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TOPIC PAGE NO. INTRODUCTION 4 CANAL SYSTEM 5 CANAL BRIDGES & AQUEDUCTS 6 CONDITIONS & CRITERIA 8 MAIN CONSIDERATIONS 11 PLANS & SPECIFICATIONS 11 CANAL MAINTENANCE & OPERATION 12 MANAGEMENT OF CANALS 13 ANTICIPATED EFFECTS & BENEFITS 16 POTENTIAL OF ADVERSE EFFECTS 19 CONCLUSION 21 REFERENCES 23
INDEX
INTRODUCTION :
A permanent irrigation canal or laterals can be defined as constructed structure to convey water from the source of supply to one or more farms. The purpose to construct to efficiently convey irrigation water from a source of supply to one or more farms. Canals are man-made channels for water. There are two types of canal: 1.) Waterways: navigabletransportation 2.) Aqueducts: water supply canal 1.) Waterways: navigabletransportation canals used for carrying ships andboats shipping goods and conveying people, further subdivided into two kinds: a.)Those connected to existing lakes, rivers, or oceans. Included are inter-basin canals, such as the Suez Canal, Erie Canal, and the Panama Canal. b.)Those connected in a city network: such as the Canal Grandeand others of VeniceItaly; the grachtof Amsterdam, and the waterways of Bangkok. 2.)Aqueducts: water supply canals that are used for the conveyance and delivery of potable water for human consumption, municipal uses, and agricultureirrigation. Rills and acquits are small versions. An acquit is a community-operated waterway used in Spain and former Spanish colonies in the Americas for irrigation. Particularly in Spain, the Andes, northern Mexico, and the modern-day American Southwest, acquits are usually historically engineered canals that carry snow runoff or river water to distant fields.In the middle ages, water transport was cheaper and faster than transport overland. This was because roads were unpaved and in poor condition and greater amounts could be transported by ship. The first artificial canal in Christian Europe was the Fossa Carolina built at the end of the 8th Century under personal supervision of Charlemagne. More lasting and of more economic impact were canals like the Naviglio Grande built between 1127 and 1257, the most important of the Lombard navigli. Later, canals were built in the Netherlands and Flanders to drain the polders and assist the transportation of goods.
CANAL SYSTEM
The canal system consists of the following:
a.) Main Canal: Main Canal takes off directly from the upstream side of weir head works or dam. Usually no direct cultivation is proposed. Most of the main canals are aligned as contour canals to derive benefit.
b.) Branch Canal: All offtakes from main canal with head discharge of 14-15 cumec and above are termed as branch canals.
c.) Major Distributary: All offtakes from main canal or branch canal with head discharge from 0.028 to 15 cumec are termed as major distributaries.
d.) Minor Distributary: All offtakes taking off from a major distributary serving more than 40.47 hectares are termed as minor distributaries. They are named after a prominent place near about their tail ends.
e.) Field Channel: All pipe offtakes serving less than 40.47 hectares of ayacut are calledfield channels and are denoted by numbering as left or right side pipes.
2).CANAL TIMBER AND CAST IRON BRIDGES: Wooden bridges were cheaper to build than masonry or brick bridges. They were used for footbridges at locks and sometimes for accommodation bridges like this ladder bridge on the Oxford Canal, left. The walkway is a single timber beam which has sagged considerably over the years. Cast iron bridges were used, especially around Birmingham. These bridges were built to a common
elegantdesign. They were also used to take thetowpath over the old loop. (Tony
Lewery)
Canal Turnover or Roving bridges and split footbridges. Sometimes the towpath had to move from one side of the canal to the other. Turnover or roving bridges allowed the towing horse to cross the canal without the tow line getting caught up in the bridge. The smooth curves of these bridges often make them most attractive structures, as the bridge on the Shropshire Union Canal on the left. Split bridges were used around locks to enable the towing line to pass through the bridge when the towpath did not go under the bridge, as on the right on the Staffordshire & Worcestershire Canal. (Photos Tony Lewery)
3.)
CRITERIA
All planned work shall comply with all Federal, State, and local laws and regulations. Capacity requirements. The capacity of canals or laterals serving a farm or group of farms shall be determined by considering 1. The delivery demands of all the farm irrigation systems served and the amount of water needed to cover the estimated conveyance losses in the canal or lateral. 2. In water short areas, where water is not normally available to meet the farm irrigation demands, the canal or lateral will be sized to convey the available water supply. 3. Capacity must be enough to handle any surface runoff that is to enter the canal. Velocities: Canals and laterals shall be designed to develop velocities that are nonerosive for the soil materials through which the canal or lateral passes. Local information on the velocity limits for specific soils shall be used if available. If
such information is not available, the maximum design velocities shall not exceed those shown in Figure 6-2, Chapter 6, TR-25. A Mannings n no greater than 0.025 shall be used to check that velocities do not exceed permissible values. Canals and laterals shall be designed to convey the required flows with the maximum probable retardance conditions. For capacity design, the value of n shall be selected according to the material in which the canal or lateral is constructed, the alignment, the hydraulic radius, the expected vegetative growth and planned maintenance.
Freeboard:
The required freeboard above the maximum design water level shall be at least one-third of the design flow depth (0.33d) and shall not be less than 0.5 feet.
Side slope:.
Canals and laterals shall be designed to have stable side slopes. Local information on side slope limits for specific soils and/or geologic materials shall be used if available. If such information is not available, the design side slopes in the canal or lateral shall not be steeper than those shown in Table. Table Material Solid rock, cut section Loose rock or cemented gravel, cut Section Heavy clay, cut section Heavy clay, fill section Sand or silt with clay binder, cut or fill Section Side slope :1 :1 1:1 2:1 1-1/2:1
Related structures.
Plans for canal or lateral installations shall provide for adequate turnouts, checks, crossings, and other related structures needed for successful operation as a conservation irrigation facility. All related structures shall be designed and installed to meet NRCS standards. Structures needed for the prevention or control of erosion shall be installed before the canal or lateral is put into operation.
Linings.
Unlined canals and laterals shall not be constructed on sites where permeability of the soils is rapid or very rapid. If an excessively permeable soil site must be crossed, the canals and laterals shall be lined according to the appropriate standards for ditches and canal linings or shall be piped.
Maintenance access.
Provisions shall be provided, as required, for maintenance operations. If the top of the bank or berm is to be used for a roadway, the width shall be enough to allow equipment travel/operation.
MAIN CONSIDERATIONS:
Consider the effects on downstream flows or aquifers that would affect other water uses or users. Consider the effects on the volume and rate of runoff, infiltration, evaporation, transpiration, deep percolation, and ground water recharge. Consider the effects of erosion of banks and beds and the movement of sediment, and the soluble and sediment-attached substances carried by runoff and the movement of dissolved substances to groundwater. Consider the effects on wetlands or water-related wildlife habitats. Consider the effects on the visual quality of the soil water and plant resources. Consider designing storage capacity into the canal to allow for management flexibility.
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A good operation and maintenance program includes: Maintain cross-section and gradient by controlling channel erosion and bank sloughing. Immediately remove any debris, sediment, foreign material, obstructions or blockage from the channel and from structures, trash racks, head gates, inlets, or outlets. Maintain growth of vegetative coverings on outside canal banks. This includes reseeding, fertilization, and application of herbicides when necessary. Periodic mowing may also be needed to control excessive growth. Install and maintain fences as needed to prevent excessive livestock trampling of banks when adjacent fields are used for pasture. Eradicate or otherwise remove all rodents or burrowing animals. Immediately repair any damage caused by their activity. Immediately repair any vandalism, vehicular, or livestock damage.
Canal Automation is becoming widely used to improve the operation of canal systems and to conserve water. Automatic control systems are installed on most new canals, and many older canals are being modernized with data collection, telemetry, and control equipment to help canal operators better manage their water.
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DREDGING:Over time the Canal tends to fill up with silt from decomposing plant matter and soil washed in from adjacent roads and farmland. Unless the Canal is periodically dredged, it would eventually siltup, preventing boating and angling and leading to a deterioration in wildlife habitats. The work has been phased over several years in order to reduce the immediate impact on wildlife, and current monitoring has shown an increase in the variety of water plants (on which the rest of the Canal food chain relies) as a result of the work. The future of boating and angling on the canal has also been secured for many years to come.
The Ranger Service has also been working with adjacent landowners to promote sustainable land use, in an effort to reduce soil eroding into the Canal in the future. Most of the offside boundary of the Country Park has been fenced to protect the banks from erosion by livestock and to create wildflower rich buffer strips that provide excellent habitats for a range of wildlife. HEDGELAYING: After several decades of being annually trimmed with a tractor-mounted flail, the hedge has become quite gap and sparse in many areas. As part of the Country Parks Countryside Stewardship Scheme agreement, over three miles of hedgerow are being restored through a combination of hedgelaying and hedge planting. Hedgelying is a traditional form of hedge management which promotes thick regrowth from the base of the hedge and creates a bushy hedge which acts well as a stockproof barrier and provides great habitat for wildlife. Hedgelaying is particularly popular with the Canals Volunteer Ranger Service who spend many days on this rewarding activity each winter.
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TOWPATH RESURFACING: Towpath has been resurfaced using crushed stone from the quarry at West Leigh. This work has been focused on previously muddy or uneven sections of footpath with the aim of improving conditions for wheelchair and mobility buggy users in particular. OFFSIDE BUFFER STRIPS: These strips on the offside protect the canal from silt and nutrient pollution and provide excellent habitats for wildlife.
CULVERTS: The culverts allow water from streams and ditches to flow
under the canal but over time they tend to fill up with silt and debris. Specialist enclosed-access teams will undertake this important work.
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Sub-Regional Benefits
Support of the Interim Action Plan:The original design of the primary canal system recognized the extremely flat topography of the EAA. Drainage pump stations were provided around the perimeter of the basinwith a system of interconnected canals. The basic canal design concept considered thatdrainage flows were pumped radially outward from the center of the EAA. When water quality concerns for Lake Okeechobee led to the operational changes of the Interim Action Plan the preferred direction for drainage flows was south. This flow reversal in the northern reaches of the North New River, Hillsboro, and Miami canals was not entirely supported by the canal capacity. Prior conveyance studies of these canals (Burns & McDonnell) concluded that the existing cross-sections were inadequate to convey Lake Okeechobee releases equal to the full capacity of the basin stations. Although farm drainage flows aredistributed along the primary canal, and are not released at a single point, the cumulative permitted drainage pumping capacities exceed the Lake release rate and each canaldesign capacity by a factor of 2 to 4 times.
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Operational flexibility: Water management within the EAA is a daily necessity due to the flat terrain, minimal surface storage, and need for water table control. Individual farm operations require drainage or irrigation in response to rainfall, seepage, crop needs, land preparation operations, harvesting operations, and maintenance activities. The size of the EAA and local patterns of rainfall mean that frequently the distribution of rainfall is non-uniform across the EAA. Frequently farms that are too wet from rainfall and seepage are pumped for drainage on the same day that other farms are irrigating. Improvements to the conveyance capacity of the Bolles, Cross, North New River, and Miami canals will improve the interconnection between the primary basins of the EAA. This will facilitate the distribution of excess surface water between basins. The benefits will include a reduction in drainage pumping from EAA basins that have received localized rainfall and a reduction in irrigation pumping to EAA basins that lack sufficient rainfall. This benefits been demonstrated at the subbasin level as part of the success of the pumping Best Management Practices (BMP) implemented by EAA farmers. Recorded daily flows and canal stages, from October, 1992, to October, 2002, were reviewed to estimate an order of magnitude for anticipated benefits that canal improvements will have on operational flexibility. Control of Canal Sediments: Enlarging the cross-section of the primary canals is likely to have an immediate benefit to water quality. Excavation will remove the existing bottom sediments that haveaccumulated over the last 25 years. The increased cross-section will allow flow at a lower velocity, thus future sediments, deposited during times of low flow, will be less likely to become suspended again and carried downstream. This will improve the water quality of inflows to the STAs and backflows to Lake Okeechobee, and may also improve the water quality of irrigation flows to the farms. Precautions will be taken to prevent turbid waters or sediments from traveling downstream of the canal widening excavation. Excavated sediments are typically disposed of adjacent to the canal. Future monitoring and canal maintenance may be needed as new sediments are deposited. Precautions will be taken to prevent mobilization of contaminants and nutrients.
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Consideration should be given to the effect on dissolved oxygen of deepening the canal. Construction Scheduling: The independent canal improvements project could also provide some benefits duringconstruction of the EAA Storage Reservoirs. Because of the spatial separation between the canal improvements and the proposed reservoirs, the two elements can easily be separated from a construction standpoint. Allowing the canal improvements to proceedindependent of the reservoirs would show early progress on a critical CERP project. It would also support the goals of the ECP to optimize the performance of the STAs and reduce nutrient loading to the EPA. Improving the interconnection of the primary basins would support the construction of the initial reservoir components.
Regional Benefits
Reduced Backpumping to Lake Okeechobee: However, given the current constraints on canal conveyance capacity, a discontinuation of backpumping would cause unacceptable increases in canal stages during moderate to heavy regional rain eventsIn thefuture.
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Canal seepage losses are a function of the canal depth, soil properties, proximity to secondary canals and the difference in water levels. Increasing the canal depth could increase the seepage depending on the porosity of the underlying soil layers.
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This could be evaluated during the design phase by analysis of representative soil borings along the canal alignment. These loses can be partially mitigated by increasing the canal width rather than increasing the depth. Seepage losses from the primary canal to an adjacent farm during the wet season would be returned to the canal by increased secondary pumping. Seepage losses during the dry season may not be returned by secondary pumping. These dry season losses may in some cases reduce the farm irrigation demands on the primary canal system. Canal evaporative losses may be estimated as the product of measured pan evaporation and the surface area of the exposed open water. Increasing the canal width will increase the evaporative losses. This will be partially offset by a reduction in the evapotranspiration losses of the adjacent uplands. Doubling the canal top width would increase by approximately 8% the net evaporative losses from the canal and vicinity. At many locations gated culverts or flash board structures can be operated by the farmers to irrigate the agricultural lands by gravity. This is dependent on the stage in the primary canal being at a suitable level. Improvements to the canal cross-section could lower the canal water surface significantly. This would vary with location and antecedent conditions. While lowering the canal stages would generally be beneficial during drainage events, because of non-uniform rainfall patterns. It could be detrimental to farms trying to irrigate by gravity under certain conditions. Any proposed changes to the control and operating water levels in the primary canals would need to be carefully evaluated. An additional consideration would be the opportunity to use a portion of the soil excavated from the canals in the construction of the proposed reservoir levees. Due to the cost of handling and hauling, the borrowed material closest to the levees would be themost cost effective. If the canal and reservoir levee construction where implemented at the same time, some needs for land acquisition may be reduced.
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CONCLUSION:
Improved water management and water conservation is believed to be ultimately an organization issue. This means that the path to improving water management in irrigated agriculture may well be through these irrigation enterprises, in terms of assisting them in financial and water delivery record keeping, managing canal flows and water accounts, staff training, etc. Simple marginal pricing of water does not appear to be the answer. As a concept, marginal pricing tends to grossly over-simplify the organizational and economic condition and practices of these irrigation enterprises. It is an example of a policy that would generally treat all irrigation enterprises uniformly, as if to say they were all cut from the same "cookie cutter." Nothing would seem to be further from the truth, even if these enterprises are known to share many management practices in common. a) Reducing hydraulic losses within the primary canal system and supporting the objectives of the Lake. b) Improving operational flexibility within the EAA to distribute excess surface waterand reduce the necessity for minor drainage discharges from the EAA and minorirrigation releases from Lake. c) Reducing the risk of flood damage to agricultural and urban lands by improving thelevee freeboard. d) Improving water quality by removing existing canal organic sediments and reduce thetransport of future canal sediments by lowering velocities in the primary canals. e) The intermountain region is characterized primarily by earthen canal systems. These systems often have important ecological benefits, and should not be summarily dismissed on the grounds that they are inefficient. The issue here appears to be more of enterprise staffing and canal management than simple delivery efficiency based on seepage losses. f) The number of employees hired by irrigation enterprises tends to increase proportionally with the size and complexity of the irrigation system. This might be intuitively expected anyway, although other factors certainly come into play. Irrigation districts tend to hire more employees than canal companies do. It is not clear why this is so. g) The continuous flow regime of managing an enterprise's main canal is still preferred in the intermountain region. Also, the use of "call systems," involving the ordering of water by farmers 24 to 48 hours in
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advance, and then having ditch riders re-adjust this continuous stream daily, is still the preferred method of managing the main canal throughout the irrigation season.
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REFRENCES:
Burns and McDonnell. Everglades Protection Project: Conceptual Design. February 15,1994. SFWMD. West Palm Beach, Florida. SFWMD. Feb. 1994 Burns and McDonnell. Storm water Treatment Area No. 3 & 4, Alternatives Analysis,Chapter 4 Miami and North New River Canals Conveyance Capacity. SFWMD. West Palm Beach, Florida. SFWMD. South Florida Water Management District. S-7 and S-8 Pump Station Statistics. SFWMD. n. d. South Florida Water Management District. DBHYDRO (selected records) South Florida Water Management District. Structure Books. Operations Control Center, SFWMD South Florida Water Management District Water Resource Division. Resource Planning Department. Technical Memorandum, An Atlas of the Everglades Agricultural Area Surface Water Management Basins. September 1989. Water Measurement Manual (third edition) and the Canal Systems Automation Manual, Volumes 1 and 2.
http://waterlab.colostate.edu/Management/conclusion.htm http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4367E/w4367e0y.htm#TopOfPage http://www.palmbayflorida.org/publicworks/services/canal.html http://www.springerlink.com/content/g8m1546rh407w812/ http://www.canalmanagement.net/
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