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TOPIC INTRODUCTION HISTORY OF RAPID PROTOTYPING ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF RAPID PROTOTYPING WHAT IS? ADDICTIVE PROCESS FUSSED MODELING STEREO LITHOGRAPHY SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING BALLISTIC

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LAMINATED GENERIC RAPID PROTOTYPING RAPID TOOLING USES ATTACHMENT REFERENCE

INTRODUCTION
What is Rapid Prototyping?? From the Wikipedia Rapid Prototyping can be define as a group of a techinuqes use to quickly fabricate a scale model of a part or assembly using three dimensional computer aided design (CAD) data. These processes work by building up a component layer by layer, with one thin layer of material bonded to the previous thin layer. There are several different processes. The main ones are: Stereo Lithography; Laser sintering; Fused Deposition modelling; laminated object manufacturing; Ballistic. Rapid prototyping processes are driven by instructions which are derived from three-dimensional computer-aided design (CAD) models. CAD technologies are therefore an essential enabling system for rapid prototyping. The process of prototyping involves quick building up of a prototype or working model for the purpose of testing the various design features, ideas, concepts, functionality, output and performance. The user is able to give immediate feedback regarding the prototype and its performance. Rapid prototyping is essential part of the process of system designing and it is believed to be quite beneficial as far as reduction of project cost and risk are concerned.
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HISTORY OF RAPID PROTOTYPING

At the end of the 1960's computer aided machine tools began to appear in the industrial arena as the latest move in effieciently manufacturing mechanical parts. These machines were able to produce parts that were more consistant and accurate than those that could be acheived manually however the machine were not user friendly and required large amounts of programming. Around the same time University of Rochester engineering professor Herbert Voelcker produced the mathmatical theory that form the basis of computer programs that are used in the design of machined parts including how to specify surfaces in three-dimensions. Through the 1970's his work became industry standard and today much of his work underpins what today we call Computer Aided Design (CAD).

In 1987 University of Texas researcher Carl Deckard considered constructing physical models of parts by adding one layer of material at a time. With a $50,000 Small Grant for Exploratory Research (SGER) from the National Science Foundation (NSF), Deckard was able to produce promising results culminating in being awarded one of NSF's first Strategic Manufacturing (STRATMAN) Initiative grants. The efforts of Voelcker and Deckard became the basis for Rapid Prototyping (often referred to as free form fabrication) which has revolutionized the design and manufacturing of mechanical parts. While Voelcker's work resulted in the automation of the design of parts, the actual construction of the parts did not change. Mechanical parts were still constructed manually or with computercontrolled tools, cutting away at a piece of metal until the desired part was produced.

The manner in which the cutting needed to be accomplished could not be programmatically translated from the design software to the computercontrolled tools. Deckard's work brought this translation closer to reality by breaking down the form of parts into extremely thin layers (0.1mm to 0.7mm). These layers could be determined by breaking down the surface of the part into planar triangles that are comparable to "the facets of a jewel". The coordinates and orientation of these triangles comprise a mathematical representation which can then be translated programmatically.

ADVANTAGES OF RAPID PROTOTYPING

It is easier to find the design flaws in the early developmental stages. Active participation among the users and producer is encouraged by rapid
prototyping.

Rapid Prototyping can provide with concept proof that would be required for
attracting funds.

The Prototype gives the user a fair idea about the final look of the product. Rapid prototyping can enhance the early visibility. As the development costs are reduced, Rapid prototyping proves to be cost
effective.

The user can get a higher output. The speed of system development is increased. It is possible to get
immediate feedback from the user.

High quality product is easily delivered by way of Rapid prototyping.

DISADVANTAGES OF RAPID PROTOTYPING

The user may have very high expectations about the prototypes performance and the designer is unable to deliver these. The system could be left unfinished due to various reasons or the system may be implemented before it is completely ready. The producer may produce an inadequate system that is unable to meet the overall demands of the organization. Too much involvement of the user might hamper the optimization of the program. Overlooked resulting in endless rectifications and revisions. Disadvantage of rapid prototyping is that it may not be suitable for large sized applications.

ADDICTIVE PROCESS
Additive fabrication refers to a class of manufacturing processes, in which a part is built by adding layers of material upon one another. These processes are inherently different from subtractive processes or consolidation processes. Subtractive processes, such as milling, turning, or drilling, use carefully planned tool movements to cut away material from a workpiece to form the desired part. Consolidation processes, such as casting or molding, use custom designed tooling to solidify material into the desired shape. Additive processes, on the other hand, do not require custom tooling or planned tool movements. Instead, the part is constructed directly from a digital 3-D model created through Computer Aided Design (CAD) software. The 3-D CAD model is converted into many thin layers and the manufacturing equipment uses this geometric data to build each layer sequentially until the part is completed. Due to this approach, additive fabrication is often referred to as layered manufacturing, direct digital manufacturing, or solid freeform fabrication.

The most common term for additive fabrication is rapid prototyping. The term "rapid" is used because additive processes are performed much faster than conventional manufacturing processes. The fabrication of a single part may only take a couple hours, or can take a few days depending on the part size and the process. However, processes that require custom tooling, such as a mold, to be designed and built may require several weeks. Subtractive processes, such as machining, can offer more comparable production times, but those times can increase substantially for highly complex parts. The term "prototyping" is used because these additive processes were initially used solely to fabricate prototypes. However, with the improvement of additive technologies, these processes are becoming increasingly capable of high-volume production manufacturing, as will be explored in the section on applications.
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Additive processes are primarily used for the fabrication of prototypes. Initially, this was because the production of end-use products demanded better mechanical properties and lower costs. While these layered parts now offer higher quality and lower costs, other reasons still exist for using additive processes for the fabrication of prototypes. Firstly, prototypes are needed during the design stage and must be produced quickly. Additive processes have short build times and do not require any custom tooling to be created. Secondly, additive fabrication is more cost effective for low quantities than other processes. Again, this is primarily because no costly tooling is required. The prototypes created through additive fabrication can serve many purposes. The prototype may simply be used for form testing, which is visually assessing the 3D form and design of the part and being able to communicate redesign or manufacturing requirements to other engineers. Prototypes are also frequently used for fit testing, in which the part's compatibility with other components of an assembly can be evaluated. In such form and fit applications, the material and mechanical properties are usually of little concern. Some additive processes produce prototypes used for functional testing, in which the part is tested under the operating conditions of the final product. For this application, the material and mechanical properties are significant and therefore only some additive fabrication processes are used towards this end. By using additive fabrication to produce prototypes, much time and money can be saved in the product design process. The quick fabrication of a prototype means that more designs can be considered and tested in a shorter period of time. Also, potential manufacturing problems that are caused by the part design can be identified before full production begins. Not only does the design process move quicker, but the quality of the design is likely to improve as well.

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM):

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) was developed by Stratasys in Eden Prairie, Minnesota. In this process, a plastic or wax material is extruded through a nozzle that traces the part's cross sectional geometry layer by layer. The build material is usually supplied in filament form, but some setups utilize plastic pellets fed from a hopper instead. The nozzle contains resistive heaters that keep the plastic at a temperature just above its melting point so that it flows easily through the nozzle and forms the layer. The plastic hardens immediately after flowing from the nozzle and bonds to the layer below. Once a layer is built, the platform lowers, and the extrusion nozzle deposits another layer. The layer thickness and vertical dimensional accuracy is determined by the extruder die diameter, which ranges from 0.013 to 0.005 inches. In the X-Y plane, 0.001 inch resolution is achievable. A range of materials are available including ABS, polyamide, polycarbonate, polyethylene, polypropylene, and investment casting wax.

Stereo lithography (SLA):

Stereolithography (SLA) is a "Rapid Prototyping" process which produces a physical, three dimensional object , a "conceptual model" or "master pattern".Always produced from computer solid model, "3D CAD file", "Master Model". A stereolithography machine uses a computer controlled laser to cure a photo-sensitive resin, layer by layer, to create the 3D part. Producing a pre-production SLA prototype of a part can greatly enhance the geometric visualization of a product, as well as communication between project team members.Stereolithography is fast, allowing prototypes to be made in a matter of days, and the complexity of the model is seldom a factor.

This also is an additive manufacturing technology and is used for production of models, patterns etc through the Stereo lithography machine. Photo-polymer is the principle material used in this technique.

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Selective Laser Sintering (SLS):

This technology involves the use of high power laser for the fusion of tiny particles of plastic, metal etc, into a mass that represents a desired 3D object, through the help of a SLS machine. This is an additive manufacturing technique. Materials used in this technique are metal powders and thermoplastics. The powder material that is fused during the selective laser sintering (SLS) process is commonly called thermoplastic material or, in some cases, thermoplastic binders for use in metals. The selective laser sintering (SLS) technology allows for these materials to be fused together in tiny layers ranging between .003 and .006. This allows selective laser sintering (SLS) to create parts with accurate details and tolerances comparable to stereolithography (SLA). However, selective laser sintering (SLS) has an added benefit in that the strength and durability of the parts it creates is much better. Additionally, the selective laser sintering (SLS) process makes parts that have longer stability than stereolithography (SLA) and selective laser sintering (SLS) parts wont lose their shape or post cure over time.

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There are a variety of different types of materials available for use in the selective laser sintering (SLS) process. The most beneficial characteristic of selective laser sintering (SLS) is how durable and functional the materials are. These durable and functional selective laser sintering (SLS) materials include DuraForm and DuraForm glass-filled (GF) which are nylon based materials that create plastic prototypes. Other selective laser sintering (SLS) materials are CastForm used for investment casting patterns, selective laser sintering (SLS) Flex for elastomeric, rubber-like parts, and selective laser sintering (SLS) LaserForm which makes metal prototypes. Additionally, there is continual research and development going on to bring new selective laser sintering (SLS) materials to market.

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Each of these selective laser sintering (SLS) materials requires little to no post build processing to be ready to use which cuts out several steps in post processing of selective laser sintering (SLS) parts as compared to stereolithography (SLA). However, all of the selective laser sintering (SLS) materials can be finished in multiple ways to meet the desire or needs of selective laser sintering (SLS) users. Among other types of post processing, selective laser sintering (SLS) parts can be sanded, painted, plated, tapped, or even machined. This allows for a higher grade of smoothness and appearance to selective laser sintering (SLS) parts and assemblies and also gives users an unlimited number of ways to use selective laser sintering (SLS) parts.

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Ballistic
The BPM personal modeler came with all hardware and software enclosed in one compact unit. The BPM is controlled by a DOS based 486 powered PC which is housed within the unit. The BPM utilized ink jet or droplet based manufacturing techniques, where it builds the models by firing micro-droplets of molten wax material from a moving nozzle or jet onto a stationary platform, the platform then lowers and the process is repeated for each layer of the model. The part is built as a hollow shell. The parts can be scaled, rotated, or translated to a desired orientation. This is performed on a 5 axis workstation

BPM parts are not intended to be finished, however they may be painted. BPM Process
BPM employs a technology called digital Microsynthesis.

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 In the first step of the process, molten plastic is fed to a piezoelectic jetting mechanism, almost like those of inkjet printers.

Next a multi-axis controlled NC (Numerical Control) system shoots tiny droplets of material onto the target, using the jetting mechanism.

Last, small droplets freeze upon contact with the surface, forming the surface particle by particle.

BPM USES
BPM parts are mainly used for concept visualization. Due to the weakness of the material, the parts arent well equipped for use as functional components. BPM parts are useful during the design process .

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BPM ADVANTAGES
Requires minimal post-processing. Low toxicity. Minimal power consumption. Low cost of cost and materials. Ability to perform in microgravity and vacuum environments. BPM has no size constraints. The process allows use of virtually any thermoplastic. Because of this, there are no heath hazards involved.

BPM DISADVANTAGES
Parts produced lack strength and durability.

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LAMINATED
A manufacturing process that uses a carbon-dioxide laser to create successive cross-sections of a three-dimensional object from layers of paper with a polyethylene coating on the backside. The first step is to create a base on which the paper can attach itself to. This is done by placing a special tape down onto the platform. A sheet of paper is fed through with the aid of small rollers.

As the paper is fed through, a heated roller is used to melt the coating on the paper so that each new layer will adhere to the previous layer. The carbon17

dioxide laser then cuts the outline of the cross-sectional pattern into the top layer of paper. Once the laser is done cutting the pattern, it creates a border around the build that contains the desired part. This enables the part to stay intact as each new layer is created. Once the border has been cut, the laser then proceeds to create hatch marks, or cubes that surround the pattern within the border. The cubes behave as supports for the part to ensure that no shifting or movement takes place during the entire build.

When the build is completed, the part, attached to the platform, needs to be removed from the LOM. Depending on the size of the part, the block to be removed may take more than one person to remove the build from the LOM. After the part has been successfully removed from the LOM, it must then be removed for the actual platform. Again this may take the work of more than one individual. A wire is used and placed between the part and the platform to "cut" the part away from the metal platform.

The border, or frame of the part is then removed. The next step involves decubing. or removing the supports. Often times the supports can be removed from simple shaking the part; other times it is necessary to use a chisel to pry the cubes away from the part. When all of the cubes have been removed, the unfinished part is sanded down and a lacquer is used to seal the part. Being that LOM parts are made for paper, humidity and temperature affect the structure and composure of the part if it is not coated; hence, the lacquer serves as a protective measure. The LOM is very useful in manufacturing large parts quickly.

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Laminated Object Manufacturing

1. Layer fabrication starts with sheet being adhered to substrate with the heated roller. 2. The laser then traces out the outline of the layer. 3. Non-part areas are cross-hatched to facilitate removal of waste material. 4. Once the laser cutting is complete, the platform moves down and out of the way so that fresh sheet can be rolled into position. 5. Once new material is in position, the platform moves back up to one layer below its previous position.

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6. The process can now be repeated.

The excess material supports overhangs and other weak areas of the part during fabrication. The cross-hatching facilitates removal of the excess material. Once completed, the part has a wood-like texture composed of the paper layers. Moisture can be absorbed by the paper, which tends to expand and compromise the dimensional stability. Therefore, most models are sealed with a paint or lacquer to block moisture ingress.

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GENEREIC PROTOTYPING PROCESS

A general procedure for adopting the rapid prototyping method is below : 1. Allow enough time to create the prototype. If the prototype is to be evaluated with users then allow time to design relevant tasks, recruit the users, evaluate the prototype and report the results. 2. Assemble the necessary equipment, including the hardware and software tools necessary to create the interactive prototype. 3. Develop the prototype itself. 4. Select appropriate users to test the prototype, trying to cover the range of users within the target population. A facilitator will also be required to instruct the users and run the evaluation. 5. Prepare realistic tasks to occupy the users as they work with the prototype. 6. Pilot the evaluation procedure and ensure the prototype can be used to accomplish the tasks. 7. Ensure recording facilities are available and functioning. 8. Conduct each session. The facilitator instructs the user to work through the allocated tasks, interacting with, and responding to, the system as appropriate.

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9. If necessary additional information can be obtained by interviewing users following their use of the prototype. Debrief and thank the user. 10.Analyse the obtained information and then summarise the observations and user evaluations. Determine the themes and severity of the problems identified. 11.Summarise design implications and recommendations for improvements and feed back to design team. Video recordings can support this. 12.Where necessary refine the prototype and repeat the above process.

When using this method, avoid spending too long on the development of initial prototypes as user evaluation may result in substantial changes. Also, avoid making the prototype too polished as this may force users to accept it as finished. Do not put in features that will raise the users expectations but which are unlikely to be achieved with the real system (e.g. too fast response times, too sophisticated graphics) and do not put too much effort into particular features (e.g. animations) which may not be required. Be aware that the method requires software development skills. Also, although rapid, the method can often be more time consuming than other approaches and that resources required are greater than paper and pens due to the need for software and hardware.

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RAPID TOOLING USES

Mold and dies, the custom tooling for molding and casting processes, are geometrically complex parts that require high accuracy, low surface roughness, and strong mechanical properties. Machining these tools using CNC milling or EDM can be the most time consuming and costly step in the molding or casting process. As a result, using additive fabrication to create the tooling offers a fast and cheap alternative known as rapid tooling. As previously explained, additive fabrication excels at producing highly complex parts without great impact on build time. Also, the highly skilled and expensive labor required to machine a mold is not required. As a result, rapid tooling can enable high-volume production of quality parts without the large initial cost and lead time for the tooling. Rapid tooling also offers the potential for many improvements to the mold design, including complex cooling channels that are more efficient, the use of multiple materials, and functionally grading materials to optimize performance.

Some limitations still exist in using rapid tooling. First, additive fabrication does not offer the high accuracy or finishes of machining, so secondary operations are typically required. Also, unlike additive fabrication, machining is able to use hard materials that offer great durability. As a result, rapid tooling is typically only used for low-to-medium volume productions. Lastly, as explained earlier, additive fabrication processes have smaller part size limitations and are unable to produce very large tooling.

The most common method of rapid tooling uses additive processes to fabricate the tooling indirectly by first creating a pattern. This pattern is then used to form the mold or die. Patterns are already used in manufacturing processes that use
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non-permanent molds, such as sand casting and investment casting. In these processes, a pattern is traditionally machined from wood, plastic, or soft metal and used to form the mold. Additive fabrication offers a fast alternative for creating these patterns, which can be re-used many times and offer similar properties to wood or plastic patterns.

Indirect tooling from additive fabrication can also be used to form re-usable molds for processes like vacuum casting or injection molding. Vacuum casting can use molds formed by pouring silicon rubber or room temperature vulcanizing (RTV) rubber around the rapid tooling pattern and allowing it to harden into the shape of the mold. These rubber molds can be used to form up to 50 plastic parts out of various polymers. Rapid tooling patterns can also be used to form metal/ceramic composite molds for injection molding which can produce up to 1,000 plastic parts.

Another type of rapid tooling is direct tooling, which is the use of additive fabrication to directly produce the mold without the need for a pattern. This approach was initially not viable because of the high accuracy and durability required for molds. However, with improvements in additive technologies and materials, direct rapid tooling is now possible. For example, Selective Laser Sintering and Electron Beam Melting have been used to directly fabricate metal molds, capable of producing hundreds of thousands of parts. However, secondary operations are still typically required to improve the finishes and tolerances of the mold.

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ATTACHMENT

~Example of part type prototyping~

~Example Stereolithiography~

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~Laminated Object Manufacturing~

~Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)~

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REFERENCES
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_prototyping http://www.cheshirehenbury.com/rapid/what.html http://www.prototypezone.com/prototyping

http://www.mechanicalengineeringblog.com/tag/history-of-rapid-prototyping/

http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/additive-fabrication http://kylestetzrp.wordpress.com/category/printing-technologies/laser/ http://www.protocam.com/html/tooling.html

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