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Small Signal Analysis of Energy Factor and Mathematical Modeling for Power DCDC Converters
Fang Lin Luo, Senior Member, IEEE, and Hong Ye, Member, IEEE
AbstractMathematical modeling for power dcdc converters is a historical problem accompanying dcdc conversion technology since the 1940s. The traditional mathematical modeling is not available for complex structure converters since the differential equation order increases very high. We have to search for other ways to establish mathematical modeling for power dcdc converters. We have dened energy factor (EF) and new mathematical modeling for power dcdc converters that have attracted much attention in recent years. This paper describes the small signal analysis of EF and mathematical modeling for power dcdc converters in continuous conduction mode and discontinuous conduction mode. EF and the subsequential parameters can illustrate the unit-step response and interference recovery. This investigation may be helpful for system design and dcdc converters characteristics. Two dcdc converters: Buck converter and super-lift Luo-converter as the samples, are analyzed in this paper to demonstrate the applications of EF, pumping energy, stored energy (SE), capacitor/inductor SE ratio, energy losses, time constant , and damping time constant . Index TermsCapacitor/inductor SE ratio (CIR), energy factor (EF), energy losses (EL), impulse response, mathematical modeling, pumping energy (PE), stored energy (SE), time constant and damping time constant , unit-step response.
Fig. 2. Super-lift Luo-converter.

Fig. 1. Buck converter

I. INTRODUCTION ATHEMATICAL modeling for power dcdc converters is a historical problem accompanying dcdc conversion technology development since the 1940s. Many experts such as Sira-Ramirez, Czarkowski, Ilic, Kazimierczuk, Middlebrook, Ck, Erickson, Cheng, and Lee were devoted to researching this area [1][15]. Fundamental dcdc converters have been derived from choppers. The preliminary work on the mathematical modeling for power dcdc converters followed the traditional calculation manner using impedance analysis to write transfer function in the -domain (Laplace transform). For example, a Buck converter shown in Fig. 1 consists of one inductor and one capacitor with load , and has the transfer function (1)

where is the votage transfer gain and is the Laplace operator in the -domain. It is a second-order transfer function. The corresponding dynamic equation is a second-order differential equation. It successfully described the characteristics of a Buck converter: stability, transient process, unit-step response (settling time), and impulse response (interference recovering time). However, it is difcult to apply this method to complex structure converters such as a super-lift Luo-converter [15][19] in Fig. 2, which and with consists of one inductor and two capacitors load with the transfer function (2) It is a third-order transfer function. For other complex structure converters such as Luo-converters [20][24] and Ck converters, their transfer functions are fourth-order and higher. It is very difcult to use them to illustrate their characteristics. A general way widely used in industrial applications is the well known order-reduction method. The clue to this method is to assume that some parts of a dcdc converter are much smaller than others, so that they can be omitted. Therefore, the nal transfer function of the converter is downgraded into a loweris much smaller than order. For example, if

Manuscript received January 14, 2005; revised January 4, 2006. Recommended for publication by Associate Editor P. Jain. F. L. Luo is with the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798 and also with Anhui University of Technology, Anhui 243002, China (e-mail: eluo@ntu.edu.sg). H. Ye is with the School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551 (e-mail: yehong@ntu.edu.sg). Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TPEL.2006.886652

0885-8993/$20.00 2006 IEEE

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in a super-lift Luo-converter in Fig. 2 can be ignored Its transfer function becomes

0.

The SE across a capacitor is (7)

(3) The transfer function becomes a second-order one. This method may not be available for particular situations: 1) the ignored parts cannot be very small values for certain applications and 2) too small values may affect the characteristics of the converters. We have to search new modeling. II. ENERGY FACTOR AND RELEVANT PARAMETERS Energy storage in power dcdc converters was paid attention a long time ago [1], [2], [10][15]. A dcdc converter is likely an energy container since it has some energy storing components: capacitors and inductors. When the converter performs from one steady-state to another, the corresponding stored energy (SE) changed. Therefore, there must be a transient process from one steady-state to the new steady-state. We have theoretically dened a new conceptenergy factor (EF) and investigated the relationship between EF and the mathematical modeling for power dcdc converters [1], [2]. EF and the subsequential parameters: the pumping energy (PE), SE, capacitor/inductor SE ratio (CIR), and energy losses (ELs) can illustrate the unit-step response and interference recovery. This investigation is helpful for system design and dcdc converters characteristics. Two dcdc converters: the Buck converter and the super-lift Luo-converter [15][19] as the samples are analyzed to demonstrate the applications of EF, PE, SE, and CIR. For convenience, the input voltage and current are dened as and , and the output voltage and current are dened as and . Switching frequency is , and period 1 . Conduction duty cycle is . A. Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM) Operation All power dcdc converters have a pumping circuit to transfer the energy from the source to some energy-storage passive elements, e.g., inductors and capacitors. The energy transferred from the source to load is not a continuous ow. Actually, the energy is quantiably transferred from the source to the load in a period . The energy quantization is measured by the PE, which is used to count the input energy in a switching period ( is usually constant). Its calculation formula is PE (4) and the oscillation of the SE in a capacitor is dened as EF SE PE SE (9) Therefore, if there are inductors and total SE in a dcdc converter is SE We now dene the EF as the ratio of SE and PE capacitors the

(8)

We dene the CIR [11] as CIR (10)

Another factor is ELs in a period , which is proportional to the power losses EL (11)

Energy storage oscillation is a phenomenon attractive to many experts. Since the inductor currents and capacitor voltages are varying in the conversion process, the oscillation of the SE in an inductor is dened as

(12)

(13) If there are inductors and capacitors the oscillation of the total SE OSE in a dcdc converter is OSE (14)

where the input average current

is B. Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM) Operation (5) In the steady-state of DCM, some of the minimum current and/or voltage become zero. We dene the lling coefcients and to describe the discontinuous situation. Usually, the inductors current is a triangle waveform in DCM shown in during the switching-on, Fig. 3(a). It increases and reaches and decreases during the switching-off, and it becomes zero at

The SE in an inductor is (6)

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C. Power Losses and Efciency Power losses always exist in the conversion process. They are caused by the cable resistance, resistance of inductors and capacitor wire, and power losses across the semiconductor devices. We sort them as the resistance power losses , passive element power losses , and device power losses
Fig. 3. (a) Discontinuous inductor current and capacitor voltage and (b) discontinuous inductor current and discontinuous capacitor voltage.

and

. The time is coefcient

should be

, and the lling Therefore (15) EL The power transfer efciency is PE PE and EL (20)

1. It means the inductors current only can ll where 0 during switch-off. In this case, the time period is equal to zero and the average current is

Therefore (16) Analogously, the capacitor voltage discontinuity is shown in , and the lling Fig. 3(b). The time should be in is coefcient (17) 1. It means the capacitors voltage only can where 0 during switch-off. In this case, ll the time period is equal to zero and the average voltage is

D. Time Constant The time constant

of a Power DCDC Converter of a dcdc converter is dened EF CIR CIR (21)

This time constant is available to estimate the transient operation. It is proportional to the process settling time. It is independent from the switching frequency and conduction duty cycle . E. Damping Time Constant of a Power DCDC Converter

Since a dcdc converter usually consists of multiple passive energy-storage elements, for this investigation the converter response should usually involve oscillation component. The damping time constant of a dcdc converter is dened EF CIR CIR CIR (22)

Therefore (18) We use the parameter OSE to present the total oscillation of the SE in DCM OSE

is available to estimate the This damping time constant converter response with oscillation. It is independent from the switching frequency and conduction duty cycle . F. Time Constant Ratio of a Power DCDC Converter

The time constant ratio of a dcdc converter is dened as (19) is the number of discontinuous inductor currents, where and is the number of discontinuous capacitor voltages. This form of the formula is the same as that of (14). For convenience, if not special necessity, we can use (14) to cover both CCM and DCM. CIR CIR This time constant ratio is used for mathematical operation. It is independent from the switching frequency and conduction duty cycle . Please refer to the Appendix for Sections II-DII-F. (23)

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Fig. 4. Unit-step function responses: (a) unit-step function responses ( 0, 0.1 , 0.25 , and 0.5 ) and (b) unit-step function responses (  , 2 , 5 , and 10 ).

Fig. 5. Impulse responses: (a) impulse responses ( 0, 0.1 , 0.25 , and 0.5 ) and (b) impulse responses (  , 2 , 5 , and 10 ).

III. TRANSFER FUNCTION OF POWER DCDC CONVERTERS The transfer function of power dcdc converters is the mathematical model in the -domain (24) where the voltage transfer gain; the damping time constant in (22); the time constant in (21); the time constant ratio in (23). A. Very Small Damping Time Constant If the damping time constant is very small (i.e., ) 0), the transfer function (24) is and can be omitted (i.e., downgraded to the rst-order as

The step function response in the time-domain is (26) The response waveform in time-domain is shown in Fig. 4(a) 0. with The impulse interference response in the time-domain is (27) where is the interference signal. The waveform in time-do0. main is shown in Fig. 5(a) with B. Small Damping Time Constant If the damping time constant is small (i.e., 4) but not be ignored, (24) is retained in second-order with two real poles and (28)

(25)

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where

where and and

There are two real poles in the transfer function, and . This expression describes the characteristics of the dcdc converter. The step function response in the time-domain is (29) where

The step response in the time-domain is

(35) The transient response has oscillation progress with damping factor and frequency . The waveforms in the time-domain 0.5 and in Fig. 4(b) with are shown in Fig. 4(a) with , 2 , 5 , and 10 . The impulse response in the time-domain is (36) where is the interference signal. The recovery process is a curve with damping factor and frequency . The response waveforms in the time-domain are shown in Fig. 5(a) with 0.5 and in Fig. 5(b) with , 2 , 5 , and 10 . IV. SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS As the characteristics of power dcdc converters in large signal operations are analyzed in the previous section, we analyze the characteristics of them in small signal operations in this section. This will verify that the transfer function (24) is generally correct for both large and small signal analysis. If the conduction duty cycle changes from to in a small increment to the new value , the PE has to change correspondingly in an increment to the new value PE PE . Analogously, the inductor currents and capacitor voltages have to change correspondingly, and the SE changes to SE SE PE

The corresponding waveform in time-domain is shown in 0.1 . Fig. 4(a) with The impulse response in the time-domain is (30) is the interference signal. The waveform in time-domain is 0.1 . shown in Fig. 5(a) with C. Critical Damping Time Constant If the damping time constant is equal to the critical value (i.e., 4), (24) is a second-order function with two equaled real poles (31) where 1/2 2 . There are two folded real poles in the transfer function. This expression describes the characteristics of the dcdc converter. The unit-step function response in the time-domain is (32) The response waveform in time-domain is shown in Fig. 4(a) 0.25 . with The impulse interference response in the time-domain is (33) is the interference signal. The waveform in time-domain is 0.25 . shown in Fig. 5(a) with D. Large Damping Time Constant If the damping time constant is large (i.e., 4), the transfer function (24) is a second-order function with a couple of conjugated complex poles and in the left-hand half plane (LHHP) (34) The increment of the SE in an inductor is

(37)

(38) The increment of the SE across a capacitor is (39) Thus, if there are inductors and capacitors the increment of the total SE in a dcdc converter is SE (40)

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The EF in small signal operation is

1.4 A, The parameters are (41)

1.42

1.5

2.94 W,

0.564 A.

EF

SE PE

PE

Correspondingly, we can use the mark CIR as the CIR increments ratio in small signal analysis corresponding to CIR in large signal analysis SE EL CIR (42) EF The ELs increment EL in a period EL Correspondingly, we can use the mark efciency in small signal analysis PE PE EL is CIR (43) as the increments EF CIR EF CIR CIR CIR CIR PE PE SE PE EL

(44)

The time constant , damping time constant , and time constant ratio are redened, they are still in the same forms EF CIR EF CIR

Since 1.31 0.25, the transfer function of this and ) that are located in Buck converter has two poles ( the left-hand half plane (LHHP). The transfer function of this converter is (45)

CIR CIR CIR CIR CIR

(21a) where (22a) and (23a) with and

The transfer function form is not changed

(24a)

The step response is V. DESIGN EXAMPLES OF THIS THEORY In order to verify this theory and offer examples to readers, we prepare two converters below to demonstrate the characteristics of power dcdc converters and applications of the theory. A. Buck Converter Buck converter shown in Fig. 1 [1], [2], [15] has the values: 40 V, 20 kHz 50 s , 250 H, 60 F 10 . There are some power losses, assuming in the and inductor resistance 1.5 . 1) Large Signal Responses: The conduction duty cycle changes from 0 to 0.4, we then obtain 14 V, (46) The step response is shown in Fig. 6. The impulse interference response is (47) is the interference signal. The impulse response is where shown in Fig. 7(a). 2) Small Signal Responses: The conduction duty cycle changes from 0.4 to 0.5, we then obtain 17.4 V, 1.74 A, 1.742 1.5 4.54 W, 0.871 A, 3.4 V, 0.34 A, and

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Fig. 6. Buck converter step responses (simulation).

Fig. 8. Buck converter large signal responses (experiment): (a) unit-step function response and (b) impulse response.

CIR EF CIR EF CIR CIR CIR CIR

Fig. 7. Buck converter impulse responses (simulation): (a) large signal response and (b) small signal response.

From above calculation and analysis we found out that the time constants are no change. Therefore, the transfer function for small signal operation should not be changed, still (45). Correspondingly, the step response is

(48) 1.74 The parameters are 1.4 1.5 1.6 W, 0.313 A. The step response for small signal operation is shown in Fig. 6. The impulse response for small signal is described by (47) as well, and the waveform is shown in Fig. 7(b). 3) Experimental Results: In order to verify this analysis and compare the simulation results to experimental results, a test rig was constructed. The circuit diagram is still shown in Fig. 1. 45 V to compensate the We increase the input voltage to 20 kHz 50 s , power losses. Other parameters are 250 H with 1.5 , 60 F and 10 . The 0.4 to 0.5. The exconduction duty cycle changes from 0 to 0.4) response perimental results for step (large signal: 0.4 to 0) responses and impulse interference (large signal: are shown in Fig. 8(a) and (b). We can see that the both simulation and experimental results are well identical each other.

PE

SE EL EF SE PE PE PE

EL

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Fig. 10. Super-lift step responses (simulation).

CIR EL PE PE EF CIR EF CIR CIR CIR CIR EL

Fig. 9. Buck converter small signal responses (experiment): (a) unit-step function response and (b) impulse response.

Since the time constant 0.544 ms and damping time constant 0.775 ms 1.42 1.42 . Since 0.25, the and ). transfer function of this converter has two poles ( The transfer function of this converter is (47a) where and with

The experimental results for step (small signal: 0.4 to 0.5) response and impulse interference (small signal: 0.5 to 0.4) responses are shown in Fig. 9(a) and (b). We can see that the both simulation and experimental results are well identical each other. B. Super-Lift Luo-Converter Fig. 2 shows a super-lift Luo-converter with the conduction 20 V, 50 kHz duty is [15][19]. The values are 20 s , 100 H, 2500 F, 800 F and 10 . There are some power losses, assuming power loss 0.12 . in the inductor resistance 1) Large Signal Responses: The conduction duty cycle changes from 0 to 0.4, we then obtain 57.25 V, 5.725 A, 17.175 A, 11.45 A, 11.452 0.12 15.73 W, 20 V, 57.25 V. The parameters are PE

and

The step response is

(48a) The step response is shown in Fig. 10. The impulse interference response is (49) is the interference signal. The impulse response is where shown in Fig. 11(a). 2) Small Signal Responses: The conduction duty cycle changes from 0.5 to 0.6, we then obtain 65.09 V, 6.509 A, 22 A, 14.91 A, 14.912 0.12 26.67 W, 20 V,

SE EF SE PE

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Fig. 11. Super-lift Luo-converter impulse responses (simulation): (a) large signal response and (b) small signal response.

Fig. 12. Super-lift Luo-converter large signal responses (experiment): (a) unitstep function response and (b) impulse response.

65.09 V, and 3.46 A, eters are PE SE EF EL PE SE PE

7.74 V, 0 V,

0.784 A,

4.825 A, 7.4 W 7.84 V. The param-

EL PE

CIR EF CIR EF CIR CIR CIR CIR

The step response for small signal operation is shown in Fig. 10. The impulse response for small signal is described by (49) as well, and the waveform is shown in Fig. 11(b). 3) Experimental Results: In order to verify this analysis and compare the simulation results to experimental results, a test rig was constructed. The circuit diagram is still shown in Fig. 2. We increase the input voltage to 23 V to compensate the power 50 kHz 20 s , 0.5, losses. Other parameters are 100 H with 0.12 , 750 F, 200 F 10 . The experimental results for unit-step (large and 0 to 0.5) response and impulse interference (large signal: 0.5 to 0) responses are shown in Fig. 12(a) and (b). signal: We can see that both the simulation and experimental results are identical to each other. 0.5 The experimental results for unit-step (small signal: 0.6 to 0.6) response and impulse interference (small signal: to 0.5) responses are shown in Fig. 13(a) and (b). We can see that both the simulation and the experimental results are identical to each other. VI. CONCLUSION Mathematical modeling for power dcdc converters is a historical problem accompanying dcdc conversion technology since the 1940s. The traditional mathematical modeling is difcult to apply to complex structure converters since the differential equation order is high. We have to search for other ways to establish mathematical modeling for power dcdc converters. The authors attempt to give up the traditional method and therefore offer a mathematical model (24) in this paper.

From the above calculation and analysis we found out that the time constants are not changed. Therefore, the transfer function (47a) for small signal operation should not be changed. Correspondingly, the step response is

(50)

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EF CIR EF CIR EF CIR

EF CIR CIR CIR CIR CIR CIR CIR

CIR

From (21) EF CIR SE PE CIR SE CIR CIR CIR CIR

Fig. 13. Super-lift Luo-converter small signal responses (experiment): (a) unitstep function response and (b) impulse response.

Since the SE, CIR, input power , and the efciency are dependent on the working state, but independent from the switching frequency and conduction duty cycle , therefore, the time constant is independent from the switching frequency and conduction duty cycle . From (22) EF CIR SE PE CIR SE CIR CIR CIR CIR CIR CIR CIR

Their parameters are determined by EF and the subsequential parameters. Using these parameters successfully demonstrates the characteristics of power dcdc converters. Two typical converters, the Buck converter and the super-lift Luo-converter, are employed to perform these parameters. Satisfactory results are obtained which show that EF and other parameters may be helpful in dcdc conversion technology. APPENDIX TIME CONSTANTS AND , AND RATIO The deviation of time constants and , and ratio can be referred to the transfer function of the Buck converter with 0 power losses

Analogously, the time constant ratio are independent from the switching frequency and conduction duty cycle . Usually, the SE is proportional to the input power. Therefore, when the working state changes from one steady state to another one, the time constants , , and the ratio are not changed. They are the parameters to rely on the circuit structure and power losses. Readers can try changing and/or to repeat the exercises in Section V, you can nd the time constant , the damping time constant , and the time constant ratio are not changed. REFERENCES
[1] F. L. Luo and H. Ye, Energy factor and mathematical modeling for power dcdc converters, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 152, no. 2, pp. 191198, Mar. 2005. [2] , Mathematical modeling for power dcdc converters, in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. POWERCON04, Singapore, Nov. 2124, 2004, pp. 323328. [3] H. Sira-Ramirez, Sliding motions in bilinear switched networks, IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst., vol. CAS-34, no. 8, pp. 919933, Aug. 1987. [4] H. Sira-Ramirez and M. Ilic, Exact linearization in switched mode DC to DC power converters, Int. J. Contr., vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 511524, Aug. 1989.

EF CIR CIR EF CIR CIR

EF CIR

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[5] H. Sira-Ramirez, A geometric approach to pulse-width modulated control in nonlinear dynamical systems, IEEE Trans. Automat. Contr., vol. AC-34, no. 2, pp. 184187, Feb. 1989. [6] D. Czarkowski and M. K. Kazimierczuk, Energy conservation approach to modeling PWM dcdc converters, IEEE Trans. Aersp. Electron. Syst., vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 10591063, Jul. 1993. [7] H. Sira-Ramirez and M. Rios-Bolivar, Sliding mode control of dc-to-dc power converters via extended linearization, IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst., vol. 41, no. 10, pp. 652661, Oct. 1994. [8] M. K. Kazimierczuk and R. Cravens, II, Open and closed-loop dc and small-signal characteristics of PWM buck-boost converter for CCM, J. Circuits, Syst. Comput., vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 2613003, Sep. 1995. [9] D. Czarkowski, L. R. Pujara, and M. K. Kazimierczuk, Robust stability of state-feedback control of PWM DCDC push-pull converter, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 108111, Feb. 1995. [10] R. C. Wong, H. A. Owen, and T. G. Wilson, An efcient algorithm for the time-domain simulation of regulated energy-storage dc-to-dc converters, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. PE-2, pp. 154168, Apr. 1987. [11] K. W. E. Cheng, Storage energy for classical switched mode power converters, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 150, no. 4, pp. 439446, 2003. [12] Y. S. Lee, A systemic and unied approach to modeling switches in switch-mode power supplies, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. IE-32, pp. 445448, Nov. 1985. [13] R. Middlebrook and S. Ck, A general unied approach to modeling switching-converter power stages, J. Electron., vol. 42, no. 6, pp. 521550, Jun. 1977. [14] R. W. Erickson and D. Maksimovic, Fundamentals of Power Electronics, 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Kluwer, 2001. [15] F. L. Luo and H. Ye, Advanced DCDC Converters. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 2004. [16] , Positive output super-lift luo-converters, in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. PESC02, Cairns, Australia, Jun. 2327, 2002, pp. 425430. [17] , Positive output super-lift converters, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 105113, Jan. 2003. [18] , Negative output super-lift luo-converters, in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. PESC03, Acapulco, Mexico, Jun. 1519, 2003, pp. 13611366. [19] , Negative output super-lift converters, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 18, no. 5, pp. 11131121, Sep. 2003. [20] F. L. Luo, Positive output Luo-converters: voltage lift technique, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 146, no. 4, pp. 415432, Jul. 1999. [21] , Negative output Luo-converters: voltage lift technique, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 146, no. 2, pp. 208224, Mar. 1999. [22] , Double output Luo-converters: advanced voltage lift technique, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 147, no. 6, pp. 469485, Nov. 2000. [23] F. Luo, H. Ye, and M. H. Rashid, Multiple-quadrant Luo-converters, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 148, no. 1, pp. 918, Jan. 2002. [24] F. L. Luo and H. Ye, Positive output cascade boost converters, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., vol. 151, no. 5, pp. 590606, Sep. 2004.

Fang Lin Luo (M84SM95) received the B.Sc. degree (with rst class with honors) in radio-electronic physics from Sichuan University, Chengdu, China and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering and computer science, Cambridge University, Cambridge, U.K., in 1986. He was with the Chinese Automation Research Institute of Metallurgy (CARIM), Beijing, China, as a Senior Engineer after his graduation from Sichuan University. He was with the Entreprises Saunier Duval, Paris, France, as a Project Engineer from 1981 to 1982. He was with Hocking NDT, Ltd., Allen-Bradley IAP, Ltd. and Simplatroll, Ltd., U.K. as a Senior Engineer. He is with the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore. He is also a Specially-Invited Professor with the Anhui University of Technology, Anhui, China. He has published eight teaching textbooks and 238 technical papers in IEEE TRANSACTIONS, IEE Proceedings, and other international journals and various international conferences. He was the Chief Editor of Power Supply Technologies and Applications from 1998 to 2003. He is the International Editor of the International Journal of Advanced Technology of Electrical Engineering and Energy. His present research interest is in the digital power electronics and dc and ac motor drives with computerized articial intelligent control (AIC) and digital signal processing (DSP), and dcac inverters, acdc rectiers, acac and dcdc converters. Dr. Luo is currently the Associate Editor of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS and the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS. He is the General Chairman of the IEEE ICIEA06 and ICIEA08 International Conferences.

Hong Ye (S00M02) received the B.S. degree (with rst class honors) from the University of Technology, Xian, China, in 1995, the M.Eng. degree from Xian Jiaotong University, Xian, China, in 1999, and the Ph.D. degree from Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore, in 2005. She was with the R&D Institute, Xiyi Company, Ltd., China, as a Research Engineer from 1995 to 1997, is currently a Research Fellow with NTU, has co-authored eight books, and has published more than 60 technical papers in IEEE TRANSACTIONS, IEE Proceedings, and other international journals and various international conferences. Her research interests are in the areas of dcdc converters, signal processing, operations research, and structural biology.