ENVIERONMENTAL CONSERVATION

Environment: refers to every thing that surrounds man such as air, water, soil, animals,
plants, human beings and man-made elements such as buildings, vehicles, roads etc
There are two components of environment: -
1. The abiotic component of the environment (non living part of the environment
such as air, water, soil, rocks etc
2. The biotic component (the living part of the environment) such as plants, animals
Conservation: it refers to the measures to promote efficient use and maintenance. This
could be efficient use and maintenance of soil, water or the plants

OBJECTIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

• To reduce soil erosion by taking measures against the agents that cause it,
especially wind and water
• To maintain soil fertility that would otherwise be lost through erosion
• To retain water that is essential for crop growth
• To maintain the physical properties of the soil that are ideal for crop production
• To provide clean and safe drinking water for man
• To avoid desertification
• To diversify the range of products

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The South Sudan’s environmental problems, as in many other development countries are
associated with the development process itself. Agriculture land use, water supply and
population dynamics. These problems can be listed as below: -
1. Desertification
2. Wild life depletion
3. Deforestation
4. Soil erosion
5. Pollution
6. Poor Hygiene and Water Sanitation (contamination)
7. Crop pests and diseases

SOIL
Soil: is the medium in which plants grow and from which they derive their nutrients and
anchorage

A fertile soil is one which is able to supply nutrients in adequate amounts and the high
proportions for crops to produce high yields. However, man tends to misuse this soils that
support agricultural activities, settlement and transport in the following ways: -
• Over grazing and communal grazing
• Poor farming methods
• Deforestation
• Bush burning
• Disposition of chemicals
All these misuse of soil will lead to soil exhaustion and soil erosion
SOIL EROSION
Soil erosion: is the removal of the fertile top soil by water, wind and animals. The farmer
suffers directly from the effect of soil erosion in the following ways:
a. The top soil which is lost contains plant nutrients and living organisms, thus
making the soil less fertile for crop production
b. Erosion leaves the soil surface bare and hard which makes the soil difficult to
work
c. By carrying soil from one place to another, erosion destabilizes soil profiles
d. The soil removed by erosion may not be fertile and if a layer of such soil is
deposited over fertile soil it will greatly reduce the latter’s crop production
e. Erosion can cause crops to be washed away. E.g. in the case of gully erosion,
many plants may be uprooted, especially those with a shallow root system
f. Through water erosion, many crops at the foot of slops are buried by the debris
carried by the run-off
g. Gully erosion causes fields to be cut into irregular pieces. The gullies are difficult
to cross with farm machinery. This causes great inconvenience and loss of
efficient in cultivating the land

METHODS OF SOIL, WATER AND TRESS (PLANT) CONSERVATION

There are many ways in which water may be lost from the fields, for example;
• evaporation
• Eva transpiration
• Contaminations
• Surface run off
Water conservation involves the application of modified cultivation and crop
management practices and other physical means in order to retain rainwater on the land
and reduce evaporation losses from the soil surface
Soil conservation, on the other hand, consists of the measures to control the main agents
that bring about the loss, namely water and wind.
Tree conservation, refers to the measures to control the use of tree plants through
afforestation and reafforestaion to avoid loss of tree plants in the society

The methods of conserving soil, water and tree plant may be divided into cultural and
mechanical ones

METHODS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

Minimum tillage
If the seedbed is prepared with the minimum of soil disturbance, the physical properties
of the soil (structure and soil spaces) are not destroyed, thus reducing the danger of soil
erosion. The land should be ploughed to give a rough surface which will resist the forces
of erosion and improve water infiltration

Deep plough
Plough down the soil to the subsoil increases water intake by the soil, so the running
water which is responsible for soil loss is reduced to a minimum
Mulching
Mulch breaks the fall of raindrops, thus expending their energy and reducing their action
on the structure of the soil. Mulch also interrupts any surface flow of water, thereby
increasing water infiltration. Mulches also improve the moisture content of the soil by
reducing evaporation

Manure
In addition to improving soil fertility, manure improves the soil structure, thereby
allowing greater infiltration of water and its retention in the soil. The incorporation of
manure improves the crumb structure by holding soil particles together and reduces the
erosion of the soil

Crop rotation
Crops have different growth habits and varied root systems. By allowing a good rotation
programme, crops providing less vegetative cover can be rotated with those which grow
close to the ground. Grasses, for instance, apart from providing good ground cover, have
roots that help in rebuilding soil structure

Afforestation
It refers to the practice of planting trees (forests) where they did not exist before
Reafforestation
Is the planting of trees to replace those that where cut down or destroyed
Trees for forest and grasses for pastures may be planted on the hill tops and mountain
sides where the land is too steep for cultivation. The tress and grasses reduces wind
erosion. Debris from the plants absorbs water and reduces soil run-off. The roots of the
trees and grasses have a binding effect on the soil

Windrows
These are constructed from trees, scrubs and grasses which have been taken from a
cleared area. They are arranged so as to form ridges which run across the slope. These
interrupt both the wind and water run-off

Windbreakers
These are lines of trees planted perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing wind.
They act as a barrier against winds which might cause soil erosion and evaporation of
water from the fields. Windbreakers should be dense enough to resist the wind from the
ground level to the tops of the trees. Windbreakers may also be used to provide wood for
fuel. They prevent scorching of crops by hot winds too. Wattles, pines and eucalyptus are
some suitable trees for making windbreakers

Cover crops
These are leafy crops which grow very close to the ground. They are usually inter-planted
with other crops. They act by reducing the rate of flow of run-off water and holding soil
particles together. They are usually legumes, so they also help in nitrogen fixing in the
soil. They have the additional advantages of growing vigorously without competing with
the crop and suppressing weeds

Strip cropping
In this practice, the length of the slop exposed to erosion hazards is reduced by growing a
variety of crops and pastures in alternate strips along the contour. The width of the strips
depends on the nature of the slope but usually they are quite narrow. An example of a
strip cropping would be maize, cotton and cassava in the second, fourth and sixth strips,
with the first, third and fifth strips under close-growing crops such as beans, millet and
pasture grasses. In this example, strips two, four and six are exposed to high erosion
hazards, while the intervening strips check the rate of the run-off and encourage water
infiltration and soil deposition

Intercropping
In this method, two or more crops are grown on one piece of land. Cover crops are grown
between rows of annual crops such as maize or amongst perennial crops such as bananas,
coffee and citrus. The cover crop reduces soil erosion and provides nitrogen if it is a
legume

Bunds
Bunds are heaps of soil placed across a slope to control water runoff and soil erosion.
Grasses such as paspalum notatum are planted on top so as to hold the soil in place

Contour plough
Contour plough is done across a slope that is along the contours. Ploughing up and down
the slope is not recommended practice because it encourages soil erosion by water. The
furrows between the ridges developed by contour ploughing guidelines on steep land
range from about 20 to 40 metres on flat undulating land from 60 to 150 metres. These
guidelines are normally planted with grass and left undisturbed

Ridges
These are long raised strip of earth constructed using a hand hoe, a tractor or an ox-drawn
ridge. They conserve both water and soil. Ridges are used in the cultivation of both Irish
and sweet potatoes

Terraces
These are recommended for the steep areas. They reduce the slope of the land and so
reduce the rate of run-off of water. Terraces are used in areas of 20 percent slope and
above. They are constructed to meet two main objectives
• To reduce the surface flow of water and allow more to sink into the soil
• To carry away surplus water that can not be absorbed by the soil

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO SOIL FERTILITY

Soil depth
This is an indication of the depth of soil which is available for plant growth, in which the
plants will be anchored and nourished. Soil depth is an important feature as it is usually
an indicator of the maturity of the soil. The deeper the soil, the more mature it is and the
greater the amount of rainwater retained for the crops during the dry season

Soil structure
The soil structure is the arrangement of the soil particles and affects the amount and
movement of the air and water within the soil and also the transfer of heat. A good
structure gives ideal conditions for plant growth

Soil drainage
This refers to the ease with which excess water drains out of the soil. If it can be
improved, crop production is made possible in waterlogged areas. In waterlogged soils
there is poor aeration, low temperatures, poor soil structure and low pH, all of which
interfere with normal plant growth

Soil aeration
The presence of air, and particularly oxygen, in soil has a remarkable effect on nutrient
and water uptake by plants. Adequate soil aeration encourages better root development
through increased respiration. Also, in the absence of oxygen, soil organisms are unable
to function properly and aerobic decomposition of organic matter slows down. Soil
aeration is improved by proper drainage, cultivation and improvement of the soil
structure

Water holding capacity

This is the ability of the soil to retain water. It has a great effect on the soil fertility. Soils
with good water holding capacity retain the water in which the plant nutrients are
dissolved. Soils with poor water holding capacity lose through leaching

Availability of plant nutrients

The pH of the soil influences the availability of different nutrients for the plants. Some
nutrients like phosphorus and molybdenum are unavailable to plants at low pH, whereas
others like iron, manganese, zinc, potassium and boron are unavailable at high pH. The
moisture content of the soil also influences the availability of soil nutrients for plant use

Soil pH (soil reaction)

This is the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. It is dependent on the concentration of
hydrogen ions in the soil water. When the hydrogen ion concentration is high, the soil is
said to be acidic, when low, the soil is alkaline

Soil pH is measured on a pH scale. The scale runs from 1 to 14 with pH 7 representing

neutrality. A solution with pH below 7 is acidic and above 7 is alkaline. Soil pH is
determined using a pH universal Indicator chart or with a pH metre

Importance of soil pH
a. It has a strong influence on the availability of various nutrients to the plant. In
acidic conditions, e.g. phosphorus is unavailable to plants as it combines with less
soluble compounds of iron and aluminium
b. At very low pH the concentration of certain nutrients such as iron and aluminium
in the soil becomes toxic to the plants
c. Very low pH or very high pH inhibits the activity of soil micro-organisms,
especially the nitrifying bacteria
d. Soil pH may affect the prevalence of certain plant pathogens. At low soil pH,
fungal plant diseases are more prevalent than bacterial diseases. Hence a disease
such as potato scab which is caused by a bacterium is prevalent in soils with high
pH, while fungal diseases like club root disease prevail in soils with low pH

Importance of trees (forest)

• Provides fuel wood
• Helps in rain formation
• Acts as wind breakers
• Serves as living fence
• Controls soil erosion
• Provides fruits and greens for man
• For study purpose
• For building
• Some trees are medicinal
• Provides cool shade
• Some trees such as coriander improves soil fertility
• Trees provides fodder for our animals
• Attracts tourist especially those with camping sites
• Restoration of degraded soil
• Provides mulching materials to retain soil moisture

Importance of soil (land)

• Used for settlement
• Used for farming
• Transport network are constructed on the land
• Provides sports grounds e.g. golf, tennis courts etc
• Infrastructures
• Mining

Importance of water
• Used for transport
• Domestic use e.g. cooking, drinking, bathing etc
• Provides fishing grounds
• Used for irrigation
• Plays a role in rain formation
• Tourist attraction
• Industrial use
Case Study C

For many years the local people had collected their firewood from the forest around the
village. They had also collected wild fruits and honey and roof poles for their houses
wherever necessary. With the new MSF health unit, fewer young children died. There
were more mouths to feed, so the forest near the village had been cleared to make room
for more fields. Every year the women had to walk further and further in search for
firewood

The IAS started a new development programme in the area. The Agriculture Department
offered young fruit trees – oranges, guavas, lemons and pawpaw. The ministry of
Forestry recommended seedlings of a type of trees which grow quickly, provided shelter
from the wind and timber that could be sold in the towns. IAS officials held meetings in
the village, and offered to bring free tree seedlings at the beginning of the rains. The
village elders agreed, especially as this help was being provided free of charge

Eventually IAS land cruiser began distributing the tree seedlings. An agreed number of
tree seedlings were given to each family head in: Ayithiop, Manyiel, Akondok, Marol,
Mabior, Wath Liet, Akuem and Lietnhom villages respectively. The men were told to take
the little plants back to the shade of their house verandas, and to plant them as soon as
possible

Three weeks later a few of the fruit trees had been planted, and were growing well. All
the rest of the tree seedlings had died, still sitting in their plastic containers on the house
verandas

The officials were angry, and blamed the villagers for being backward, lazy and
uncooperative

Questions
1. From where did the programme originate?
2. Why do the elders agree?
3. Might the fact that the seedlings are free affect the outcome?
4. Do the villagers feel responsible?
5. What was the tress for?
6. What are the villager’s real needs?
7. When do the seedlings arrive? What might the villagers be doing at this time?
8. Who collects firewood and is directly affected by deforestation?
9. Who were the seedlings given to?
10. Do you agree with the officials’ final view of the villagers?
11. What would you have done?

APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY
It’s a technology that suits the environment: materials for the technology are locally
available e.g. A Frame for contours and terraces, fuel saving stove, bio gas etc

Fuel Saving Stove

It’s an enclosed apparatus produced for cooking, warming rooms etc by use of fuel wood,
charcoal etc

Types of Fuel Saving Stove

Charcoal stove, grass stove, paraffin stove, electric stove and triple stones

Pie Chart showing the percentage of energy used in our homes

Fuel wood
Charcoal
Electricity
Paraffin

The Fuel Saving Stove is built using locally available materials and it saves up to 66% of
fuel wood. The materials needed are; sand, cow dung, water, silt, bricks, banana stems
and ant hill soil

Soil Mixture
Five (5) parts of ant hill soil
Four (4) parts of top soil
One (1) part of cow dung
Water for mixing
Mix these ingredients well to make a clay mixture

Construction
• Level the ground where the stove is going to be construction
• The first hole saucepan should be the biggest
• The fire place should be large according to the size of the stove
• When the stove is ready, smear it with cow dung/ cassava flour for long lasting
• When ever the stove cracks, smear it with dung/ potato leaves
 • Next level, in the area you want to make the stove, arrange banana stems as
follows to form the frame around which the clay is applied

Young stem for chimney

This stem should be thin for 2nd pot

It rests on top of the tunnel stem
Thick stem about 2 feet long
Creates 1st pothole
This stem should be thin & run diagonally
in quite a slanting way from the 1st pot
stem so that the other end is off the ground

Thick stem about 2 feet long acts

a fireplace/ firewood entrance

Then apply the clay mixture around the stems to create the stove

The two vertical stems can be removed, but leave the others. They will rot as the stove
hardens. You can shape the potholes, ensure you can feel the stems in the holes, and
create a space for the saucepans to be held

Smear the stove with water to shape it. Leave the stove then foe one month to dry. After
that the remaining stems should be removed and the stove should be smeared with the
mixture of cow dung and cassava flow to prolong its life. Leave this to dry and use. If
Chimney
your stove develops cracks, smear again with cow dung Third hole for
small saucepan
You canSecond
also hole
make
saucepan
for medium
your stove
with three potholes. Simply add another sloping tunnel
from the first pothole and place a smaller stem in the same way as before, as shown
Thick stem about 2 feet long acts a
below fireplace/ firewood entrance

First hole for big

Firewood/ fire saucepan
hole
NB: the potholes should be one (1) foot apart

Advantages of the Fuel Saving Stove

a. It saves firewood. Fewer trees will be cut down as fuel wood hence conserving
the trees
b. Kitchen accidents are minimized
c. It saves time as more than one saucepan can be used
d. Its clean to use
e. Its sustainable
f. Its cheap to make since the materials are locally available
g. It conserves heat
h. Saucepans are very stable while cooking
i. Saucepans remain clean after cooking