Name : Buko Tri Lestari NIM : 2008610028 1. Semantic and Semantic Modern 2. Types of meaning 3. Level of meaning 2.

Type of meaning Semantics is a study of the meaning of lexical items and other parts of language. There are seven types of meaning in Semantics; conceptual,connotative, stylistic, affective, reflected, collocative and thematic meaning.This study focuses on only two of the types of meaning: conceptual meaning and connotative meaning. 1/Conceptual meaning Conceptual meaning means logical, cognitive, or denotative content. It isbased on two structural principles, which arecontractivenessand constituentstructures(in a scientific way). It is usually derived from definitions we find indictionaries and the appearance of these lexical items. We give these lexicalitems features (constituent structures) and eliminate other features whichare not present (contractiveness structures). - The conceptual meaning of a language can be studied in terms of contrastive feature, depends on the given lexical field, so that (forexample) the meaning of the word woman could be specified as (+ human, +adult,- male), as distinct from, man, which could be defined (+ human, +adult,+ male), man is incompatible with woman because of the distinctfeature which is (male feature)- The second principle, that of structure, is the principle by which largerlinguistic units are built up out of smaller units, (for example) in thissentence: {[(All) (men)] [(are)] [(mortal)]} (We are able to analyze the sentence syntactically into a its constituentsparts)The semantic representation of conceptual meaning is governed by twolinguistic principles: that of contrast and that of arrangement. Theseprinciples are comparable to the paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationsobserved in phonological and syntactic analyses. 2/Associative meaning The associative meaning of an expression has to do with individual mentalunderstandings of the speaker. They, in turn, can be broken up into six sub-types:connotative, collocative, social, affective, reflected and thematic A/ Connotative meaning The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to (Leech 1981: 12).

Connotation is the real-world value a speaker associates with an expression.In other words, it is the meaning above the conceptual meaning and it mayvary according to culture, background or society. Thus, connotative meaningcan be subjective or unstable. It depends very much on how an individual orsociety perceives a word. It is the association that we make in our mind of what these lexical items represent. (For example), In English, the word dog may have the connotation loyalty , apart from its referential meaning. When we analyze word meanings we should distinguish two separate concepts called denotative and connotative meaning; sea denotes a large body of water but connotes a sense of danger, instabilityOne aspect concerning the connotative meaning is the social meaning (sometimes termed stylistic meaning) which varies between age-groups, sex,social class and cultures. Dialect can be a good example.It is a piece of language that conveys about the social circumstances of itsuse. Pavement is used in British English and sidewalk in American English.Residence is formal and home is casual. C/ Affective meaning Is what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writertoward what is referred to? (For example), by scaling our remarks accordingto politeness with the object of getting people to be quiet, we might sayeither: 1/ Im terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to loweryou voices a little2/ will you belt up Factors such as intonation and voice-timber (tone of voice) are also important here. And there are elements of language such as interjections, like (Aha! Yippee!),Whose main function is to express emotions. D/ Reflected meaning What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression. So it is the meaning that arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.In the church service, the synonymous expression (the comforter), it sound swarm comforting but in the religious context it means the strengthener or supporter. i.e sense of the word seems to rub off on another sense. E/ Collocative meaning Collocative meaning is the associated meaning a word acquires in line withthe meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it. Both pretty andhandsome mean good-looking but they differ in collocative meaning. Prettyoften co-occurs with girl, woman, flower, skirt, etc. Handsome oftencollocates with boy, man, car, overcoat, etc. See (green ideas sleep furiously) to more understand the meaning of collocation. 2/Thematic meaning It concerns itself with how the order of words spoken affects the meaningthat is entailed.If we say: 1/ I will do it tomorrow. In a neutral way. 2/ tomorrow, I will do it. Showing a promise. 4/ Mrs. Bessi Smith donated the first prize. 5/ The first prize was donated by Mrs. Bessi Smith.

Certainly these have different communicative value: the active sentenceseems to answer what did Mrs. Bessi Smith donate?, while the passivesentence seems to answer who donated the first prize. Furthermore Antonymy (A is the opposite of B; e.g. cold is the opposite of warm) Homonym. Two concepts, A and B, are expressed by the same symbol. Ex-ample: Both a financial institution and a edge of a river are expressed by theword bank (the word has two senses). Hyponymous relationships ("is a" relation or hyponym-hyperonym),generic relation, genus-species relation: a hierarchical subordinate relation.(A is kind of B; A is subordinate to B; A is narrower than B; B is broader thanA). The "is a" relation denotes what class an object is a member of. Forexample, "CAR - is a - VEHICLE" and "CHICKEN - is a - BIRD". It can bethought of as being a shorthand for "is a type of". When all the relationshipsin a system are "is a", is the system a taxonomy. The "generic of" optionallows you to indicate all the particular types (species, hyponyms) of aconcept. The "specific of" option al-lows you to indicate the common genus(hypernym) of all the particular types. Sev en t y pes of meani ng Semantics is a study of the meaning of lexical items and other parts of language. There are seven types of meaning in Semantics; conceptual,connotative, stylistic, affective, reflected, collocative and thematic meaning.This study focuses on only two of the types of meaning: conceptual meaningand connotative meaning. 1/Conceptual meaning Conceptual meaning means logical, cognitive, or denotative content. It isbased on two structural principles, which arecontractivenessand constituentstructures(in a scientific way). It is usually derived from definitions we find indictionaries and the appearance of these lexical items. We give these lexicalitems features (constituent structures) and eliminate other features whichare not present (contractiveness structures).- The conceptual meaning of a language can be studied in terms of contrastive feature, depends on the given lexical field , so that (forexample) the meaning of the word woman could be specified as (+ human, +adult,- male), as distinct from, man , which could be defined (+ human, +adult,+ male), man is incompatible with woman because of the distinctfeature which is (male feature)- The second principle, that of structure, is the principle by which largerlinguistic units are built up out of smaller units, (for example) in thissentence:

{[(All) (men)] [(are)] [(mortal)]} (We are able to analyze the sentence syntactically into a its constituentsparts)The semantic representation of conceptual meaning is governed by twolinguistic principles: that of contrast and that of arrangement. Theseprinciples are comparable to the paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationsobserved in phonological and syntactic analyses. 2/Associative meaning The associative meaning of an expression has to do with individual mentalunderstandings of the speaker. They, in turn, can be broken up into six sub-types:connotative, collocative, social, affective, reflected and thematic A/ Connotative meaning The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to (Leech 1981: 12). Connotation is the real-world value a speaker associates with an expression.In other words, it is the meaning above the conceptual meaning and it mayvary according to culture, background or society. Thus, connotative meaningcan be subjective or unstable. It depends very much on how an individual orsociety perceives a word. It is the association that we make in our mind of what these lexical items represent. (For example), In English, the word dog may have the connotation loyalty , apart from its referential meaning.When we analyze word meanings we should distinguish two separateconcepts called denotative and connotative meaning; sea denotes a largebody of water but connotes a sense of danger, instabilityOne aspect concerning the connotative meaning is the social meaning (sometimes termed stylistic meaning) which varies between age-groups, sex,social class and cultures. Dialect can be a good example.It is a piece of language that conveys about the social circumstances of itsuse. Pavement is used in British English and sidewalk in American English.Residence is formal and home is casual. C/ Affective meaning Is what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writertoward what is referred to? (For example), by scaling our remarks accordingto politeness with the object of getting people to be quiet, we might sayeither: 1/ Im terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to loweryou voices a little2/ will you belt up Factors such as intonation and voice-timber (tone of voice) are also importanthere . And there are elements of language such as interjections, like (Aha! Yippee!),Whose main function is to express emotions. D/ Reflected meaning

What is communicated through association with another sense of the sameexpression. So it is the meaning that arises in cases of multiple conceptualmeaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to anothersense.In the church service, the synonymous expression (the comforter), it sounds warm comforting but in the religious context it means the strengthener orsupporter. i.e sense of the word seems to rub off on another sense. E/ Collocative meaning Collocative meaning is the associated meaning a word acquires in line withthe meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it. Both pretty andhandsome mean good-looking but they differ in collocative meaning. Prettyoften co-occurs with girl, woman, flower, skirt, etc. Handsome oftencollocates with boy, man, car, overcoat, etc. See (green ideas sleep furiously) to more understand the meaning of collocation. 2/Thematic meaning It concerns itself with how the order of words spoken affects the meaningthat is entailed.If we say:1/ I will do it tomorrow. In a neutral way.2/ tomorrow, I will do it. Showing a promise.4/ Mrs. Bessi Smith donated the first prize.5/ The first prize was donated by Mrs. Bessi Smith.Certainly these have different communicative value: the active sentenceseems to answer what did Mrs. Bessi Smith donate? , while the passivesentence seems to answer who donated the first prize . Furthermore Antonymy (A is the opposite of B; e.g. cold is the opposite of warm) Homonym. Two concepts, A and B, are expressed by the same symbol. Ex-ample: Both a financial institution and a edge of a river are expressed by theword bank (the word has two senses). Hyponymous relationships ("is a" relation or hyponym-hyperonym),generic relation, genus-species relation: a hierarchical subordinate relation.(A is kind of B; A is subordinate to B; A is narrower than B; B is broader thanA). The "is a" relation denotes what class an object is a member of. Forexample, "CAR - is a - VEHICLE" and "CHICKEN - is a - BIRD". It can bethought of as being a shorthand for "is a type of". When all the relationshipsin a system are "is a", is the system a taxonomy. The "generic of" optionallows you to indicate all the particular types (species, hyponyms) of aconcept. The "specific of" option al-lows you to indicate the common genus(hypernym) of all the particular types. 3 Level of Meaning a. Expression Meaning b. Utterance Meaning c. Communicative Meaning

Expression meaning Corresponds to phrasal meaning or sense 0 I don't need your bicycle. need, bicyclecontent words I, do, not, your function words The meaning of content words are concepts. It describes what it refers to, i.e. it is descriptive meaning The meaning of function words contributes to the descriptive meaning of the sentence. (1) I don't need your bicycle. Phrasal meaning results from putting the words together need: sth. is important for so bicycle: two-wheeled vehicle I: (instruction to find out who is the) speaker not: negation do: present tense (soatakes place at utterance time) your: addressee who is in a particular relationship to some entity Sentence (phrasal) meaning of (1): 'for the speaker, the two-wheeled vehicle of the addresse(s) is not very important, at the time when s is being uttered It is left open who the speaker and the addressee(s) are, what particular time is referred to and which bicycle. UTTERANCE MEANING correspondsto speaker meaning or meaning 0 (1)'I don't need your bicycle The meaning which results if the sentence is uttered in a specific scenario: S11 August 1996, morning: Mary has been planning a trip to town that afternoon. Two days before, she talked with her neighbor John about the trip and asked him to lend her his bike for the trip. She had lent her car to her daughter and did not know if she would get it back in time. Meanwhile her daughter is back and has returned Mary's car. Mary is talking with John on her mobile, telling him, embedded within the usual small talk: (1) (1) I don't need your bicycle. If (1) is used in a particular scenario, the references are fixed. If the sentence is used in S1, the sentence is true. But in a slightly different scenario it might be false. (scenario/world/context/c onstellation) As long as (1) is not actually used with concrete reference, it fails to be true or false. The question of truth primarily concerns DECLARATIVE sentences. cf. (1) to Do you need a bicycle? or Take my bicycle!

(1)I don't need your bicycle. (1) can be true in different scenarios, cf. S1and S2.S2:Same time and place. John's five-year-old daughter Maggie is playing at home with her five-yearold friend Titus. They are playing with a game of cards that display all kinds of vehicles. Titus is in the possession of a card that shows a snowmobile. Maggie is eager to exchange this card for one of hers and offers Titus a card with a bicycle. Titus rejects the exchange saying (1). The word meaning of bicycleis shifted to fit the given context, i.e. the expression meaning may be subject to certain kinds of meaning shifts. CONTEXT OF UTTERANCE The CONTEXT OF UTTERANCE (CoU) is the sum of circumstances that bear on reference and truth. The most important ones: speaker addressee utterance time utterance place the facts given when the utterance is produced 1 The context is indicated by particular linguistic expressions 2 (1) I don't need your bicycle. (2) Peter will be here tomorrow'. COMMUNICATIVE MEANINGCommunicative function of an utterance. 0 (1)I don't need your bicycle. Neither the level of expression meaning nor that of utterance meaning is the primary level on which we interpret verbal utterances. In an actual exchange, our main concern inevitably is this: what is the speaker's intention? S1: (1)can be taken as a statement and thereby as a withdrawal of a former request. S2: (1)can be interpreted as a refusal of an offer. A theory that addresses the communicative use of expressions is speech act theory, introduced in the 1950s by John L. Austin and developed further by John R. Searle. Whenever one makes an utterance in a verbal exchange, one acts on several levels: 'locutionary act' (using a certain expression with a certain meaning)

'illocutionary act' (in performing a locutionary act one also performs an illocutionary act on the level on which the utterance constitutes a certain type of 'speech act': a statement, a question, a request, a promise, etc.