use it in many other units in the future because this system allows for mooring in up to 3,000 m of water. Its main advantages are:

Reduced mooring radius, occupying less subsea area. Increased ratio between the load capacity and the total cost. Reduced platform offset movement.

This system consists of polyester ropes as part of the mooring lines and a vertical loaded anchor (VLA), an innovation developed by Petrobras and its suppliers. The VLA is designed to work embedded 30 m below the sea bottom. In Marlim Sul, P-40 and P-38 have taut-leg systems. P-40 is anchored in 1,080 m water depth with 16 lines. Each mooring line has 1,700 m of polyester rope in a total length of 2,150 m. The average anchoring radius is 1,800 m. A subsea electrical and optical umbilical for power, data and telecommunication transmission interconnect P-40 and P-38. Some power generated on P-40, using the produced gas, is transferred to P-38.

P-40 discharges effluents according to environmental specifications. The maximum in Marlim Sul has been 15 ppm, with the maximum month average of 8 ppm. The acceptable limit it 20 ppm. Well MLS-42H The MLS-42H extended-reach well (ERW) in Marlim Sul has reduced flowline length, thereby minimized the effects of low subsea temperature and pressure losses on oil flow. Petrobras completed the first offshore ERW in Brazil, Well MLS-42H, in 2001 (Fig. 6). The well, completed in 1,212 m of water, has a pay zone at 2,862 m TVD and measured TD of 5,211 ft. It has a 3.258-m departure and an 89 inclination. Fig. 6 shows how the well was completed.

For drilling, a Petrobras simulator for wellbore stability, SEST, and a well cleaning simulator, SIMCARR, correlated well with the actual drilling results. Drilling with 65/8-in. and 51/2-in. strings contributed to the successf because these string sizes minimized hydraulic constraints especially in the critical 16-in. and 121/4-in. holes. Drilling the 16-in. hole was the most difficult part of the operation because of the build angle (trajectory control) and wellbore cleaning. Optimized fluid parameters and tandem pills were important for keeping cuttings transport under control. Drilling with low build rates contributed to maintaining torque and drag within safety limits. The drilling and completion of the well took 166 days, and cost less than $27 million. MLS-42H reached a peak production of 43,00 bo/d in December 2001 and now produces about 36,000 bo/d, which is the highest rate for a well off Brazil. The well has a productivity index (PI) of more than 150 bbl/d/psi. It produces from a zone with 34% porosity and 1,308 md permeability. The oil gravity is 24, and the GOR is 530 scf/stock-tank bbl.

The distance from wellhead to P-40 is 7-km. The high production rates result, in a large part, because of the large 8-in. production riser and flowline combined with a large 7-in. production string. MLS-67H Petrobras installed the first subsea intelligent completion off Brazil in Well MLS-67H (Fig. 7).

The well is a two-zone injector with a 500-m horizontal lateral. The well is in 1,170 m and has a 2,714-m TVD and 3,605-m MD. The injection string has two electric flow-control chokes that allow selective injection to each reservoir, so that it is possible to control the flow rates individually for each zone, altering them according to the pressure monitored or reservoir requirements. This well started injection in August 2003 and is injecting 5,000 bw/d into the MRL-100 and 8,200 bw/d into MRL-260 reservoirs. BarBi Well The MLS-53H well (BarBi well) has a new design that lessens rig time by reducing the well sections drilled. BarBi is named for Petrobras engineers Paulo Barata and Luis Bianco, who proposed the design.

The new design has three sections: a 30-in. conductor, a 103/4-in. casing, and a rigid 7-in. liner combined with a 51/2-in. expandable sand screen (Fig. 8). The well construction includes: Drilling a 36-in. hole and cementing or jetting in 30-in. casing, with a 163/4-in. slender well housing.

Drilling a 143/4-in. hole to 2,350 m with combined casing string of 10 joints of 95/8-in. at the bottom, one 133/8-in. joint on top, and 103/4-in. joints. Setting the PAB and installing the BOPs.

Drilling an 81/2-in. hole to 3,335 m, including build and horizontal sections, and setting a 7-in. liner combined with 51/2-in. and 81/2-in. expandable screens for sand control. An external casing packer is set above the 7-in. shoe. Also the 7-in. liner has a port collar for cementing the liner.

Installing the 7-in. production string and running production tests after installing the subsea tree.

Petrobras finished the first such well in November 2003 and currently is completing a second such well. The Module 2 drilling campaign that will start in September 2004 adopted this configuration for all producing wells. Module 3 Module 3 requires a more complex development scheme than Modules 1 and 2. Some alternatives being studied include:

Drill longer and larger bore horizontal and extended-reach wells, especially inside thin and unconsolidated sandstone reservoirs and under thin sediment cover. New sandcontrol equipment will be needed in this low fracture gradients environment.

Improve intelligent completion technology to make it less expensive and more reliable. Include possibly optical technology.

Study the potential of multilateral wells for developing heavy oil, although multilaterals are not planned for Module 3 at this time. Design subsea equipment for 2,000-m water depth with such technology as largediameter swivels, valves, and risers. Also develop pull-in and inspection procedures for both flexible and rigid risers. Evaluate thermal insulation, line heating, and multisize pigging for preventing wax deposition at the lower temperatures foreseen for Module 3.

Optimize production by automating gas lift, and installing multiphase meters. Develop new techniques for dealing with hydrates.

Upgrade electric submersible pump boosting equipment for ultradeep water. Alternatives also include the hydraulic submersible pump (HSP) and multiphase pumps. Optimize the designs for large-capacity production topsides, with such equipment as subsea separators, new solutions for handling produced water injection and raw water injection, and new techniques for discharging produced water.

Developing new safety valves for gas lift and gas export lines to prevent or reduce flow back in case of damage or failure in gas flowlines near the topsides.

Petrobras' technological programs created to analyze and overcome these challenges include:

PROCAP-3000: Technological program on ultradeep water exploitation systems. PRAVAP: Technological program on enhanced reservoir recovery. PROPES: Technological program on heavy oil. PROAMB: Technological program on environment.

These programs involve the whole organization and, normally, are led and conducted by the Petrobras Research and Development Center (CENPES) in cooperation with the operating units.

Venezuela: Sincor Orinoco and Lake Maracaibo Drilling

In developing the Zuata area of Eastern Venezuela's Orinoco heavy-oil belt, Sincor has improved its overall operational efficiency through a multidiscipline integration at the planning stage coupled with real-time monitoring, from multiple locations, of well construction. Sincor is an operating company owned by TotalFinaElf SA, Petrleos de Venezuela SA (PDVSA), and Statoil AS. The company has multiple rigs rapidly batch-drilling horizontal wells from pads. This activity requires an ability to monitor and effectively communicate complex geoscience and drilling engineering data, in real time, so that intelligent well-construction decisions are made based on current information. Each rig site transmits real-time logging-while-drilling (LWD) and surface drilling parameter data via satellite, 300 km to Sincor's Caracas headquarters. The survey information (inclination and azimuth), along with the gamma ray and resistivity LWD data, are loaded directly and automatically into a Landmark Graphics Openworks database. The well trajectory with LWD curves then can be viewed on the seismic profile. Sincor posts the seismic profile automatically on its intranet. This allows the rig site team or Caracas team to view the information from their offices or homes, thus ensuring 24-hr coverage. Multiple wells are monitored simultaneously. With this information, the geoscience and drilling engineering teams both in Caracas and at the rig sites can immediately make more-informed decisions, such as for redefining the well trajectory. It should be noted that most of this technology is not new. The intention of this article is to illustrate how the various proven systems are brought together to benefit the project. Geology Sincor's Zuata area has very soft unconsolidated, Miocene age, reservoir sands. The reservoirs are typically either meandering channel sands formed within a major deltaic deposit or fluvial deposits dominated by braided streams. The meandering channel sands sometimes have sand bodies with limited lateral and vertical continuity, resulting in laterally discontinuous sand bodies. These discontinuities may require that a planned well path be changed during drilling. The braided stream sands generally are more predictable and match better with the interpreted earth model.

The overall structure has an average 2 dip towards the north and northeast. The northeast area has a more complete stratigraphic column, while the south and southwest areas have had more erosion. Existing faults generally exhibit only a few meters of throw and may have an additional strike-slip component. The collision between the Caribbean and South American plates produced the faulting. Well design

The extended-reach horizontal wells (Fig. 1) have three hole sections, as follows:

7. A 16-in. surface hole to about 400 ft measured depth (MD) with 133/8-in. casing for protecting the well from shallow freshwater sands. 8. A vertical 121/4-in. hole to a kick-off-point (KOP), usually about 900 ft above the target sand, followed by the build section with average build rates of 5-6 For the 12-24 wells/pad, Sincor uses a batch-drilling strategy that consists of drilling all the 16-in. hole sections for a particular pad, followed by all the 121/4-in. build sections, and then finally all the 81/2-in. laterals. Batch drilling reduces the job to a series of short and repetitive cycles that become familiar to the rig crew and supervisors, thus improving operational efficiency. Currently, completion of the sections is averaging: Two days for the 121/4-in. build sections, including drilling, running casing, cementing, and skidding rig. Three to four days for the 81/2-in. lateral sections, including drilling, running liner, and skidding rig.

Typically, Sincor has four to five rigs drilling at any time. With all rigs running, a new horizontal well is completed about every 11/2 days. Planning stage

At the planning stage, two processes are in place that help improve efficiency, in the traditionally labor-intensive task of generating an approved well-construction plan.

The first process in the prewell stage, which improves integration between the multidiscipline team members, is called collaborative well planning. Geoscientists start the process by generating a provisional well path generated from the earth model in the UNIX environment using Landmark Graphics software Wellbore Planned. The targets are directly on the seismic plane in depth, and the provisional trajectory is obtained by visually intersecting the favorable reflectors or sweet spots on this seismic plane (Fig. 2). The provisional well path is then accessed and brought into the Windows NT environment by the well planning engineers with Landmark Graphics Compass software.

Transfer of coordinates can be facilitated by a link from Compass, which allows direct access to the UNIX system. In Compass, the provisional well path is optimized for drilling engineering criteria such as build-rate restrictions, torque and drag limitations, and anticollision analysis (Fig. 3). Once the well path is optimized, it is reimported into Wellbore Planned where the adjusted trajectory is reverified against the earth model. If all target criteria are met, then the plan is approved and posted on the intranet. If there are discrepancies, then the loop starts again until both the geoscience and drilling engineering teams are satisfied. This workflow process improves well planning efficiency when compared with moretraditional planning methods. This efficiency is necessary, particularly when batch drilling 121/4-in. build sections, which take less than 48 hr to drill, case, cement, and skid the rig. Interactive drilling

The interactive drilling program keeps up with the rapid pace that the project demands by allowing interaction between the different teams involved in the drilling. The teams include drilling engineering, geoscience, mud-cementing, and directional drilling engineering. The program consists of individual spreadsheets linked to a central file that summarizes all inputs. Every team member can modify its sheet as required and can access the other sheets if necessary. The program is easily placed on the network or intranet. Such placement facilitates fast responses to program changes by all teams. The ease of use of the interactive drilling program allows last minute edits to the drilling program. These edits are necessary when wells are rapidly drilled and where adjustments are constantly being made on proposed well paths based on updated earth models and information from the previously drilled wells from the respective pads. Network

A major component of the planning and monitoring systems is the transfer and sharing of information between different team members at multiple locations. The Sincor Network has been established to facilitate this.

Each active drilling rig has a 64 kilobits/sec (kbps) data rate available for a real-time data transfer, e-mail, intranet connection, and internet access. The telephone and telefax also share this bandwidth. Each office, rig, and remote location is networked via the main satellite (Intelsat 805), with 64 kbps available on each rig and 256 kbps available in the main Caracas office. Two additional field locations in the network, Pariaguan and San Diego, have 256 kbps and 128 kbps bandwidth access, respectively (Fig. 4). All locations have full network, intranet, and internet access. Intranet access also is possible by dialing in from any remote location with preassigned security passwords. This access allows members of the multidiscipline teams to view the well information and plans, 24 hr/day, while at home or remotely from the operational offices. Information available on the intranet includes well-survey proposals, well-drilling programs, daily drilling reports, real-time window summarizing all current well activities and current drilling parameters, seismic cross sections with real-time updated well paths and logs, measured depth and true vertical depth logs, and ASCII files of LWD and survey information. Sperry-Sun Drilling Services' INSITE system provides the project with real-time monitoring capability. This system is a Windows NT-based data acquisition and management system, which acquires all LWD and surface parameter data at the rig site on the rig server. This setup facilitates data replication to a secondary server in the Caracas office. Rig-server to secondary-server replication takes place only as updates or edits occur, resulting in minimal bandwidth utilization. At each rig site, active sensors acquire the data. LWD sensors include directional measurements of inclination and azimuth, gamma ray, and resistivity. Surface drilling parameter sensors include pump rate, standpipe pressure, surface rotary speed, surface torque, and hook-load. Downhole drilling efficiency sensors include drillstring vibration sensors and pressurewhile-drilling (PWD) tools. The PWD tools measure annular and bore pressures that enable the calculation of real-time downhole equivalent circulating densities (ECDs). At each rig site, the information is acquired and stored in the rig server's database. The company man, wellsite engineer, and wellsite geologist have rig-site workstations that can access the rig server via the rig local area network (LAN), allowing well monitoring from their respective rig offices (Fig. 5). The rig server also replicates its database to a secondary server in Sincor's main geoscience and drilling engineering decision center in Caracas. Each rig drilling and transmitting realtime data has an assigned secondary server in Caracas.

Members of the multidiscipline teams can access the local database on each secondary server via the office LAN. This access allows well monitoring from different workstations within the office. Geoscience Standard log plots are available directly from the rig or from secondary servers for rapid log correlations (Fig. 6). LWD and survey data from each secondary server in Caracas are loaded automatically into the Openworks database where the earth model resides. By using the INSITE-to-Openworks (IOW) link, the system can update the data at any desired time or depth interval. In Sincor's model, data from each of the secondary servers (Windows NT-based systems) is passed directly into the appropriate Openworks project in the UNIX environment. On each secondary server, Openworks NT is installed in client mode, allowing access to the main UNIX Openworks database.

Once the data are in the earth model, the most practical tool for visualization is to display the gamma ray and resistivity log curves along the actual well trajectory on a depth-based seismic cross section. The proposed well path should also be superimposed on this section. Both gamma ray and resistivity curves are color coded according to predefined cut-offs. Cut-offs on the gamma ray give a quick visualization of sand and shale, while cut-offs on the resistivity curves give information on the fluid content of the drilled formations. The rapid drill rates dictate that data be transferred to the earth model every 2 min via INSITE-to-Openworks. The system subsequently computes six curves from this imported data using the specific cut-off values for the gamma ray and resistivity. Every 3-4 min, the system loads these curves for each well into the Openwork database. Then, along with an updated trajectory, the data are projected onto a selected seismic cross section generated using Landmark Graphics Stratworks software.

For each well, the system takes a snapshot of the updated seismic display with logs and trajectories at 4 min intervals and posts it to the intranet (Fig. 7). This procedure allows the multidiscipline team members visually to monitor a rapidly drilled horizontal well and to view complex ideas across the network.

The expert members of the multidiscipline teams can make faster and more informed decisions with the real-time monitoring of LWD and survey information and by comparing this to the earth model and predefined well path. These decisions allow redefinition of the optimum well trajectories while drilling and thus help ensure a maximum pay zone in a well. The capability to monitor and compare real-time also allows other critical decisions to be performed more efficiently, leading to better decisions and considerable time savings. These decisions include casing-point definition, navigation corridors, and openhole sidetrack determination. The real-time update of data into the earth model also promotes expedient redesign of future wells in the batch-drilling program. Real-time updates dispense with waiting to receive and import appropriate LWD curves when needed to update or verify an earth model. Drilling engineering Acquisition and distribution of real-time drilling data also have improved operational efficiency. During drilling of extended lateral sections, the monitoring of equivalent circulating density (ECD) downhole with the pressure-while-drilling sensor is helping to ensure better hole cleaning and to reduce the risk of either differential sticking or packingoff. Engineers at the rig sites and in Caracas can monitor the same information and come to a joint decision as to when to short trip or circulate the well clean. Optimization of these decisions saves time and avoids potential hole problems. Drillstring vibration sensors have monitored downhole vibrations. The effects of changing drilling parameters on downhole vibration can be monitored with visual warning displays set up on the rig floor and in the office. If excessive vibration is encountered, then alarms are activated and recommended changes to the drilling parameters are displayed. Reduced downhole vibration has extended downhole tool life and reduced time-consuming trips to change out equipment. Surface-drilling parameter data such as pump rate, standpipe pressure, surface rotary speed, surface torque, and hook-load are used to monitor and optimize processes both while drilling and while running liner. The push to avoid having to trip to rearrange weight components of the drillstring through the lateral section has been partially achieved by carefully monitoring surface parameters in conjunction with downhole ECD, which indicates the amount of hole cleaning. By the careful monitoring of actual data vs. theoretical torque-and-drag models, real-time updates of the models have resulted in optimized procedures and drillstring configurations.

This has enabled the lateral sections to be drilled in a single run without rearranging the drillstring, thus saving much time. The system automatically posts all drilling engineering data to the web page for distribution through the intranet with updates every 3 sec. The benefit of having drilling engineering information available in multiple locations is the ability to call upon more experts to ensure maximum optimization of the well engineering process. Experts do not have to be in the field and can overview multiple wells simultaneously. Human resources At the rig site, all associated LWD and survey data quality-control procedures are followed. The LWD engineer initiates the real-time transfer of this information to Caracas. Because the LWD engineers work rotational shifts providing 24-hr coverage, no additional manpower is required at the rig site to operate the real-time network. In the Caracas office, 24-hr coverage is also necessary to monitor the secondary servers receiving data from the rig servers and to ensure that the flow of data is current to the earth model. The system is stable; however, operator input is required for such procedures as changing well names with openhole sidetracks and to re-initialize the INSITE-toOpenwork link. The 24-hr Caracas office support consists of two engineers working 12-hr shifts. These engineers provide a secondary well planning role, redefining well trajectories if required. At present, provision for the office support engineers is included in the directional drilling/LWD contract. A single Sincor data manager performs intranet maintenance and Openworks database management. The roles and responsibilities of both the office and field-based technical team members have evolved to integrate the real-time processes. The traditional barriers of information exchange between the office and wellsite no longer exist. For example, this allows office-based geophysicists to work with real-time LWD data and wellsite geologists and directional drillers to expedite any recommended trajectory changes. Future plans Sincor may install a 3D "visionarium" center to monitor and plan future wells. This will further enhance collaboration between the technical teams in Caracas.

This new facility will also allow more complete drilling, reservoir engineering, and complex geological modeling that will be integrated into the planning and real-time decision making processes.

Photo: Pad Well Drilling Sincor

Photo: PdVsa East Coast Lake Maracaibo

Alaska North Slope Heavy Oil Drilling

The Alaska North Slope heavy oil of the West Sak and Ugnu formations that underlie the main producing horizons of the Kuparuk River, Schrader Bluff and Milne Point fields at depths of 10001200 m are being explored using horizontal wells and multilaterals. Alaskas north slope is shown here:

This area contains between 21-36 billion barrels OOIP. In the West Sak field, there is 1213 billion barrels OOIP. The Schrader Bluff holds 2 billion barrels of 18-22API oil. The West Sak formation oil gravity is 14-24API, while the Ugnu formation has 10-14API oil. Recoveries are expected to be 22%. The operators in these areas are BP-Amoco-Arco, Exxon/Mobil, Chevron/Texaco, Conoco/Phillips and Unocal. This area was discovered in 1969, however, development of the supergiant Prudhoe Bay preceeded any development drilling of these heavy oils. History The unconsolidated and weakly consolidated sands were laid down in the Upper Cretaceous. There are two siltstone and sand pay zones called OA and OB, each about 7.6 m in the Schrader Bluff reservoir. These Schrader sands lie above the separate Kuparuk River (2130 m TVD subsea) and Sag River (2680 m TVD subsea) reservoirs which contain lighter oils. There are nonproductive siltstones above and below the Schrader sands. Random siderite stringers are throughout the OA and OB sands:

Sand control equipment was installed early in the pools life, but that also reduced the wells productivity. A frac and pack approach was then used to hydraulically fracture the rock, prop it open with gravel and then add screens. The approach then led to frac percent control. Here, artificial coarse grain gravel was used as a proppant with a resin coating that glued all the proppant grains together to hold the sand back. However, the low temperatures (the reservoir temperature is 27C) caused the resin coatings and the gel fluids not to decompose and thus it was difficult to clean up the fractures. The produced sand and the produced proppant damaged the electric submersible pumps. Horizontal wells were then drilled in the late 1990s using sand control or no sand control. The major breakthrough came when multilaterals were drilled using slotted liner completions which reduced the drilling cost by 30%:

In 2002, a Light Automated Drilling System (LADS) has 1/3 of the footprint and of the crew of a conventional rig. Now, a well can be drilled beyond 3 km using 1 pad, 12 km of pipeline and 1.6 km of road. This reduces the footprint and the number of projected Schrader Bluff wells from 500 to 150-200. BP is working its way into the downdip area, closer to the oil-water contact and where the oil is even more viscous using multilaterals:

Photo: Alaska North Slope Seismic Survey Coiled Tubing Drilling Coiled tubing drilling sidetracks had been used extensively in Prudhoe Bay and this technique is now being used to target the Schrader Bluff reservoir. The project involved drilling through 4 tubing out of 4 , 5 , and 7 inch casing sizes. The following well designs were tried: A) Dual Lateral Both laterals were sidetracked out of a 4 inch L-80 slotted liner from the shallow high departure wellbore. The first lateral targeted the upper OA sand and the second lateral exited above the first lateral using a flow-through whipstock targeted to the lower OB sand. The two laterals were 684 m and 746 m in total lateral length and completed with 2 7/8 in predrilled liners. Faulting caused zone displacement and so sidetracking was necessary to complete the first lateral, but the second lateral was drilled, including wiper trips in 63 hours. B) Dual Lateral Both laterals targeted the OA sand but in different fault blocks and from opposite directions. Both laterals were sidetracked out of the existing 5 inch liner using 4 inch by 5 inch whipstocks and completing them with 2 7/8 inch predrilled liners. After 41 hours of drilling, the first lateral was built with 58/100 feet dogleg severity turning 180

azimuth with a length of 505 m. The second lateral was drilled to a lateral length of 802 m in 5 days using a smaller build section. C) Additional Lateral Using coiled tubing, 949 m lateral length was created in the OB sand by drilling out the low side of an existing horizontal lateral. It was completed with 2 7/8 inch predrilled liner. D) Dual Lateral Two laterals were sidetracked using 4 inch by 7 inch whipstocks and completed with 2 3/8 inch predrilled liners. The lengths were 717 m and 824 m. The Schrader Bluff Coiled Tubing Drilling Project used modular coiled tubing drilling and an evaluation bottomhole assembly (BHA). A bidirectional electric line provides power to the measurement sensors to give high speed control to the BHA. It has a 2 7/8 inch OD high torque, positive displacement motor with an adjustable kickoff sub for directional control. These motors reduce stalling when drilling into something hard with too much weight on bit and thus the bit is pulled off bottom less.

Above the motor, there is a electronically controlled hydraulic orienter and the downhole measurement sondes, directional sensor, gamma ray sensor and sensors for annular and interior pressure as well as direct weight on bit. The hydraulic orienter allows the directional driller to control the orienter with a computer mouse. It rotates within a range of 400 at 1/sec and allows for orientation while on bottom. The downhole data is captured every 5 seconds since in coiled tubing drilling, it is difficult to know what is going on downhole due to stretching and buckling of the coil. There is a modular resistivity sub above the measurement sondes which uses two transmitters, two receivers and two frequencies (2 MHz and 400 kHz) to make four fully compensated resistivity measurements for deep investigation and thin beds. There was good accuracy with the zero solids mud system and where chlorides can exceed 30,000 ppm. Above this resistivity sonde is a circulation and disconnect sub containing a bypass valve and release tool. The circulation valve is opened for circulation on trips, pumping pills, hydraulically setting whipstocks and to increase the flowrates in the casing after wiper trips through the open hole. The circulation valve is also used to avoid turning the bit inside the casing while pumping to prevent fluid freezing and to avoid pumping methanol (used for coil freeze protection) through the rubber components of the BHA. The upper quick connect allows connection to the coiled tubing without rotating the entire BHA. It contains a dual-flapper valve and an electric-line anchoring assembly contained in

a housing with non-rotating threads. The flexible subs between the motor and orienter and flexible lower quick connect allows passage through dog-legs severities of more than 45/100 ft. The bottomhole assembly attaches to the 2 3/8 inch OD (1.995 inch ID) coiled tubing with a standard coiled tubing connecter. Let us examine the drilling operations of the dual lateral case D) above. Here, the dual laterals were drilled from the existing 7 inch casing and through 4 inch production tubing to target the OA and OB sands.XXXXXX. The existing perforations in the OA and OB of the parent wellbore were plugged by cementing and isolated using a cement retained at 1387 m. The driller then set a 4 inch by 7 inch whipstock at 1383 m measured depth and 51 inclination, using high speed gamma ray and CCL for accurate positioning. The lower lateral drilling into the OB sand required a diamond speed mill, string reamer, standard positive displacement motor, a flapper valve sub the rest of the BHA. The BHA contained the whipstock, setting sleeve, setting tool, mechanical release tool,flapper valve sub, orienter, lower quick connect, electric circulation and disconnect sub, upper quick connect with CCL and the coiled tubing connecter. A standard short-radius motor with 2.5 bend was used and the well was drilled with a 40/100 ft build section to 1430 m MD. The BHA used the high performance motor set at 1.2 bend. After drilling less than 305 m (to 1716 m), the formation dip was found to be less than expected and the wellbore was going out of zone. The driller then performed a low side openhole sidetrack at 1482 m MD with a 1.5bend motor, and the well was back to 1716 m MD and drilling in zone.

Top Drive Rigs

New Tools

Drilling Waste In Alberta.

Drilling Waste in Venezuela

A waste-management plan reduced the cost for handling drilling and production wastes for the Hamaca heavy-oil project in the Orinoco belt of Venezuela (Fig. 1).

The project operator, Petrolera Ameriven SA, is a joint venture of ConocoPhillips 40%, ChevronTexaco Corp. 30%, and Petroleos de Venezuela SA (PDVSA) 30%. To implement the plan, Ameriven designed its central waste-treatment facilities (CTRD, or Centro de Tratamiento y Recuperacin de Desechos) with the technical support of two units of Halliburton Energy Services Group: Halliburton Total Fluids Management and Baroid.

The CRTD facility receives both heavy-oil drilling and production wastes (Fig. 2). The CTRD receives and processes both heavy-oil drilling and production waste generated by the Hamaca operations (Fig. 2). Ameriven expects that during the 30-year project life, the facility will process wastes from 250-500 wells. Its current development phase produces about 80,000 b/d of extra-heavy crude, and this will increase to 190,000 b/d during the commercial phase. Four R's

The primary CTRD objective emphasizes four R's: reduction, reuse, recovery, and recycling of the waste streams. This strategy already has realized important cost savings through the consolidation of waste treatment at one location near the source and implementation of efficient wastemanagement practices. Using an innovative design, the Baroid and Ameriven teams have increased wastemanagement efficiency by eliminating steps in the physical handling of drilling and production wastes. The CTRD has processed waste from more than 120 wells to date, in accordance with the minimization strategy (four R's) and in compliance with the Venezuelan environmental regulations.2 Ameriven currently estimates that the plan has reduced waste management and disposal costs at this site by 22% since operations began. All treatment takes place at one facility near the operations generating the waste. This helps reduce the overall cost for the entire project and simultaneously decreases potential risks associated with heavy-oil drilling and waste-management operations. Site selection Table 1 lists the typical drilling and production waste streams coming from the Hamaca operations.

Before the construction and operation of the CTRD, companies in the Orinoco area of Venezuela had few waste-disposal options, and only a few companies possessed appropriate experience to provide waste-management services. Previously, the main options, landfarming and landspreading, required transporting materials for long distances, thus increasing environmental and safety risks and the costs associated with waste disposal. Strategically situated on an old drilling location within the project block, the 1.3-acre CTRD facility was designed to reduce waste-handling activity at the rig site, thereby helping to increase operational efficiency and lower overall costs.

The CTRD provides optimized treatment capacity through use of multifunctional, interchangeable equipment and treatment technologies (Fig. 3).

Table 2 shows the components selected and integrated based on the three key functions of environment, economics, and technical. The CTRD is on an old drilling location with low environmental sensitivity, a remote, unpopulated area that previously was deforested and surfaced with asphalt. Therefore, CTRD construction did not require removal of pristine growth and habitats. Furthermore, run-off is controlled easily because the site slope is less than 2%. The groundwater table at the site is more than 80 m deep, and the stratigraphic evaluation showed that the site has 1.5 m of sandy topsoil that rests on 40-60 m of clay. Ameriven derived many economic benefits by centralizing the waste-management function with one service company at one location. These benefits include economies of scale, the continuous availability of specialized technicians, a useful selection of related equipment

and chemicals, energy conservation, and constant environmental monitoring of on and off site soil and groundwater. Also significant costs were saved from a reduced need to transport waste materials long distances for disposal. The CTRD has good access roads and is equidistant from the waste generators such as well pads, central operating base, and pipelines.

Adjacent to the CTRD are the recipient soils that have the required environmental conditions for landspreading and landfarming (Fig. 4). The area has sufficient space for fully installed and implemented treatment technologies needed for waste minimization management. Disposal technologies The team evaluated the following waste disposal technologies as candidates for the CTRD:

Dewatering. Centrifuging to recover oil from sludge. Incineration. Thermal desorption. Stabilization-solidification. Biotreatment (landfarming, composting, and biopiles). Burial. Well injection.

Reuse of some wastes as construction materials for well pads and access roads, or as treated fill material for the environmental restoration of abandoned pits in the Hamaca area.

The CTRD receives drilling and production wastes generated from four major sources: waste from the central operating base (COB), drill solids from Rig A, drilling fluid from Rig A and Rig B, and completion fluids from production. The facility can process up to 2,000 b/d of drilling and completion fluids, and it has storage and treatment capacities for 2,000 bbl of solids. COB waste Three main sources generate the COB waste: 1. Crude storage tanks (60% solids, 32% crude, and 8% water). 2. Electrostatic separators (28% solids, 58% crude, and 14% water). 3. Pipeline cleaning (no samples are yet available but Ameriven expects the waste to be similar to the separator samples). Based on these sample results and hot-spin tests, the waste is separated into two distinct phases (solids and fluid). Super vacuum trucks, 70 bbl/truck, pick up the COB waste and then deliver and discharge it into two 500-bbl agitator tanks. One receiving agitator tank holds about six truckloads plus about 15% diluents (light crude). The resultant mixture is heated to about 55 C. (131 F.) and continuously agitated before being pumped at 30-40 gpm to centrifuges, set up in series or parallel depending on final product-quality requirements. The resultant fluid discharge is analyzed to ensure it contains no more than 5% solids. It is then stored in two 500-bbl tanks before being transported back to the COB. At the COB, the fluid is mixed with the dilute crude before separation of the associated gas and produced water. Analysis ensures that the solids discharge complies with the Venezuelan environmental regulations on the level of oil-on-solids (OOS). The discharged solids are then bulked up with sand and landfarmed with a tractor to a depth 30 cm, as per Venezuelan landfarming requirements. Additionally, Ameriven reuses the treated waste construction material in well pads and access roads (as first priority), and as fill material for old pits. Rig A solids The solids generated on Rig A (Fig. 5) come from two main sources:

1. Drilled solids from the shale shakers, desander, and desilter with 30-50% mud-oncuttings (MOC). 2. Solids discharge from two centrifuges with 10-15% MOC.

Rig A produces drilled solids from the shale shakers, desander, desilter, and centrifuges (Fig. 5). Supervacuum trucks (70 bbl/truck) pick up and deliver the solids to four 500-bbl dry beach cells. A purpose-built sump collects the whole mud run-off, which is then pumped to one of the 500-bbl mud storage tanks prior to being dewatered. The solids are dried as much as possible on the dry beach area, prior to being bulked up with sand, if necessary, and landspread with a tractor in the specified cell in the CTRD (Fig. 4). The landspreading practices comply with Decree 2635 of the Venezuelan environmental regulations. The treated material is reused in a manner similar to the COB solids discharge previously described. Drilling fluid Drill water and native mud with bentonite sweeps is the typical top-hole drilling fluid, while the horizontal section has a specially formulated drilling fluid that can incorporate 810% oil contamination from the reservoir. Depending on the quality of the drilling fluid received, the CTRD can process 1,500-2,000 bbl/12-hr working day. Two main sources generate the drilling fluid: 1. Daily dilution to the active system, generating excess volume. 2. Change out of the complete drilling fluid system.

The CTRD receives fluid from both sources and stores it in one of the five 500-bblcapacity mud storage tanks. From there, the fluid enters a dewatering system (Fig. 6), where adjustments are made to the pH of the excess fluid.

Centrifuges and dewatering units are part of the waste treatment system (Fig. 6). Flocculants and coagulants are added to the input stream of the dewatering units, and centrifuges remove the flocculated solids. Clarifying agents then treat the resultant fluid before it is transferred to the five 500-bbl water-treatment storage tanks. The rig receives more than 80% of the treated water for reuse in the active mud system, rig clean up, and dust control. The rest is diverted to onsite irrigation. A tractor landspreads the solids generated and the reuse complies with Venezuelan environmental regulations. Completion fluids The process can handle 1,500-2,000 bbl of completion fluids/12-hr working day, depending on the quality of fluid received and completions fluids from up to 10 wells at a time. The fluid is delivered in 2,000-bbl batches. Each batch typically has 5% solids, 94% water, and 1% crude or 20% solids, 72% water, and 8% crude. In the first scenario, one of the four 500-bbl completion fluid tanks receives the fluid. From there, a dewatering system processes the fluid and adjustments are made to the pH of the fluid. Flocculants and coagulants are added to the dewatering-unit input stream, and centrifuges remove the flocculated solids. If the resultant fluid contains less than 3% crude, it can be treated with aluminum sulfate and clarifying agents and then transferred to the water-treatment storage tanks. As with the drilling fluid, the rig receives more than 80% of the treated water for reuse in the active mud system, rig clean up, and dust control. The rest is diverted to onsite irrigation.

In the second scenario, if the received fluid contains more than 8% crude, it will be processed through the previously described two-phase process with the resultant fluid being returned to the COB where separation of the oil from the water phase takes place. In both cases, tractors landspread the generated solids, and reuse complies with Venezuelan environmental regulations. Operational, cost advantages The CTRD established for the Hamaca project in late 2002 demonstrates the value of totalfluids-management operations. Through optimized solids control, efficient waste handling, treatment, transport, and disposal, Ameriven has reduced to 6.3 days from 14.2 days the overall time to drill the surface, build, and horizontal sections of a well.

Since project start-up, the cost of drilling fluid and waste management has decreased by 36% (Figs. 7a-b). Because total fluids management service is a continuous improvement system, Ameriven expects further cost reductions. The treatment and disposal process complies with all permit requirements and includes such HSE compliance testing as: TCLP (toxicity characteristic leaching procedure) for determining the mobility of contaminants in a waste when it is exposed to the natural elements, principally rainwater percolation.

Metallic elements test for determining the content of metallic elements of interest in fluid sample.

TPH (total petroleum hydrocarbons, mineral oil, and grease) test for determining the quantity of petroleum-based hydrocarbons present in the sample. Laboratory centrifuge hot-spin pilot tests performed on all fluid received for determining the composition and consequently the most efficient method of processing. This results in the exact quantities of diluents and temperature requirements being known and later applied, leading to a more efficient and cost effective process.

SARA (saturate, aromatic, resin. and asphaltene hydrocarbons) and TPH tests for directly evaluating the landfarming process efficiency.

CFU (culture formation unit) test for evaluating microbial activity and bacterial density, expressed as the CFU/g of soil. Respirometry (CO2 production) test for determining the CO2 production from biodegradation activity and with CFU indirectly evaluating the landfarming process efficiency.

Paint filter test for ensuring that free liquid is not present in the solids centrifuged.

Several integrated processes A thorough rig audit is one of several integrated processes implemented for the efficient disposal of drilling waste products. Solids-control equipment performance is a critical factor in waste reduction; therefore, each piece is evaluated for efficiency and mechanical competence. Often, operators can reduce the amount of solids-control equipment and improve efficiencies if the equipment is properly configured and modified for maximum efficiency. Other essential elements of total fluids management service include rig, field, and plant supervision, dewatering, water treatment, landfarming, and landspreading of processed solids and cuttings. Operators have seen significant improvements in drilling efficiency and lower wastemanagement costs from the total fluids management system in several fields throughout Venezuela.