Chemistry C1 - Air Quality

Air Quality
The earth is surrounded by a thin layer of gases called the atmosphere which contain: 78% - Nitrogen (N2) 21% - oxygen (O2) 1% - Argon (Ar) and other noble gases 0.04% - Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0-4% - water Vapour (varies from one location to another and according to the weather conditions) The earth's atmosphere is just 15km thick while the diameter of the earth is over 12 000km. The different chemicals it contains are just right for Life. Human activities have effected the balance of these chemicals and this can effect air quality. Air pollutants Pollutants are chemicals that harm our environment and humans. Human activities produce a large number of gases that are released into the atmosphere. All of these pollutants are directly or indirectly produced by humans. Most of these pollutants are produced by burning fuels which also contribute to global warming. Pollutants that harm the environment can also harm humans indirectly. (e.g. acid rain makes the water in lakes and rivers too acidic for plants and animals to survive which has a direct impact on our food chain). The earth is heated by the sun but at the same time the earth also radiates heat back out as infrared energy. The earth's greenhouse gases (Methane(CH4), Carbon Dioxide(CO2), Water Vapour) absorb the heat to stop it from escaping into space. This is a greenhouse effect, it keeps the earth warmer then it would be so therefore it is not a bad thing. However the increase of greenhouse gases is causing an increase in global warming. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) - causes acidic rain which kills plants and water creatures. Carbon Monoxide (CO) - A poisonous gas which reacts with blood.

 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) - causes acidic rain, causes breathing problems, makes asthma conditions worse. Clurofluro Carbons (CFCs) - Damages the ozone layer. Particulates/soot - Microscopic particles of carbon from incomplete combustions of fuel. Makes things dirty, makes lung infections worse, makes asthma worse. The better the oxygen the less the particulates in the air. Different fuels produce different amounts of particulates. Measuring Pollutants The units of measurement used are PPB (parts per billion) or PPM (parts per million). (e.g. a sulphur dioxide concentration of 166ppb means that in every one billion (1 000 000 000) molecules of air there will be 16 sulfur dioxide molecules). When measuring the pollutants it is important that the data taken is accurate and important. By measuring the concentrations of pollutants in the air it is possible to asses air quality. Data is very important to scientists because it can be used to test a theory or explanation. Measurements can vary because... Variables (factors that change), like volume of traffic and weather, affect concentrations. all measuring equipment has a limited degree of accuracy. the user's skill will effect the accuracy of the measurement. As the measurements vary it is not possible to get a true value however the true value is to lie in between the range of the data. Outliers are measurements that stand out and are well out of the range of the measurements. These occur because of some sort of error in the experiment. It is also important to repeat measurements because if you just look at one then you cannot tell if it is reliable or not but if you take loads then you should be able to spot the errors. By finding an average of a set of repeated measurements you can get a bet estimate of the true value.(mean = add up all values/ number of values). Real difference is when the ranges of the two sets of data don't overlap each other though if they do overlap (because the true value lies in between the ranges) then there is no real difference because the true value can be the same for both sets of data. About over half of all carbon Monoxide atoms are produced by transport, with rest coming from homes and other industries.

Chemicals Elements are made up of tiny particles called atoms. All the atoms to a particular elements are the same and unique to the element. Elements join together to form bigger building blocks called molecules. Compounds are formed when the atoms of two or more different elements chemically combined to form molecules. Chemical symbols and numbers are used to write formulae. Formulae show... the different elements that make up a compound the number of atoms of each different element in one molecule. Chemical Change During a chemical reaction new substances are formed from old ones. This is because the atoms in the reactants (starting substances) are rearranged in some way: joined atoms maybe separated separate atoms may be joined joined atoms may be separated and then joined again in different ways. These chemical changes are not easily reversible. Combustion Combustion is a chemical reaction which takes place when fuels burn, releasing heat as energy. For combustion to take place oxygen must be present. Coal is a fossil fuel mainly containing carbon(C). No atoms are lost or added in a chemical reaction, so all the atoms are there at the end that were there at the start, they are just rearranged. So there will always be same number of atoms on either side of an equation. Many of the pollutants in the atmosphere are produced through the combustion of fossil fuels e.g. power station, cars, aeroplanes, etc. Complete Combustion Fossil fuels such as petrol, diesel fuel, natural gas and fuel oil consist mainly of compounds called hydrocarbons. A hydrocarbon contains only hydrogen atoms and carbon atoms. So, when it is burned in air, carbon dioxide and water are produced. This is a complete combustion. CO2 is a pollutant! Many samples of coal contain sulphur, so Sulphur dioxide is produced when they are burned.

 Incomplete combustion If a fuel is burned and there is not enough oxygen in the air then carbon particulates or carbon monoxide might be produced. This is called incomplete combustion. Incomplete combustion occurs in car engines, so exhaust emissions contain carbon particulates and carbon monoxide as well as carbon dioxide. During the combustion of fuels, (e.g. in a car engine or in power stations) nitrogen can react with oxygen and produce nitrogen monoxide (NO). Nitrogen monoxide is then oxidised to then produce carbon dioxide (NO2). When NO and NO2 occur together they are called NOx. What happens to pollutants? Once pollutants have been released into the atmosphere they cannot just disappear they have to go somewhere. This is when they start causing problems for the environment. Carbon particulates are deposited on surfaces such as stone buildings, making them dirty. The appearance of many beautiful old buildings has been changed due to this. Some CO2 is removed by natural processes; it is needed by plants for photosynthesis and some also dissolves in rain water and sea water when it reacts with other chemicals in the water. However, because we are producing too much carbon dioxide, not all of it is used up naturally. The rest remains in the atmosphere, so each year the concentration of CO2, in the atmosphere increases. Carbon dioxide is contributing to global warming, which is leading to climate change. Sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen dioxide dissolve in water to produce acid rain. Acid rain can damage trees, erode stonework, corrode metal and upset the pH balance of rivers and lakes. If water is too acidic, plants and animals will die and the whole food chain will be affected! Identifying Health Hazards Because humans need to breathe in air to get oxygen, it is reasonable to assume that Air Quality will have some effect on the body. To find out exactly how Air Quality affects us, scientists look for correlations (patterns) that might link a factor (e.g. a pollutant in the air) to an outcome (e.g. a respiratory complaint like asthma).

Hay Fever We now know that pollen in the air causes hay fever in people who have a pollen allergy. However, to reach this conclusion, scientists had to look at thousands of medical records. The data showed that most cases of hay fever occurred in the summer months when pollen counts very high. The correlation suggested that pollen might cause hay fever.However it did not provide conclusive evidence because there were lots of other variables that could have influenced the outcome, e.g. temperature, humidity, other pollutants. Further investigations in the form of skin tests were carried out to find out how pollen can affect health. Pollen was collected in spore traps, then stuck to the skin of the volunteers, some volunteers skin went red indicating an allergic reaction. The results showed that people with a pollen allergy also suffered from hay fever. Those who weren't allergic to pollen didnt have hay fever. When the concentration of NO2 increases in the air, more asthma attacks are triggered, however people still have asthma attacks when the NO2 levels are low. This suggests that although NO2 can increase the chance of an asthma attack, it is not the primary cause. Improving Air Quality Motor vehicles and power stations that burn fossil fuels are two major sources of atmospheric pollution. Emissions from power stations can be reduced by: Using less energy so less fuel is burned. Using a filter system to remove Sulphur dioxide and particulates from flue gases before they leave a coal-burning power stations chimney. Removing toxic chemicals before they are burned e.g. removing the sulphur from natural gas and fuel oil. Using alternative renewable sources of electricity, e.g. solar, wind, hydroelectric energy instead of fossil fuels. Emissions from motor vehicles can be reduced by: Buying a car with a modern engine that is more efficient and burns less fuel. Buying a hybrid car which uses electric power in the city centre and can then switch to running on petrol for longer journeys. Using a low sulphur fuel (readily available) to reduce the amount of Sulphur dioxide released. Converting the engine to run on biodiesel, a renewable fuel. Using public transport to reduce the number of vehicles on the road.

 Making sure cars are fitted with Catalytic Converters, which reduce the amount of CO and NO emitted. Catalytic Converters A catalyst is a substance that causes or accelerates a chemical reaction without itself being affected. Catalysts participate in the reactions, but are neither reactants nor products of the reaction they catalyse. In the catalytic converter, there are two different types of catalyst at work, a reduction catalyst and an oxidation catalyst. The reduction catalyst is the first stage of the catalytic converter. It uses platinum and rhodium to help reduce the NOx emissions. When an NO or NO2 molecule contacts the catalyst, the catalyst rips the nitrogen atom out of the molecule and holds on to it, freeing the oxygen in the form of O2. The nitrogen atoms bond with other nitrogen atoms that are also stuck to the catalyst, forming N2. e.g. 2NO => N2 + O2 or 2NO2 => N2 + 2O2 The oxidation catalyst is the second stage of the catalytic converter. It reduces the unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide by burning (oxidizing) them over a platinum and palladium catalyst. This catalyst aids the reaction of the CO and hydrocarbons with the remaining oxygen in the exhaust gas. e.g. 2CO + O2 => 2CO2 Global Choices In 1997, there was an international meeting about climate change in Kyoto, Japan. People from many countries agreed to reduce CO2 emissions and set targets which the government are required to meet by taking appropriate measures.

National Choices Some rules and regulations that have been put in place by different countries to meet their targets: Setting legal limits for vehicle exhaust emissions, which are enforced by statutory MOT tests. Making catalytic converters compulsory on new vehicles. Using subsidies (grants) or reduced taxes to encourage power companies to use cleaner fuels.

 Introducing a car tax system that encourages drivers to buy smaller cars with smaller engines. Encouraging investment in non-polluting renewable energy such as wind and solar energy. These laws and regulations impact in many areas of science and industry e.g. when new cars are developed the technology used must meet all the legal requirements. Therefore some governments are concerned that steps taken to reduce CO2 may lead to a decline in manufacturing and production, employment and the national economy. Local Choices Many local authorities are trying to encourage us to make environmentally friendly choices by providing: Door step collections of paper, bottles, metals and plastics for recycling Regular bus or train services Electric trams (in some cities) Congestion charges park and ride schemes Cycle paths and cycle parks

Personal Choices Using less energy in the home e.g. turning lights/television off when not in use. Making sure your car is energy efficient and has a catalytic converter or choose to ride a bike. Recycling materials helps to conserve natural resources, but also saves energy. The power plants/factories and cars release chemicals in the air, which mix with other chemicals and are baked by the sun to form smog. Smog causes lung and breathing disorders.