3.

4 IMPLICATIONS OF THEORIES AND PROCESSES OF LEARNING IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

Theories of Learning refer to general learning principle which have been derived from research by education psychologists. Through these learning theories,

teachers will be able to understand clearly how pupils learn, and then use these learning theories to relate with teaching methods and techniques to guide them to achieve effective learning result.

Learning theories can be classified into 4 main theoretical perspectives: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES Pavlovs Classical Conditioning Behaviourism Watsons Conditioning Theory Skinners Operant Conditioning Cognitive Kohlers Learning Theory Tolmans Sign Learning Theory Piagets Cognitive Learning Theory R.M. Gagnes Information Processing Model of Learning Bruners Concept Formation David P. Ausubels Theory of Reception Learning Metacognition Theory Banduras Modelling Theory Social and Humanistic Carl Rogerss Learning Theory Maslows Learning Theory Constructivism Vygotskys Zone of Proximal Development LEARNING THEORIES

3.4.1 LEARNING THEORY BASED ON BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE

Emphasizes the study of observable and measurable behavior. A theoretical orientation that scientific psychology should study the overt behaviour of organism and its effect on environment. Results based on the observations and experiments on animals (dog, mice, cats and birds) Focus on the relationship between stimuli and responses which resulted in changes of behaviour This learning theory is also known as Stimulus-Response Theory.

3.4.1.1

PAVLOVS CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

The Classical Conditioning also known as psychic reflexes (Pavlov, 1906), transfer conditioning, stimulus-response conditioning or S-R Theory. An experiment related to the study of dogs saliva with the digestive system. a) Before conditioning a) Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): MEAT POWDER Unconditioned Response (UCR): SALIVATION

b) Neutral Stimulus (NS): BELL SOUND

Response

not

related

with

unconditioned responses: THE DOGS ATTENTION ONLY

b) During conditioning Neutral Stimulus (NS): BELL SOUND

Unconditioned Response (UCR): SALIVATION + Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): MEAT POWDER

c) After conditioning The neutral stimulus (NS) @ Conditioned stimulus(CS) : BELL SOUND Its response - conditioned response (CR): SALIVATION

Figure 1: Pavlovs sequence of observable events in classical conditioning.

3.4.1.2

IMPLICATIONS

OF

PAVLOVS

CONDITIONING

THEORY IN TEACHING-LEARNING
1. According to Pavlovs Classical Conditioning Theory, conditioned responses can be fostered through the process of teaching-learning activities. a) Before conditioning UCS Mathematics teacher teaching in the Pupils class for the first time. UCR attention towards the

teaching activities only.

b)

During conditioning CS CR Teacher teaching in an attractive Pupils pay attention to teachers manner. teaching.

c)

After conditioning CS Teachers presence CR Pupils pay attention to teachers teaching.

Figure 2: A Classical Conditioning Model

2.

Application of Pavlovs Conditioning Learning Model on language learning. For example: A teacher intends to teach the word book to a group of 5 years old pupils,

a)

Teach the word BOOK (UCS), paired up with BOOK express verbally by pupils (UCR) UCS UCR
BOOK

b)

Under this condition, the teacher can begin to use the existing relationship between them (UCSUCR) to form a new relationship

c)

Showing a flash card written with the word BOOK, which subsequently paired up with a book (CSCR), express verbally by pupils (CR) CR=UCR
BOOK (CS) BOOK

UCS

Figure 3: Classical conditioning on language learning

3.

Many mathematical principles and laws can also be learned through the process of higher-order conditioning.

a)

Before conditioning CS UCR=CR

b)

During conditioning New CS + CS UCR=CR

y=mx + c

c)

After conditioning New CS CR

y=mx + c

Figure 4: Process of higher-order conditioning

4.

In order to teach effectively, the teacher ought to relate practical experience (CS) with the learning task (UCS) so as to produce satisfactory conditioned learning response, i.e. through satisfactory learning activities.

5.

Guide pupils to apply skill to make accurate generalization by using various related examples.

6.

Guide pupils to use skill to make discrimination, for example, to ascertain the different specific characteristics of parallelogram and rhombus.

7.

Allocate sufficient exercises for pupils to strengthen the application of conditioned stimulus and conditioned response. For example, give related exercises regularly to solve mathematical problems.

8.

Use secondary reinforcement to sustain conditioned response to avoid process of extinction. For instance, use new, similar stimulus as

conditioned stimulus to motivate pupils for their subsequent learning activities. 9. Assist pupils to restore their memory by allowing sufficient resting time until all existing interference in learning has been removed.

3.4.2 LEARNING THEORIES BASED ON COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

Cognitive psychologists view learning as an internal process which occur in rational thinking and cannot be observed directly from human behaviour. Emphasis on pupils insight, process of solving problem (according to age and ability) Concentrate effort on learning methods such as: Insight Reasoning Approach of problem-solving Discovery Conceptualization Assimilation accommodation

3.4.2.1

PIAGETS COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Emphasizes on self-adaptation. Considered that during the self-adaptation process, individual learning has actually occurred when the individual acquires experience from the process of his interaction with other people, things or objects that exist in the environment.

Contained explanation of 5 basic ideas: Schema Adaptation Equilibration Assimilation accommodation

1.

SCHEMA a structured clusters of information o used to represent a certain event, concept, action or process To organize and simplify information o to achieve cognitive economy, o reducing its complexity and facilitating understanding

Individuals schema o expressed in the form of action, language, thinking, opinion or idea that represent characteristic of individual behaviour.

During the childrens stages of development, their behaviour or schema changes from time to time o from clumsy to skillful o from simple to complex

For instance, the form of childrens action, such as using their hands to hold a certain object is actually one of their physical schemas.

2.

ADAPTATION AND EQUILIBRATION Adaptation and equilibration are interrelated and mutually influenced each other. Both use schemas as their basic form of action Adaptation the process of change in schema so as to meet the requirement of a certain situation

The occurrence of adaptation process is due to the temporary loss of equilibration between the individual and his environment.

3. a)

ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMMODATION Assimilation Individuals usually use their own experiences, opinion, attitude and the form of reaction that they possessed to undergo the process of self-adaptation.

This form of individuals action is the same as using the existing cognitive structure in new experience to undergo adaptation for the requirement in a new situation.

The aim here is to use a certain way which can fit the new experience into the old experience.

For example, an infant knows how to grab his favorite rattle and thrust it into his mouth. Hes got that schema down pat. When he comes across some other object -- say daddys expensive watch, he easily learns to transfer his grab and thrust schema to the new object. assimilation. This Piaget called

b)

Accommodation Sometimes, using assimilation alone is unable to fulfill the need of certain situation.

In this connection, the individual has to change his cognitive structure. An individual tries to use his own initiative to change his cognitive structure so as to adapt to the requirement of a new learning situation.

For example, when our infant comes across another object again -- say a beach ball -- he will try his old schema of grab and thrust. This of course works poorly with the new object. So the schema will adapt to the new object: Perhaps, in this example, squeeze and drool would be an appropriate title for the new schema. This is called accommodation.

3.4.2.1.1

PRINCIPLES

Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive development.

Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage learners and require adaptation (i.e., assimilation and

accommodation). Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or mental operations for a child of given age; avoid asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their current cognitive capabilities. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges.

3.4.2.1.2

IMPLICATIONS OF PIAGETS THEORY IN TEACHINGLEARNING

Learning content should be arranged according to the childrens level of cognitive development From concrete to abstract From nearby to distant situation From existing experience to new experience Form elementary to sophisticated

3.4.2.1.3

PIAGETS COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY AND THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS

Pupils can only understand mathematics concept through concrete experience

Teaching aids play an important role in presenting mathematics concept effectively

For instance, the teaching of geometry should be introduced with illustrative diagram or model.