Exam Notes

Unit 1: Optics
10.1 Refraction of Light: Incandescence: Light emitted from a material because of the high temperature of the material. Fluorescence: Light that is emitted during exposure of the source to ultraviolet light. Luminescence: The emission of light by a material or an object that has not been heated; for example, fluorescence. Phosphorescence: Light that is emitted due to exposure of the source to ultraviolet light, and continues to be emitted for some time in the absence of the ultraviolet light. Chemiluminescence: Light that is produced by a chemical reaction without a rise in temperature. Bioluminescence: Light that is produced by a biochemical reaction in a living organism. Wavelength: The distance from one crest (or trough) of a wave to the next crest (or trough) Incandescence is light that is emitted from an object because the object is very hot. Luminescence is light that is emitted in the absence of heat. Fluorescence, phosphorescence, chemiluminescence, and bioluminescence are all forms of luminescence. Light is transmitted in the form of electromagnetic waves. Visible light makes up only a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Light is used in many technologies. For example, blue, with a special filter, is used to detect oral cancer. 10.2 Properties of Light and Reflection Reflection: The change in direction of a light ray when it bounces off a surface. Medium: The substance through which light travels. Ray: A straight line with an arrowhead that shows the direction in which light waves are travelling. Incident ray: A ray of light that travels from a light source toward a surface. Angle of incidence: The angle between the incident ray and the normal in a ray diagram. Normal: A line that is perpendicular to a surface where a ray of light meets the surface. Reflected ray: A ray that begins at the point where the incident ray and the normal meet.

Angle of reflection: The angle between the reflected ray and the normal in a ray diagram. Plane Mirror: A mirror with a flat, reflective surface. Virtual image: An image formed by rays that appear to be coming from a certain position, but are not actually coming from this position; image does not form a visible projection on the screen. A ray is a straight line with an arrowhead that shows the direction in which light is travelling. The laws of reflection state that the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence, and that the reflected ray always lies on the plane that is defined by the incident ray and the normal. The location of an image in a plane mirror can be found by drawing a ray diagram based on the laws of reflection and tested through inquiry. The four characteristics of an image in a plane mirror are the following: the image is the same size as the object, the same distance from the mirror as the object, and the same orientation as the object; the image is a virtual image.

10.3 Images in Concave Mirrors Concave mirror: A mirror whose reflecting surface curves inward. Principal axis: On a concave, the line that passes through the centre of curvature, C, of the mirror and is normal to the centre of the mirror. Focal point: The point on the principal axis through which reflected ray passes when the incident rays are parallel to and near the principal axis. Focal length: The distance between the vertex of a mirror and the focal point. Real image: An image that is formed when reflected rays meet. Magnification: The change in size of an optically produced image. Spherical aberration: Irregularities in an image in a curved mirror that result when reflected rays from the outer parts of the mirror do not go through the focal point. The reflected surface of a concave mirror curves inward. Rays that travel toward a concave mirror, parallel to and near the principal axis, will reflect and pass through the principal axis at the focal point, F. For an object between the focal point and the concave mirror, the virtual, upright image is larger than the object, and the image distance is larger than the object distance. For an object between the focal point and the centre of curvature, the real, inverted image is larger than the object, and the image distance is larger than the object distance

For an object beyond C, the real, inverted image is smaller than the object, and the image distance is smaller than the object distance. You can calculate the image distance and size using the mirror equation 1/F= 1/Di + 1/Do, and the magnification equation, m= Hi/Ho= -Di/Do. Spherical aberration is the distortion of an image in a curved mirror that results when reflected rays from the outer parts of the mirror do not go through the focal point.

10.4 Images in Convex Mirrors Convex Mirror: A mirror whose reflecting surface curves outward. The reflecting surface of a convex mirror is a mirror that curves outward. Rays that travel toward a convex mirror, parallel to and near the principal axis, will reflect back and spread out, away from each other. To find F for a convex mirror, extend the reflected rays backwards until they appear to meet behind the mirror. For an object in a convex mirror, the virtual, upright image is smaller than the object. You can predict the location and size of an image in a convex mirror by drawing the bottom of the object on the principal axis and drawing at least two rays that travel from the top of the object toward the mirror. You can calculate the image distance and size using the mirror equation 1/F= 1/Di + 1/Do, and the magnification equation, m= Hi/Ho= -Di/Do. The focal length of a convex mirror is negative because the F is virtual and behind the mirror. There are many practical uses for convex mirrors and surfaces, such as security mirrors and inspection mirrors. 11.1 Refraction of light Refraction: The bending of light that travels, at an angle, from a material with one refractive index to a material with a different refractive index. Refracted ray: The ray that is bent upon entering a second medium. Angle of refraction: The angle between the normal and a refracted ray. Index of refraction: The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a given medium. Dispersion: The process of separating colours by refraction. Light rays refract when they cross a boundary between media in which the speeds of light are different.

If a light ray goes from a medium in which its speed is higher (such as air) into a medium in which the speed is lower (such as water), the refracted ray bends toward the normal If a light ray goes from a medium in which its speed is lower (such as water) into a medium in which the speed is higher (such as air), the refracted ray bends away from the normal

11.2 Partial Refraction and Total Internal Reflection Partial Reflection and Refraction: A phenomenon in which some of the light that is travelling from one medium into another is reflected and some is refracted at the boundary between the media. Critical angle: The angle of incidence that produces an angle of refraction of 90. Total Internal Reflection: The phenomenon in which incidence light is not refracted but is entirely reflected back from the boundary; occurs when light travels from a medium in which its speed is lower to a medium in which its speed is higher. When light strikes a boundary between two transparent media that have different indices of refraction, some light reflects off the boundary and some light refracts through the boundary. This phenomenon is called partial reflection and refraction. At a small angle of incidence, more light refracts than reflects. As the angle of incidence increases, more and more light reflects than refracts. When light travels from a medium with a lower index of refraction to a medium with a higher index of refraction, the angle of refraction is larger than the angle of incidence. Therefore, an angle of incidence that results in a 90angle of refraction is eventually reached. The angle of incidence is called the critical angle. When the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle, no refraction occurs. All the light is reflected from the boundary. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection. Total internal reflection has many practical applications, such as binoculars, retro reflectors, and optical fibres in telecommunications and in surgical instruments. 11.3 Optical Phenomena in Nature Rainbow: An arc of colours of the visible spectrum appearing opposite the Sun, caused by reflection, refraction, and dispersion of the Suns rays as they pass through raindrops. Apparent depth: An optical effect in which the image of an object appears closer than the object. Shimmering: The apparent movement of object in hot air over objects and surfaces.

Mirage: An optical effected caused by the bending of light passing through layers of air that have extremely different temperatures. A rainbow is formed by the refraction and total internal reflection of light and the resulting dispersion of the light b spherical water droplets in the sky. As a result of the refraction of light at the surface of water, objects under the water are not where they appear to be when you are looking at them from above the water. The level at which they appear to be is called their apparent depth. Shimmering is the apparent movement of objects seen through air that is unevenly heated and moving. A mirage is the appearance of water or another object that is not really there. A mirage is caused by light being continuously refracted by layers of air that are at extremely different temperatures.

12.1 Characteristics of Lenses Lens: A transparent object with at least one curved side that causes light to refract. Converging lens: A lens that bring parallel light rays toward a common point. Diverging lens: A lens that spread parallel light rays away from a common point. Chromatic aberration: The dispersion of light through a lens. Lenses are classified as either converging or diverging, depending on how they affect parallel light rays that refract through them. Converging lenses have one or two convex surfaces and are thicker in the centre than on the edges. Diverging lenses have one or two concave surfaces and are thinner in the centre than on the edges. The focal point of a converging lens in the point at which parallel rays meet after passing through the lens. The focal point of a diverging lens is the point from which the diverging rays appear to have come after parallel rays have pass through the lens. With thick lenses, rays that are farther from the principal axis do not pass through the focal point. This causes spherical aberration. Different colours of light have different indices of refraction. Therefore, they focus at different. This causes chromatic aberration. 12.2 Images Ray diagrams consisting of three rays can be drawn of determine the characteristics of images formed by lenses. When an object is between a converging lens and the focal point, the image is always virtual upright, and larger than the object. When an object is farther from a converging lens than the focal point, the image is always real and inverted.

When a diverging lens forms an image, it is always upright, virtual, smaller than the object, and on the same side as the object. Given the focal length of the lens and the size and location of the object, you can use algebraic equations to calculate the characteristics of the image.

12.3 Lens Technologies and the Human Eye Objective lens: The lens through which light enters a telescope. Eyepiece: The lens in a telescope through which the observer views the object and through which light leaves the telescope. Cornea: Tissue that forms a transparent, curved structure in the front of the eye; refracts light before it enters the eye. Retina: A layer of rod and cone cells that respond to light and initiate nerve impulses; rod cells are very sensitive to light but cannot distinguish between colours; cone cells detect colour. Myopia: Near-sightedness; the condition in which the eye cannot focus on distant objects. Hyperopia: Far-sightedness; the condition in which the eye cannot focus on nearby objects. Presbyopia: The condition in which lenses of the eye become stiff and the ciliary muscles can no longer make the lenses change shape. Astigmatism: Blurred or distorted vision usually caused by an incorrectly shaped cornea. Night-vision device: An artificial device that allows people to see when only a very small amount of light is available. Lenses are used in several technologies. For example, microscopes are used to magnify specimens. Microscopes are used in many fields. The cornea refracts light first. Then the eye lens focuses light once the light enters the eye. Myopia (near-sightedness) is caused by an eyeball that is too long. Hyperopia (far-sightedness) is caused by an eyeball that is too short Presbyopia prevents a person from being able to focus up close and is caused by the hardening of the eye lens. Astigmatism causes blurry vision because the cornea isnt perfectly round. Myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, and astigmatism can be corrected with eyeglasses contact lenses, and surgery. People in the military and law enforcement and people studying wildlife use night-vision devices to intensify the available light.

Unit 2: Chemistry
4.1 Representing Ionic Compounds Ionic compound: A compound composed of oppositely charged ions

Ion: A charged particle formed from the loss or gain of one or more electrons. Cation: A positively charged ion. Anion: A negatively charged ion. Valence electron: An electron in the outermost occupied energy level. Binary ionic compound: A compound composed of a metal cation and a non-metal anion. Polyatomic ion: An ion that is composed of more than one atom. Ternary compound: A compound composed of three different elements. Ionic compounds are composed of oppositely charged ions, called cations and anions. Solid ionic compounds are made up of repeating patterns of ions that occur in specific ratios. The chemical formula for an ionic compound shows the ratio of ions. Subscripts are used in the chemical formula fro an ionic compound to show the ratio of ions needed to make the charge zero. The name of an ionic contains the name of cation followed by the name of the anion. For binary ionic compounds, the part that represents the anion always ends with the suffix ide. When naming compounds with multivalent metals, a Roman numeral is used to indicate the ion form of the metal. Ternary ionic compounds contain polyatomic ions, which are composed of more than one atom. Polyatomic ions have specific names that are based on the group of atoms present.

4.2 Representing Molecular Compounds Molecular compound: A compound formed when atoms of two or more different elements share electrons. Molecule: A neutral particle composed of two or more atoms joined together by covalent bonds. Binary molecular compound: A compound that is composed of two non-metals joined by one or more covalent bonds. Molecular compounds form when atoms share electrons in covalent bonds. Prefixes are used in the name of the binary molecular compound to indicate the number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the compound. The chemical formula for binary molecular compounds shows the number of each atom in a molecule of the compound. The subscripts correspond to the prefixes in the name of the compound. Molecular compounds have important functions in en ergy generation and in the production of chemicals used by agricultural

industries. Many molecular compounds, however, are environment pollutants. Other molecular compounds can have negative consequences if they are not handled correctly. 4.3 Conservation of Mass and Chemical Equations Reactant: A pure substance that undergoes a chemical change. Product: A pure substance that is formed in a chemical change; the properties of the products are different from the properties of the reactants. Chemical reaction: A process in which new substances with new properties are formed. Chemical equation: A representation of what happens to the reactants and products during a chemical change. Coefficient: A number that is placed in front of a chemical formula in a balanced chemical equation. The law of conservation of mass states that the total mass of the reactants must equal the total mass of the products in a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction can be represented by a word equation, in which the names of the reactants and products shown, or by a skeleton equation, in which the chemical formulas of the reactants and products are shown. A balanced chemical equation has coefficients in front of the chemical formulas. The number of atoms of each element is the same in the reactants and the products. An understanding of the law of conservation of mass can be applied to the clean up of hazardous materials and the manufacture of products, to reduce potential harm or waste. 5.1 Synthesis and Decomposition Reactions Precipitate: An insoluble solid formed in a chemical reaction. Synthesis reaction: A chemical reaction in which two or more reactants combine to produce a new product. Decomposition reaction: A chemical reaction in which a compound breaks down (decomposes) into two or more simpler compounds or elements. Evidence of a chemical change may include one or more of the following: formation of gas, formation of precipitate, change in odour, change in colour, change in temperature, and production of light. During a synthesis reaction, two or more reactants combine to form one product. The general chemical equation for a synthesis reaction is A + B -> AB. The reactants may be any combination of elements and compounds, but the product will always be a compound. During a decomposition reaction, a single reactant breaks down to form tow or more products. The general chemical equation for a

decomposition reaction is AB -> A + B. The products may be any combination of elements and compounds, but the reactant will always be a compound. Examples of synthesis reaction include the formation of rust and production of ammonia. Important decomposition reactions include the electrolysis of water and the explosion of TNT.

5.2 Displace Reactions Single displace reaction: A chemical reaction in which one element takes the place of another element in a compound. Activity series: A list of elements organized according to their chemical reactivity: the most reactive element appears at the top and the least reactive element appears at the bottom. Double displacement: A chemical reaction in which the positive ions of tow different compounds exchanges places, resulting in the formation of two new compounds-one of which may be a precipitate. In a single displacement reaction, a metal replaces the ion of a different metal, or a non-metal replaces the ion of a non-metal. The products are an element and a compound that different from the reactants An activity series is a list of elements arranged in order from the most reactive to the least reactive. For a single displacement to happen, a more reactive element must replace the ion of a less reactive element. During a double displace reaction between two compounds in aqueous solutions, the cations of the two compounds switch places to from two new compounds. For a certain type of double displacement reaction, one of the products is a precipitate. 5.3 Reactions and Environmental Issues Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of a reaction and is regenerated at the end of the reaction. Leaching: A technique used to extract a metal by dissolving the metal in an aqueous solution. Catalytic converters are used to help combat pollutants from car exhaust. They act by decomposing nitrogen oxides in exhaust into the element nitrogen and oxygen. The gold mining process relies a great deal on chemistry. Gold forms a soluble substance with cyanide ion. Zinc displaces the gold so that the metal can be recovered. The use of cyanide-containing chemicals, however, results in several environment challenges. Bleach and other chlorine-based chemicals are used to disinfectants. Improper handling and mixing with other chemicals, such as ammonia can result in reactions that produce toxic gases.

Users of a product can find information about how to handle and use it safely by examining the safety precautions and symbols on the products label. For laboratory and workplace products, WHMIS symbols are used. For consumer produce, the HHPS system is used.

6.1 Identifying Acids and Bases Acid: A compound that produces hydrogen ions, H+ (aq), when dissolved in water. Binary acid: An acid composed of hydrogen and a non-metal. Oxoacid: An acid composed of hydrogen, oxygen, and another element. Base: A compound that forms hydroxide ions, OH- (aq), when dissolved in water. Acids are compounds that have a sour taste. When dissolved in water, they produce hydrogen ions, H+ (aq). Binary acids are composed of hydrogen and a non-metal. The name of a binary acid is written using the prefix hydro-, the root of the nonmetal name, and the ending ic acid. Oxoacids that form between hydrogen and polyatomic ions are named by replacing ate with ic acid and ite with -ous acid. Bases are compounds that have a bitter taste. Many bases are ionic compounds that separate into metal ions and hydroxide ions, OH(aq) when dissolved in water. Since bases are ionic compounds, their names and chemical formulas are written following the same rules that are used for ionic compounds. 6.2 The pH Scale and Indicators pH scale: A numerical scale ranging from 0 to 14 that is used to classify aqueous solution as acidic, basic, or neutral. pH indicator: A substance that change colour to show the concentration of hydrogen ion (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-) in a solution. The pH scale ranges form 0 to 14 and is used to classify an aqueous solution as acidic, basic, or neutral. Neutral solutions are pH 7. Acidic solutions have a pH less than 7. Basic solutions have pH grater than 7. A change of 1 on the pH scale represents a change in the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution by a factor of 10. The pH of a solution can be determined using pH indicators or an electronic pH probe. A pH indicator is a chemical that is added in small amounts to a solution to visually show the acidity or basicity of the solution by charging colours within a small range of pH values.

Universal pH indicator and pH paper contain several indicators and can be used to determine the pH of a solution.

6.3 Reactions of Acids and Bases Neutralization: The reaction of an acid and a base to produce a salt and water. Liming: The application of basic material, typically lime-based, to renew acidified lakes and regions. A neutralization reaction occurs when an acid and a base react to form water and a salt. Acid precipitation forms from non-metal oxides such as the oxides of sulphur and of nitrogen. These oxides in the atmosphere react with the water to form acids. Scrubbers are used to remove sulphur dioxide form exhaust gases. Acid precipitation can have detrimental effects, particularly on river and lakes. Renewing a lake involved adding limestone to the water to help neutralize the acid and raise the pH. The properties of acids make them useful for extracting metals from ores, but the process may contaminate an area. These same properties also mean that acids are useful for leaching toxic metals from contaminated soils.

Unit 3: Ecology
1.1 Silence of the Frogs Ecosystem: In an area defined by an ecologist, the set relationships between populations of species and between those populations and the abiotic (non-living) factors in their environment Food Chain: A step-by-step sequence linking organisms that feed on each other, starting with a food source, such as a producer or detritus, and continuing with a sequence of consumers Producer or Autotroph: An organism that uses photosynthesis or another form of chemical synthesis to make food Primary Consumer or Heterotroph: In a food chain or food web, an organism that relies on autotrophs directly for its source of energy; organisms at the second trophic level Secondary Consumer or Heterotroph: In a food chain or food web, an organism that relies on primary consumers for its principal source of energy; organisms at the third trophic level Herbivore: An animal that eats plants Carnivore: An animal that eats other animals Omnivore: An animal that eats both plants and animals Detritus: Waste from plants and animals, including all their dead remains

Decomposers: An organism that feeds on detritus, in the process of releasing nutrients to the soil and water, where they can be used by other organisms Habitat: The conditions required for the survival of species The four major cause of the decrease in the frog population are: 1) Loss of Habitat 2) Air and Water Quality 3) Ultraviolet Radiation 4) Climate Change

1.2 Canadas Endangered Species Classification Description Extinct A species that is no longer found anywhere Endangered A species that is close to extinction in all parts of Canada or in a significantly large location Extirpated Any species that no longer exists in one part of Canada, but can be found in others Threatened Any species that is likely to become endangered if factors that make it vulnerable are not reversed Vulnerable Any species that is at risk because of low or declining numbers at the fringe of its range or in some restricted area 1.3 Extinction in the Modern World Between 1600 and 1900 the estimate was that species went extinct every four years In modern times, the extinction rate is soaring In early years of the 21st century, the prediction was that one species would become extinct every 30 minutes The number of species at risk of extinction is growing, at the rate of about 80 species per year Mass extinction occurred before humans existed The most promising of theories involve asteroids crashing into the Earth A collision would raise tremendous amount of dust, blocking light from the Sun, and set off many volcanoes, quickly altering environmental conditions There is evidence that an asteroid hit Earth about 65 million years ago

It is estimated that nearly 500 million different species had inhabited the planet Of these, more than 90% have either become extinct or have evolved into new species Climate changes and the pressure of competition from other species force organism to adapt or die A species that is better at finding food, reproduction, or defending its territory could force competing species into extinction Biodiversity: The number of species in an ecosystem, and the variety within those species Every organism in an ecosystem is connected to all the other organisms, the reduction in biodiversity caused by the extinction of a single species can cause a domino effect The removal of one part from an ecosystem, like the removal of a moving part from a car, can cause the collapse of an entire food chain. When the threatened species act as a predator, it keeps the population of it prey in check; when it acts as prey, it provides an important food sources

1.5 Ecology Pests: An organism that people consider harmful or inconvenient in a particular situation, such as weeds and some insect, fungi, and rodents Ecology: The study of the interactions of living things with each other and with abiotic (non-living) factors in their environment Abiotic Factor: Factor in an ecosystem, created by non-living agents, for example, the amount of sunlight, temperature, and strength and direction of wind Biotic Factor: A factor in an ecosystem created by the presence and roles of other living things Community: The collection of all the populations of all the species in an ecosystem; all of the organism in an ecosystem Population: All the members of a species living in the same ecosystem or habitat Ecotones: A transition area between two ecosystem that includes members of the community of both ecosystem Ecosystems rarely have sharp boundaries, and organism can move back and forth from one ecosystem to another Ecosystems with greater biodiversity tend to be less fragile In ecotones and other diverse areas there are more species, and predator may have an alterative if something happens to the population of it main prey

1.8 Comparing Ecosystems Artificial Ecosystem: An ecosystem that is planned and maintained by humans, for example, a park, a farm, or a garden Natural Ecosystem: An ecosystem that is neither planned nor maintained by humans, an ecosystem which organism are free to interact and change their interaction without human interference Change within a park is limited because of human interference Natural ecosystems undergo subtle changes as one plant or animal species gradually replaces another In natural ecosystems, only plants suited for the environment flourish In an artificial ecosystem, plants selected by humans have an advantage 1.10 Energy in Ecosystems The source of all energy for ecosystem is the Sun Sunlight also provides the energy used by green plants to make the compounds that maintain their lives and serve as food for all other organisms Of the energy that penetrates into the lower atmosphere, 30% is reflected by clouds or the Earths surface The remaining 70% warms the surface of the planet, causing water to evaporate, and generating the water cycle and weather Only a tiny portion, approximately 0.023%, is actually used by green plants for photosynthesis Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants and some other organism use sunlight energy, carbon dioxide, and water to produce carbohydrates (sugars) and oxygen When sunlight strikes and object, some of the energy is absorbed, and some is reflected Albedo: a measurement of the percentage of light that an object reflects; the higher albedo, the greater the objects ability to reflect the sunlight For the Earth, the higher its overall albedo, the less energy will be absorbed and available for maintaining the global temperature 1.11 Following Energy Movement in Ecosystems Trophic Level: A way of categorizing living things according to how they gain their energy; the first trophic level contain autotrophs, and each higher level contains heterotrophs Autotroph: An organism that uses energy and raw materials to make its own food, whether from photosynthesis or some other form of chemical synthesis; a producer

Primary Consumer: In a food chain or food web, an organism that relies on autotrophs directly for its source of energy; organisms at the second trophic level Secondary Consumer: In a food chain or food web, an organism that relies on primary consumers for its principal source of energy; organisms at the third trophic level Heterotroph: An organism that is incapable of making its own food, and so must feed on other organisms to gain energy Every organism within an ecosystem provides energy for other organisms Food chains are a way of showing a step-by-step sequence of who eats whom in an ecosystem The final carnivore in any food chain is called the top consumer Food Chain: A step-by-step sequence linking organisms that feed on each other, starting with a food sources, such as a producer or detritus, and continuing with a sequence of consumers The lower the biodiversity of an ecosystem, the simpler the food web, and the more vulnerable each organism is Producers use energy from sunlight and basic nutrients to make molecules of sugar Sugar molecules contain the chemical energy that drive ecosystems Photosynthesis provides the energy required by the entire ecosystem Without photosynthesis, energy would not move from the abiotic environment to living things Solar energy must be converted chemical energy before it can be used by living things Thermodynamics is the study of energy transformations The first law of thermodynamics states that although energy can be transformed (changed) from one form to another, it cannot be created or destroyed Biomass: A pyramid-shaped measure of the mass of the dry matter contained in a group of living things, whether of a specie, a class of specie, or all of the organism within an ecosystem

1.12 Roles in Ecosystem Each organism has it own place within an ecosystem The organisms place in the food web, it habitat, breeding area, and the time of day that it most active is its ecological niche. Ecological Niche: The place or role of a species within an ecosystem; everything an organism does to survive and reproduce, including its place in the food web, its habitat, its breeding area, and the time of day that it is most active Exotic Species: The introduction of a new specie in an ecosystem

The niche an organism fills in an ecosystem includes everything it does to survive and reproduce Each species in an ecosystem tends to have a different niche, a different role to play The introduction of new species (often called exotic species because they are not native to the ecosystem) happens naturally This helps reduce competition between species for the same territory and resources

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2.1 Cycling of Matter in Ecosystems All organic matter is recycled in the world Organic substance always contain atoms of carbon and hydrogen, and often contain oxygen and nitrogen atoms Organic: Compounds that contain atoms of both carbon and hydrogen; many organic compounds also contain oxygen and nitrogen atoms; sugars, fats, and proteins are all organic Matter that doesnt contain a combination of carbon and hydrogen atoms are called inorganic Inorganic: Compounds that do not contain a combination of carbon and hydrogen atoms; carbon dioxide, water, and ammonia are all inorganic Another process involved in the cycling of mater is decay Organic matter is held temporary in the bodies of living organisms After death, decomposer organism make the material available to other living things Decomposer break down the organic matter in dead bodies and feces into small, inorganic molecules These small particles pass into the soil or water, where they become part of the living world at some time in the future. 2.2 Case Study Pesticides are chemical designed to kill pests Pests: An organism that people consider harmful or inconvenient in a particular situation, such as weeds and some insect, fungi, and rodents Pesticides: A chemical designed to kill pests; pesticides are often used to protect species that are beneficial to humans from a competitor or predator that is less useful First-generation pesticides had used dangerous metals and toxins to kill these pests Second-generation pesticides are chemical made in laboratories

Bioamplification: Even though there is a small amount of toxin reaching each of the prey animals that a secondary consumer eats the amount of toxin in its body will be larger because each predator eats many preys. When the secondary consumer is eaten, the higher-level predator gets all of its toxins, plus those of all the other prey it eats At each stage of the food chain the concentration becomes greater The higher the trophic level, the greater the concentration of toxins Even though insecticides were meant for insect due to bioamplification, there toxins are also found in humans Chemicals pesticides have a natural shelf life, because pest they are supposed to kill gradually become resistant. If the first application of a chemical kills 90% of the insects, that still leave 10% that survive Some of those insects have genes that help them survive the application of the pesticide With every generation that pass, they eventually build a resistance to the pesticide

2.4 The Interaction of Living Things Photosynthesis: the process by which green plants and some other organism use sunlight energy, carbon dioxide, and water to produce carbohydrates (sugars) and oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water sugar + oxygen Cellular Respiration: The process by which most living generate useful energy, combining sugars and oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water Sugar + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water Within a biosphere a balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide is maintained because the plants provide oxygen and sugars, while animals provide carbon dioxide and water The processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration are said to be complementary 2.5 The Carbon Cycle Carbon is key to all living things Carbon can be found in the atmosphere and dissolved in the oceans as part of the inorganic carbon dioxide This is done through photosynthesis The burning process (combustion) releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere When carbon is not in organic form, carbon can be found in three main reservoirs (storage areas): the atmosphere, the oceans, and the Earths crust

Organic carbon is also held in reservoirs the bodies of living things Carbon atoms may remain locked away in dead plant matter (peat) for many years in a bog Humans have modified the global carbon cycle by releasing carbon from organic reservoirs faster than that it would normally occur; by mining and burning fossil fuels trapped in Earths crust, and by burning forest Humans are also increasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the inorganic reservoir of the atmosphere by clearing away vegetation, in order to build or farm

2.6 Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen atoms are required so that cells can make proteins The movement of nitrogen through ecosystems, the soil, the atmosphere is called the nitrogen cycle Nitrogen Cycle: A matter cycle in which, the through the processes of nitrogen fixation, synthesis, decomposition, and denitrification, nitrogen atoms move from nitrogen gas in the atmosphere, to inorganic form in the soil, to organic form in living, and then back to inorganic form in the soil and nitrogen gas in the atmosphere; organic compounds that contain nitrogen include amino acids (and therefore proteins) and DNA Nitrogen gas composes nearly 79% of the Earths atmosphere Atmospheric nitrogen can be converted into nitrates, in a process called nitrogen fixation The first method is through lightning, and the second is through bacteria in the soil Nitrogen Fixation: Eventually, the nitrogen gas is released back into the atmosphere, this process is called denitrification, which is carried out by bacteria that do not require oxygen Denitrification: Denitrification ensures the balance and soil nitrates, nitrites, and atmospheric nitrogen and completes the nitrogen cycle Phosphorus tends to cycle in two ways: a long-term cycle involving the rocks of the Earths crust, and a short-term cycling involving living organism In the short cycle, wastes from living things are recycled by decomposers, which break down waster and dead tissue and release the phosphates The short cycle is much more rapid Nitrates and phosphates are both nutrients Nutrients: Any chemical that is essential to living things; nutrients are cycled through ecosystems and geological processes 2.9 Monitoring Changes in Population

Natality: The number of offspring of a species born in an ecosystem in one year Morality: The number of individuals of a species that die in an ecosystem in one year Open population: A population in which natality, mortality, immigration, and emigration are all acting Closed population: A population in which only natality and mortality (not emigration and immigration) are acting

2.10 Limits on Populations Biotic potential is the maximum number of offspring that specie could produce, if resources were unlimited Biotic Potential: The maximum number f offspring that a species could produce, if resources were unlimited Four important factors that regulate biotic potential are: 1) Birth potential (maximum number of births) 2) Capacity for Survival (The number of offspring that reach reproductive age) 3) Procreation (The number of times that a species reproduces each year) 4) Length of Reproductive Life (the age of sexual maturity) Factors that Limit Populations: Biotic: Sufficient food, low number or low effectiveness of predators, few or weak diseases and parasites, and ability to compete for resources Abiotic: Favourable light, favourable temperature, and favourable chemical environment Carrying Capacity: The maximum population of a species that can be supported indefinitely by an ecosystems Law of the Minimum: The nutrient in least supply is the one that limits growth Law of Tolerance: States that an organism can survive within (tolerate) a certain range of an abiotic factor above and below this limit can not survive; the greater this range of tolerance, the greater the organisms ability to survive Density-Independent Factors: A factor that affect population in a manner that does not vary according to the density of the population it is acting on, for example, fire and flood Density-Dependent Factors: A factor in an ecosystem that affects a population, and that increases or decreases its effect based on the density of the population, for example, food supply, territory, and some forms of diseases

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3.1 Canadian Biomes The tundra is like a cold desert and receives surprisingly little precipitation often only 10 to 12 cm Tundra: The huge treeless region, between the northern limits of Canadas tree line and the permanently ice-covered area in the arctic; it is dominated by lichens and small plant such as moss, sedge, and short grasses; its biodiversity and average precipitation and temperature are is low, and its soil is thin and low in fertility Permafrost: In the tundra, a layer of soil that remains frozen, even in summer Active Layer: In the tundra, a layer of soil above the permafrost that thaws in summer; this soil permits the uptake of water and minerals by plant roots Immediately south of the tundra is the boreal forest, or taiga, biome Dominated by conifers (tree with needle-shaped leaves), the boreal forest is found in every province and makes up 80% of the forested areas Boreal Forest: A biome dominated by coniferous trees; the most extensive biome in Canada; its biodiversity can be high or moderate, precipitation may be moderate or high, temperatures vary, and soil is often thing an slightly acidic South of the boreal forest, in Eastern and Central Canada, is the temperate deciduous forest biome, which is dominated by deciduous trees such as maples and oaks The transition from boreal forest to deciduous forest produces a wide ecotone where trees native to both biomes can be found Temperate Deciduous Forest: A biome dominated by deciduous trees birch and maple in the north, oak and beech in south; this biome is limited to the area south this biome is limited to the area south of the boreal forest in Eastern and Central Canada; its biodiversity is high, precipitation is moderate, temperature are moderate, temperatures are moderate, and soil is mostly thick and fertile Grassland biome is found at approximately the same latitude as deciduous forest. Grassland: A biome dominate by grasses, it is found in Canada at approximately the same latitude as deciduous forest, but in areas where average precipitation is lower; its biodiversity is moderate, precipitation is low to moderate, temperatures are moderate, and soil is thick and very fertile 3.3 Soil and Its Formation Soil can be viewed in series of layers In a forest or grassland community, the upper layer, known as the litter, is made up mostly of partially decomposed leaves or grasses

Litter: The upper of layer of soil, made up mostly of partially decomposed leaves or grasses Beneath the littler is the topsoil layer, made up of small particle of rock mixed with decaying plant and animal matter (humus) Topsoil: A layer of soil, below the litter, made up of small particles of rock, usually mixed with relatively large amount of decaying plant and animal matter Humus: The organic component of soil, made up of mostly of decomposing plants Below the topsoil is the subsoil, a layer tat usually contains more stones, mixed with only small amount of organic matter Subsoil: A layer of soil, below the topsoil, that usually contains many stones and only small amounts of organic matter Beneath the soil lies a layer of rock, the bedrock, which marks the end of the soil Precipitations that collects and flows above the ground is called surface water Surface Water: Water in lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams Once in the soil or rock water is called ground water Ground Water: The water found in the soil or rock layers of the Earths curst; may flow out on to the surface (as it does at springs) or into bodies of surface water Percolation: The process in which ground water, pulled by gravity, flows downward through the soil Water Table: The boundary, found either in the soil or in bedrock, between the area where ground water is percolation down and a layer tat is saturated with water Leaching: A process in which nutrients such as organic matter and minerals are dissolved in percolating water and carried into lower layers of soil or bedrock Acid Deposition: A term used to describe the falling of acids from the atmosphere to the ground, where dissolved in precipitation or as solids

3.11 Acid Deposition and Forest Ecosystems Coal-burning plants, cars and trucks, metal smelters, and oil refineries provide energy, transport, and material for the industrial word, but at the same time produce oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, are among the most dangerous of air pollutants. When sulfur and nitrogen enter the atmosphere they man combine with water droplets to form acids. Upon entering the water cycle, the acids return to the surface of the Earth in the form of snow or rain, called acid precipitation.

 Acid precipitation: a form of acid deposition in which acids are dissolved in rain, fog, dew, or snow; this precipitation has a pH of less than 5.6 (the pH of normal rainwater) Acid rain is 40 times more acidic than normal rainwater that has been measured. Acid precipitation kills fish, soil, bacteria, and both aquatic and terrestrial plants. Acid rain has medical effects, which include accelerated respiratory problems, such as asthma and bronchitis. As acid rain falls to the soil, it kills bacteria that are important to the nitrogen cycle. The biggest acid rain threat is the automobile. The problems worsened by the spread of automobile use. As developing countries makes economic gains, the demand for cars within those countries increases. The issue is the there is a new source of pollutant for an already overloaded atmosphere.

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4.1 Abiotic Factors in Lakes The littoral zone is the area extending out from the lakeshore to the point where plants rooted in the bottom of the lake can no longer be found Littoral Zone: The area extending out from out from the lakeshore to the point where plants rooted in the bottom of the lake can no longer be found Beyond the littoral zone is the limnetic zone, the area of the open lake where there is enough light for photosynthesis Limnetic Zone: The area of the open lake, beyond the littoral zone, where there is enough light for free-floating organism, such as algae, to carry out photosynthesis The most common form of organism within the limnetic zone is called the plankton Plankton: A term used to describe small organisms found in lakes and oceans; the term includes heterotrophic plankton (usually invertebrate animals) and autotrophic plankton (such as algae) The region beneath the limentic zone, where there is not enough light for photosynthesis to occur, is called the profundal zone Profundal Zone: The region beneath the limnetic zone of a lake, where there is no enough light to carry out photosynthesis There are two types of lakes: Oligotrophic lakes are typically deep and cold Eutrophic lakes are generally shallow and warmer

Oligotrophic: A term used to describe a lake that is deep, cold, and low in dissolved nutrients; the water of such lakes is usually cold Eutrophic: A term used to describe a lake that contains more dissolved nutrients than an oligotrophic lake; such lakes are generally shallow and warm, and the water is often murky The upper level of a lake, which warns up in the summer, is called the epilimnion The lower level, which remains at a low temperature, is called the hypolimnion Between these two level is the termocline, a narrows zone in which the temperature drops rapid from warm to cold Epilimnion: The upper level of a lake, which warms up in the summer Hypolimnion: The lower level of a lake, which remains cool even in summer Termocline: A narrows zone in a lake between the epilimnion and hypolimnion in which the temperature drops rapidly form warm to cold

4.2 Sources of Water Pollution Water pollution is any physical or chemical change in surface water or ground water that can harm living things Water pollution: Any change, whether physical or chemical, that is introduced to surface water or ground water Categories of Pollution: 1) Organic Solid Waste; (Oxygen in water is used up as organic matter is decomposed by bacteria. The decomposition may cause foul odour) 2) Disease-causing organism; (These organism can trigger an outbreak of a waterborne disease, such as typhoid, cholera, infectious hepatitis, or dysentery) 3) Inorganic solids and dissolved minerals; (This causes acid rain to occur and damage organism that receive the precipitation. It also induces algal bloom, which ruins aquatic ecosystems) 4) Heat; (Industries draw on water to cool machinery or products and then return warm water into the ecosystem. The addition of warm water decreases the solubility of oxygen in the water) 5) Organic Chemicals; (The toxins cause damage to organism whether terrestrial or aquatic) The two main indicators of water quality are bacteria and dissolved oxygen Coliform Bacteria: To narrow down the causes of low dissolved oxygen levels, it is possible to test the biological oxygen demand (BOD) BOD: A measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by decomposers (bacteria) to break down the organic matter in a

sample of water over a five-day period at 20C; used to indicate the amount of organic matter in a water sample Too many nutrient can create problems for a lake The greater the amount of decaying matter introduced into the water, the greater will be the population of decomposing bacteria In turn this causes oxygen levels to drop even more Which lowers the dissolved oxygen level within the lake Another form of pollution is thermal population Industries draw on water to cool machinery or products and then return warm water into the ecosystem The addition of warm water decreases the solubility of oxygen in the water

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Unit 4: Climate Change

7.1 Factors That Affect Climate Change Atmosphere: A layer of gases that surrounds a planet or moon. Climate: The characteristics pattern of weather conditions within a region, including temperature, wind velocity, precipitation, and other features, averaged over a long period of time. Greenhouse effect: The natural warming caused when gases in the Earths atmosphere absorb thermal energy that is radiated by the Sun and Earth. Hydrosphere: The collective mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of Earth in the form of liquid water, ice, and water vapour. Albedo: The fraction of incident light or electromagnetic radiation that is reflected by the surface of an object, such as from Earth back into space; an objects ability to reflect sunlight. Tectonic plate: A piece of Earths outer shell (the lithosphere) that moves around on the slowly flowing, underlying rock layer (the asthenosphere). Anthropogenic: Relating to or resulting from the influence of humans. Climate describes the standard weather conditions for a region at a given time or year, including expected temperatures, winds, precipitation, probability of storms, and hours of direct sunshine. The amount of energy that a location on the surface of Earth receives at any given time is determined by the angle of the Sun, which in turn depends on the latitude, time of year, and time of day. Winds, ocean currents, and the shape and size of continents affect climate.

Earth reflects some of the solar energy that hits it back into space. The fraction of energy that is reflected by a surface is called albedo. Volcanic eruptions introduce gases and particles into the air that affect the reflection and absorption of energy from the Sun. Human activity affects climate by introducing particles and gases into the atmosphere that affect the absorption and transfer of energy from the Sun.

7.2 Describing Climates Climatograph: A graph of climate data for a specific region; the data is usually obtained over 30 years from observation made at local weather station. Kppen climate classification system: A method of identifying and describing climates based on observable features such as temperature ranges and rates of precipitation. Biome: The largest division of the biosphere. Includes large regions that have similar biotic components (such as plants and an animals) and similar abiotic components (such as temperature and amount of rainfall). Ecozone: A division of the Earths surface that has developed over a long period of time and is separated from neighbouring ecozones by geological features such as an ocean, desert, or mountain range. Ecoregion: A subdivision of an ecozone that is characterized by local landforms such as plains, lakes, mountains, and rivers. Climate zones can be classified based on latitude or on weather factors such as precipitation rates and temperature ranges. Climatographs are useful tools for studying and comparing climates. Climate classification systems categorize the abiotic and biotic components of a region and allow scientists to compare different parts of the world easily. Biomes are large regions that have similar types of organisms. Each biome is associated with a particular climate. Ecozones and ecoregions are subdivisions of biomes that can be used to compare the climate conditions in nearby or distant locations. Some human activities, such as farming, depend on climate. Changes in climate may cause people living in different parts of the world to change their lifestyles. 7.3 Indicators and Effects of Climate Change Global warming: An increase in global average temperature. Desertification: The process by which land slowly dries out until little or no vegetation can survive and the land becomes desert. Deforestation: The destruction of the worlds forests through direct human activity, such as logging or slash-and-burn clearing for

agriculture and grazing, and through the indirect effects of climate change, pollution, and acid rain. Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the atmosphere and oceans over the past 100 years. It is the largest single indicator of recent climate change. As global temperature rises, polar icecaps are melting, which affects the lives of Arctic mammals, such as polar bears, and of traditional Inuit peoples of Canada. As atmospheric and ocean temperature increase, sea level is rising. Rising sea level will affect large population of humans who live on islands and along the coasts of the worlds continents. As the global oceans absorb more carbon dioxide, the water becomes more acidic, which threatens coral reefs and oceanic food chains. Changes in wind and precipitation result from global warming. These changes may lead to water shortage throughout the world and possibly to more frequent and stronger storms. Climate change may affect the health of humans by increasing the incidence of certain diseases. Deforestation and desertification may result form higher temperatures and changes in precipitation.

8.1 Energy Transfer in the Climate System System: A group of interdependent parts that work together to form a single functioning whole. Feedback loop: A process in which part of a systems output is returned, or fed back, to the input. Electromagnetic radiation: Energy that travels as waves that move outward in all directions from a source; includes infrared radiation, ultraviolet radiation, radio waves, X rays, gamma rays, and visible rays. Thermohaline circulation: A three-dimensional pattern of ocean circulation driven by wind, heat, and salinity that is an important component of the ocean-atmosphere climate system. Energy budget: A description of the total energy exchange within a system; a summary of how energy from the Sun enters, moves through, and leaves the Earth system. Earth is a system of interrelated parts, including atmosphere, hydrosphere, rocks, and living things. The interrelated processes in the Earth system form a variety of both positive and negative feedback loops, which affect the global climate system by increasing or decreasing the effects of climate change. The atmosphere redistributes heat, energy, and moisture around the Earths surface. Heat can be transferred by radiation, conduction, and convection.

Earths oceans transfer energy as water moves as a result of density difference that are caused by difference in the temperature and salinity of ocean water. El Nino and La Nina events are examples of the effects of heat transfer through the atmosphere and oceans. To maintain a stable average global temperature, incoming energy and outgoing energy must balance each other exactly. This balance is part of the Earths energy budget.

8.2 Greenhouse Gases and Human Activities Concentration: The amount of a particular substance in a specific amount of another substance. Parts per million (PPM): A unit of measurement that indicate the number of parts of substance per million parts of another substance; for example, for salt water, 1000 ppm of salt means 1000 parts salt in 1, 000, 000 parts of pure water. Greenhouse gas: A gas in the Earths atmosphere that absorbs and prevents the escape of radiation as thermal energy; examples include carbon dioxide and methane. Sink: A process that removes greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. Ozone: A greenhouse gas that is composed of three atoms of oxygen; it is commonly found in a concentrated layer in the stratosphere. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC): A human-made chemical compound that contains chlorine, fluorine, and carbon; when released into the atmosphere it may cause depletion of the ozone layer. Anthropogenic greenhouse effect: The increased capacity of the atmosphere to absorb and prevent the escape of thermal energy because of an increase in greenhouse gases introduced by human activities. Global warming potential (GWP): The ability of a substance to warm the atmosphere by absorbing thermal energy. Earth emits thermal energy. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb this energy and radiate it in all directions. The thermal energy that returns to the Earth gives rise to the greenhouse effect. Less than one gas molecule in a hundred is a greenhouse gas. The most common greenhouse gas is water vapour. Other major greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrous oxides, and halocarbons. Human activities, such as agriculture and the burning of fossil fuels are increasing the amounts of some of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

An increase in greenhouse gases has resulted in the anthropogenic greenhouse effect, which may be responsible for recent climate change. You can reduce your contribution of greenhouse gases by conserving electricity, improving home-heating efficiency, and minimizing waste as much as possible.

8.3 Cycling of Matter and the Climate System Biogeochemical cycle: A natural process that exchanges matter and energy between the abiotic environment to the biotic environment and back. Store: A part of a biogeochemical cycle in which matter or energy accumulates, also called a reservoir. Global carbon budget: The relative amount of carbon in different stores; also an accounting of the exchanges (incomes and losses) of carbon between the stores of the carbon cycle. Nitrogen Fixation: The process by which atmospheric nitrogen is changed into forms that can be used by plats and other organisms. Carbon and nitrogen cycle through living organisms quickly, but also have cycles that can store them in rocks for millions or billions of years. Carbon had five main stores: living things, oceans, rocks, fossil fuels, and the atmosphere. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which may result in climate change. Nitrogen fixation is the process by which atmospheric nitrogen is changed into forms that can be used by plants and other organisms. It can be done by lightning, by bacteria, or by industry. Human activities, especially the use of fertilizers for agriculture, have increased the amount of nitrogen in rivers, lakes, and oceans. This nitrogen causes algal blooms that result in dead zones in lakes and oceans. 9.1 Discovering Past Climates Paleoclimatologist: A scientist who studies past climates on Earth. Ice cores: A long cylinder of ice obtained by drilling into a glacier. Isotope: Any of two or more forms of an element that have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons (for example, deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen. Sedimentary rock: A type of rock that is formed by the deposition of sediment. Fossil: The traces or remains of a once-living organism.

Paleoclimatologists reconstruct past climates by using the evidence that the climate leave behind in the tree rings, ice, sedimentary rock, and fossils. Tree rings can provide evidence about the growing conditions, such as temperature and precipitation, during the lifetime of tree. Ice cores can provide information about global temperature and the composition of the atmosphere for thousand of years in the past. Scientists use chemical analyses of sediment cores form lakes and oceans to reconstruct past conditions of the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. Rocks can provide information about the conditions that existed when they formed. Fossils are remains of living things. Their distribution and characteristics provide clues about the climate at the time the organism lived.

9.2 Monitoring and Modelling Climate Change Monitor: To measure conditions systematically and repeatedly in order to track changes. Geostationary: Describing a satellite that travels around the Earths equator at a speed that matches the speed of the Earths rotation so that the satellite remains in the same position relative to the Earths surface. Climate model: A mathematical or computer program that describes, simulates, and predicts the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice of the Earth to simulate past, present, and future climate conditions General circulation model (GCM): A complex computer program that uses mathematical equations to describe the physical processes of the atmosphere and to manipulate the variables that affect how the natural climate system works. Forcing agent: Any substance or process that alters the global energy balance and causes climate to change. Dozens of satellites monitor the Earths climate, to provide scientists with data to analyze changes in the Earth system and to project changes in climate. Each satellite focuses on a different aspect of climate and weather. Scientists predict future climates by using computer simulations of the Earth General circulation models (GCMs) are three-dimensional models that represent how currents of water and air interact and move around the planet over specified period of time. The predictions of climate models are not 100 percent accurate because of imprecision in the data and difficulties in the calculations.

 The major climate models agree on approximately how much some factors such as greenhouse gases contribute to climate change. However, the effects of other factors, such as clouds, are not as well understood. 9.3 Taking Action to Slow Climate Change Bias: A tendency toward a particular perspective or point of view that prevents objective assessment of a topic. Carbon footprint: The effect that human activities have on the environment in terms of the amount of greenhouse gases produced, measured in units of carbon dioxide. Carbon offset: A means of reducing or avoiding greenhouse gas emissions by purchasing credits to reduce your carbon footprint. Educating yourself about the facts related to the issue of climate change is important in making informed decisions about how your actions affect climate change. Everybody has a carbon footprint, which means that everyones actions influence the amount of greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere. As a result, everybody is responsible for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. You can reduce your carbon footprint by performing actions that lower your dependence on burning fossil fuels and by purchasing carbon offsets. Governments and international panels are trying to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by passing laws, by educating consumers, and by using economic means to combat climate change.