MANUAL OF PRACTICALS

FOR

GENERAL LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT (LPM-111)

FOR

B.V.Sc.&A.H. PROGRAMMES (VCI Regulations)

BY
Dr. P.K. Dogra Associate Professor Dr. (Mrs.) Saroj Bala Assistant Professor Dr. Y.P. Thakur Associate Professor

DEPARTMENT OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT COLLEGE OF VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES C.S.K. HIMACHAL PRADESH KRISHI VISHVAVIDYALAYA PALAMPUR- 176062 (H. P.)

TABLE OF CONTENTS Sr. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Name of the exercise Page number 1-3 4-6 7-13 14-16 17-23 24-28 29-31 32-33 34-35 36-37 38-40 41-42 43-44 45-46 47-48 49-53 54-55 56-61 62-64 Signature of Instructor

A visit to the Livestock Farm, identification of various breeds and familiarizing with various farm routines. Approaching and handling of farm animals. Familiarizing with body points/parts of different domesticated animals. Identification of animals by branding, tattooing, notching and tagging. Methods of restraining and casting of animals. Determination of age of farm animals. Washing, grooming and exercising of animals. Dipping and spraying of animals. Clipping and shearing of animals. Recording body temperature, pulse rate and respiration . Weighing of farm animals, estimation of body weight by formulae and their correspondence or discrepancy. Management of animals during transportation. Preparation of animals for show. Milking of dairy animals. Training of breeding males. Methods of administration of medicines. Different types of bandages and bandaging of horses. Administering first aid to animals. Appendix

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENTS 1. Be regular and punctual. 2. Bring the practical manual, notebook, apron, pencil, rubber, pen, scale and any other article as specifically directed by the teacher. 3. Go through the exercise in advance and also consult the reference before the class. 4. Clarify the doubts as and when they arise. 5. Practice the exercise after the demonstration, until you have become quite proficient. 6. Record your observations in the space provided. 7. Complete the practical notebook towards the end of the class and get the signatures of the instructor. 8. Do not make noise when you are at the farm for the practical class. 9. Do not chase the animals and observe the rules for approaching the animals. 10. Dip your feet in the footbath provided, while entering the class. 11. Leave the class only after getting the permission from the instructor.

COLLEGE OF VETERINARY & ANIMAL SCIENCES C.S.K.HIMACHAL PRADEH KRISHI VISHVAVIDYALAYA PALAMPUR - 176 062 (HP)

Prof. B.S.Katoch Dean

FOREWORD
I am very glad to go through the contents of the Practical Manual entitled Manual of Practicals for General Livestock Management (LPM-111) which is a very good attempt of its kind by Drs. P.K.Dogra, Saroj Bala and Y.P.Thakur. This manual covers the entire course contents set out by the Veterinary Council of India for the subject of Livestock Production and Management (Course No. LPM-111) for 1st year B.V.Sc. & A.H. students. The manual has been designed to provide scientific knowledge of the subject and to encourage the students to think of Animal Management as a practical subject. The language used is very simple which the students can easily understand. I congratulate the authors for the efforts put in by them in bringing out this manual in the present form. I hope this manual will find its own place in the libraries of Agricultural Universities in the near future.

( B.S.Katoch )

EXERCISE - I Title: A visit to the Livestock Farm, identification of various breeds and familiarizing with various farm routines. Objectives: i) Identification of various breeds of cattle and other domesticated species maintained at the farm. ii) Familiarization with various farm routines. History of the farm: The present Livestock Farm was established as component of "Indo New Zealand Livestock Improvement Project" (INLIP) with the arrival of a nucleus Jersey herd during March, 1975. This nucleus herd consisted of 64 pregnant heifers, 111 weaners and 5 quality proven bulls. The main objectives of the project were: 1. Crossbreeding programme using genetically superior Jersey stock from New Zealand. 2. Augmentation of income of hill farmers alongwith the nutritional level of the people by improving milk production through crossbreeding of Jersey blood into local indigenous cattle. 3. To encourage operational research and teaching of Animal Science and to encourage the adoption of improved management practices by the farmers of the state. 4. To test the profitability and credit-worthiness of the project with a view to eliciting the support of nationalized banks. Procedure: The students would be taken to the different sections of the dairy farm and would be explained the history & day to day working of the farm. Observations 1. Breeds of cattle maintained at the farm.

2. 3.

Type of housing system being followed. Area under dairy farm a) Roads & buildings b) Farm i) Under cultivation ii) Under grassland

4. 5.

Total no. of sheds Total no. of calf pens

6.

Fodder crops grown at the farm

7. 8.

No. of silo pits Main feed ingredients used in the concentrate ration

9.

Man power at the farm i) Scientists ii) Office Staff iii) Veterinary Pharmacists iv) Technical/Field Assistants. v) Drivers vi) Electrician vii) Regular beldars viii) Daily paid workers Fodder Production: Name of the Fodder

10.

Quantity harvested (qt)

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 14. 15.

Total milk production (lit) Total herd strength Total no. of lactating cows Total no. of adult cows ( dry & pregnant, heifers) Wet average Herd average Highest milk yield (lit) (Animal No. -------------------)

FARM ROUTINES 3.30-4.00 AM Bringing the cows from paddocks to milking barn and cleaning of cows in milk. Supply of half the amount of concentrate mixture prior to milking. Milking cows at the rate of one milker per 12 cows. Disposal of milk and cleaning of barn. Cleaning of all the sheds. Supply of green fodder. Segregation of sick animals. Feeding milk to weaners. Workers assigned their duties. Harvesting, chaffing and providing fodder to all the animals.

4.00-5.30 AM

5.30-6.00 AM 6.00-8.00 AM

8.00-10.30 AM

10.30 AM-12.30 PM Treatment of sick animals. Feeding concentrate mixture to all cows (dry and pregnant) Entries in the record books. 12.30 - 1.30 PM 1.30 - 2.30 PM Lunch break Marking, dehorning, treatment of minor diseases, preparation of concentrate mixture etc. Milkers come on duty. Supply of remaining quota of concentrate mixture. Cleaning of cows and milking. Distribution of milk, feeding milk to weaners. A.I. of the cows in heat.

2.30 - 5.00 PM

Note: Other miscellaneous farm routines such as disinfection, isolation, and disposal of carcass, washing, grooming, vaccination, deworming etc. are also carried out time to time. Precautions 1. Dip your feet in the footbath while entering the cowsheds. 2. Do not make noise while visiting the farm. 3. Do not chase the animals.

EXERCISE - 2 Title : Approaching and handling of farm animals.

Objectives : To acquaint the students with various methods of approaching and handling of different species of farm animals. General principles of handling Animals vary in their behaviour and temperament and the pattern of behaviour of a particular species has to be considered while approaching and handling them. In order to remove the animals fear; gentleness, a kind spoken word or a hand pat is required. Moreover, firmness and confidence in one's ability to handle animals are the most essential qualities required of an animal handler. The use of food as bait, use of drugs and certain equipments etc. aids in handling furious animals. The following points must be taken into account while approaching and handling different species of farm animals: CATTLE 1. Always approach the cow from left side - the side on which it is generally milked. 2. Remember that cattle can kick both sideways and backwards and be careful of horns. 3. Put some green grass or concentrate in front of the animal before approaching. 4. First of all speak some kind words to the animal and then scratch its back and dewlap. 5. Cattle prefer to be handled by the same person as per routine. So let the owner remain with you while handling the animals. 6. Bulls should never be trusted. Take the help of equipments like bull holder, bull leader, bull nose rings etc. while handling them. HORSE 1. Always approach from the left side. Be careful and don't be nervous. The animal should not know that you are afraid of him. 2. Speak few words, approach from front side, pat the animal and groom its head & neck. 3. Never approach from the backside until one of the fore legs is raised by some attendant. 4. Never carry any stick because it frightens the animal. 5. Before approaching and handling, it is useful to know the temperament and other peculiarities of the animal from its attendant.

SHEEP and GOAT 1. The females of the species are generally docile while males are aggressive. 2. These animals seldom attack a person who is facing them, the moment a person turns his back, they may attack and butt him. So it is a golden rule to always face sheep and goats. 3. A sense of humor and patience are the requisite qualities of the handler and excitement in any case must be avoided. 4. Sudden change of mind without apparent or adequate notice is very common with goats. PIG 1. Approach the animals carefully, as they are very temperamental. 2. Various devices like pig catcher, pig-rings etc. must be used while handling them. 3. Pigs should never be held by their tail as it can be uprooted very easily. 4. Piglets can be caught by their hind limbs. FOWL 1. Birds are generally docile and easy to manage, thus could be easily managed even by ladies and children. 2. Hens are usually docile but cocks may attack with the beak and with spur. 3. Pick up the bird with both hands to keep wings close to the body and held under one of the arms so as to prevent fluttering. 4. They may be held on the palm also. For this, pass the fore finger between legs, the thumb and third finger encircling them, the other fingers should slightly spread apart for support to its body. The other hand should be placed across the back to hold down the wings. 5. In ducks and geese, the weapon of offence is beak and claws. So it is advisable to wear long leather gloves covering the wrist.

RABBIT 1. Rabbits gets excited very quickly, so do not approach them suddenly. 2. Approach the animal quietly and place your hand over its body for some time. 3. Hold the rabbit from the loose skin of the neck around base of the ears with one hand. 4. Let the hind quarter of the animal rest on one palm of your second hand, keeping it as close to your body as you can.

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EXERCISE - 3 Title : Familiarizing with body points/parts of different domesticated animals.

Objectives: To acquaint the students with the names of various external parts of the body of different domesticated animals. Procedure: The students would be explained various external parts of the body (points of the body) of cattle and their comparative names in other species. Observations: For the study of the points of the body; the body of the animal can be divided into five major parts- head, neck, trunk, fore limbs and hind limbs. CATTLE HEAD 1. Poll: The part immediately between and behind the horns. 2. Horns: Paired bony processes that emerge from either side of the poll. 3. Ears: The organ of hearing, situated just behind and below the horns. 4. Fore head: From the poll down to the level of the eyes. 5. Face: From the level of the eyes downward to the nostrils. 6. Bridge of nose: Area of nasal bone. 7. Facial crest: Ridge of bone on the face below the eyes on either side. 8. Nostrils: Two natural openings for breathing. 9. Temporal fossa: Depression between the base of the horn and outer angle of the eye. 10. Muzzle: The lower part including nostrils, mouth and a chin. 11. Muffle: Area between the nostrils, which is generally hair-less and black in colour. 12. Eyes: An organ of sight. It includes EYEBALL, UPPER EYELID, LOWER EYELID, and THIRD EYELID (less developed), inner canthus and outer canthus. (Canthus is an angle formed by both lids on either end of the eye). 13. Jaw: Upper jaw is formed by maxilla and premaxilla, and lower jaw by mandible bone. 14. Cheeks: Area of masseter muscle, the side of the face below the eye and above and to the side of the mouth. 15. Jowl: Space between the branches of the lower jaw. 16. Throat: The upper part of the esophagus just behind the jowl. NECK 17. Crest: Upper ridge of the neck, starting from poll. 18. Base of the neck: The place where neck joins the body. 19. Apex of neck: Attachment of the neck to the head. 20. Hollow of the neck: Hollow area at the base of the neck. 21. Jugular groove: Running down the lower part on each side of the neck from the angle of the jaw to just infront of the shoulder. 22. Dewlap: A pendulous fold of the skin hanging down the lower part of the neck.

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TRUNK (BODY) 23. Hump: Fleshy protuberance on the top or shoulder of the animal. 24. Withers: Just behind the hump. 25. Back: Just behind the withers to the head of the last rib. 26. Loin: The part of the body lying on each side of the spinal column between the hip bone and last rib. (region of lumber vertebrae). 27. Rump: Region of sacrum, point of rump is the highest point formed by the sacral tuber. 28. Dock: The part of the body of animals adjacent to the base of the tail. 29. Tail: The posterior extremity of an animal. 30. Switch of tail: Tuft of hair at the end of the tail. 31. Breast: Lower part of the neck where it joins the body. 32. Brisket: The part of the lower chest of the animal between the two fore legs. 33. Chest: Ribs springing from the backbone above and attached to the breastbone below. 34. Girth: Circumference around the chest, it is just behind the point of elbow. 35. Belly (Abdomen): The area behind chest carrying alimentary canal and other organs. 36. Flank: Hollow area between the ribs and hip or hook bone. 37. Fold of flank: The flap of the skin on its lower border. 38. Body: Comprises the chest, belly and flank. 39. Barrel: Comprises belly and flank. 40. Anus: The posterior opening of alimentary canal under the root of the tail. POINTS PRESENT ONLY IN MALES 41. Sheath (Prepuce): Flap of skin in the abdominal region. 42. Penis: The male organ of copulation. 43. Scrotum: Pouch of skin in which the testicles are lodged. 44. Testicles: Male generative glands, which lie in the scrotum. POINTS PRESENT ONLY IN FEMALES 45. Naval flap: Loose skin below the abdomen. 46. Udder: Mammary gland, the anterior part is called the fore udder and posterior as rear udder. 47. Teats: Through which the milk is drawn. 48. Milk vein: Veins on the udder. 49. Vulva: External opening of the female genital organs situated below the anus. 50. Escutcheon: A triangular pinkish area below the vulva extending on both sides upto pin bones. 51. Milk well: The place from where the milk veins enters into the abdominal wall. FORE LIMB 52. Shoulder joint: The joint formed between the scapula and upper end of the humerus. It includes the point of shoulder and shoulder blade. 53. Elbow joint: Formed by the dorsal end of humerus and proximal end of radius and ulna. 54. Arm: The region of massive muscle lying over the humerus. 55. Fore Arm: Region of radius and ulna between elbow and knee joint.

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56. Axilla: The cavity beneath the junction of the arm (region inside the elbow). 57. Knee-joint: Formed by radius, carpal bones and metacarpal bones. 58. Fetlock joint: Joint formed by the lower end of the metacarpal bone and the first phalanx with its sessamoides. 59. Shank, shin or fore cannon: Portion of the limb below knee joint to fetlock joint. 60. Dew claws: Two horny callosities behind the fetlock joint. 61. Pastern: The region below fetlock and above coronet. 62. Coronet: Region round the top of the hoof. 63. Hoof: The outer horny covering of the foot, which is divided into two parts called claws. Each claw is having a HORNY WALL, SOLE, BULB OF HEEL and HOLLOW OF THE HEEL. 64. Cleft of the hoof: Space between the two claws. HIND LIMB 65. Hindquarter: Region bounded by rump and dock. 66. Buttocks: The mass of muscles lying on either side of anus and extending downwards to the level of stifle to behind and flank in front. 67. Hook bones: Bony prominence formed by the external angle of ileum. 68. Pin bones: The projection of the quarter just below the root of the tail. 69. Thurl (Hip joint): Midway between hook bones and pin bones (formed by ischiatic tuber). 70. Thigh: Region of femur bone, which runs from the hip joint to the stifle joint. 71. Stifle joint: The joint formed by femur, patella and tibia. 72. Groin: The Inner aspect of thigh. 73. Hock: Joint formed between the tibia, tarsal bones and metatarsal bones. 74. Point of hock: The upper most extremity of hock formed by tuber calcis. 75. Hamstring: The strong tendon running from the muscles of the back of the thigh to the point of hock. Note: Below the hock the same terms are used as in the forelimb; except hind cannon for fore cannon. BUFFALO 1. Hump and dewlap are not present in buffaloes. 2. Brisket is more developed in buffaloes as compared to cattle. 3. Rest points are same as in cattle. SHEEP The points peculiar to sheep are: 1. Lachrymal pouch: A pouch situated below the inner canthus of the eye, about inch deep. The lining of this pouch has glands which produces a waxy secretion, which on drying forms a yellow sticky covering on the skin.

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2. Tassels: These are two appendages of skin hanging from the throat, also called as THROAT FOLDS or DODDLES or WATTLES in certain breeds of sheep only. 3. Inguinal pouch: A shallow depression in the inguinal region in both sexes. It produces a similar secretion as that of lachrymal pouch. 4. Inter digital pouch: A pouch situated in the inter-digital space. The lining of this pouch is pale and thin having fine colourless hairs. The secretion is colourless and waxy in nature. 5. Horns are generally absent in both sexes, but when present they are found in males. 6. The tail of sheep may have thin tail or fat tail, long tail or short tail. 7. Gigot: The name applied to the thigh of sheep. 8. Knob: The ram has an increased growth on the nose just above the nostrils. GOAT The points not found in goat are: Muffle, dewlap, hump, switch of tail, escutcheon and naval flap. The points peculiar to goats are: 1. Tassels: Throat folds found in certain breeds only. 2. Mane: Hair springing from the crest of the neck, found in certain breeds only. 3. Beard: A bunch of hairs hanging from the chin, generally seen in male goats of certain breeds only. 4. Scrag: Name given to the crest of the neck. 5. Bag: Term applied to the udder of goats. HORSE The points not found in horse are: Horns, muffle, dental pad, dewlap, hump, switch of tail, naval flap, milk vein, milk well, escutcheon, dewclaws, inter digital space. The points synonymous to that of cattle are: Croup (Rump), point of croup (point of rump), mammary gland (udder), point of hip (hook bones), point of buttock (pin bones), hip joint (thurl). The points better developed as compared to cattle are: Facial crest and nictitating membrane (third eyelid). The points peculiar to horse are: 1. Poll: Region lying between the ears. 2. Forelock: Tuft of hairs, which hangs forward from the poll. 3. False nostrils: A blind pouch on the upper angle of nostril. 4. Opening of naso-lacrymal duct: A small hole inside the true nostril. 5. Chin groove: Depression behind the chin. 6. Mane: Long hairs springing from the crest of the neck. 7. Mammary gland: Only one gland secreting milk with two teats. 8. Withers: It is the highest point of the trunk formed by spinous processes of 4th & 5th thoracic vertebrae. 9. Chestnuts: Horny growths situated in the forelimbs above the knee on the inside about a hands breadth below the point of hock.

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10. Ergot: Horny callosity situated at the back of the fetlock joint. 11. Feet: The foot of a horse has a solid one hoof consisting of WALL, SOLE, FROG, BARS, WHITE LINE, CLEFT OF FROG (central and lateral) and BULB OF HEEL. CAMEL The points peculiar to camel are: 1. Pole-glands: Glands in the poll region whose secretions became hyperactive during the breeding season. 2. Stop: It is the well-developed temporal fossa in certain breeds of camel. 3. Pedestal: The chest pad in camel. 4. Stifle fold: The fold of the flank. 5. Front seat: Area from withers to hump. 6. Back seat: Area from hump to rump. 7. Teats: Four in number, each having two orifices. 8. Knee-callosity: A callosity at the knee-joint. 9. Stifle-callosity: A callosity at the stifle-joint. FOWL The body of a fowl can be divided into four major parts for the study of its points. These are head, body, legs and wings. HEAD 1. Comb: The fleshy part on the head, which is a colourless and featherless body. It has SERRATIONS (NOTHES) and SPIKES or POINTS. Sometimes an additional spike is found which is called SPRIG. The back loose part of the comb is called BLADE. The lower part of the comb, which rests on the head, is called BASE. 2. Face: The area in front of, behind and around the eyes. 3. Eye: The organ of sight. It has UPPER EYELID, LOWER EYE LID (better-developed and more movable), NICTITATING MEMBRANE (THIRD EYE LID), INNER and OUTER CANTHUS, EYE BALL and EYE LASHES (replaced by fine feathers). 4. Eye ring: The name given to the bony ring at the union of cornea and sclera of the eye ball peculiar to the birds. 5. Ear: In birds it does not form any external appendage to the head and an opening surrounded by a fringe of feather leads into a canal. 6. Ear lobe or Deaf ear: A colourless and featherless fold of skin attached on either side of the head below ears. 7. Cap: Feathers above the eyes forming a cap. 8. Nostrils: Two narrow oval openings on the base of the upper part of the beak, their margins being guarded by small feathers. 9. Mouth: In birds it is characterized by the absence of lips and cheeks. The jaws are replaced by BEAK (UPPER and LOWER) which is a dense horny structure. The beak has BASE OF THE BEAK and APEX (TIP) OF THE BEAK. The teeth are absent in fowl. 10. Tongue: It is shaped like an arrow.

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11. Wattles: Two fleshy coloured, featherless fleshy fold of skin hanging below the beak. 12. Throat: The area between the wattles. 13. Beard: Bunch of feathers beneath the throat found in certain breeds. 14. Crest: A tuft of feathers on the head of fowl in certain breeds. BODY 15. Neck hackles: The feathers around the neck. 16. Cape: The bottom of the neck hackles. 17. Back: The area of the thoracic vertebrae. 18. Saddle: The part behind the back reaching upto the tail (corresponding to CUSHION in female fowl). 19. Saddle hackles: The long slender feathers, which droop from the saddle of the cock (CUSHION FAETHERS in female). 20. Parsons nose: The portion of the body to which tail is fixed at the end of the body. 21. Oil gland: Under the tail in the muscles in which the feathers are attached, glands are situated which secret oily secretion used by the birds occasionally to dress up its feathers for giving a glossy appearance. 22. Main tail feathers: Stiff and straight feathers. Sometimes the two top ones are slightly curved. 23. Sickles: The top pair of curved feathers on a cocks tail. Sometimes one or two pairs falling below are termed LESSER SICKLES. 24. Tail coverts or Hangers: The soft covered sickles like feathers at the base of the cocks tail. 25. Breast: The parts of the body from the point of breast bone upto the throat. 26. Brisket: Region between the legs. 27. Chest: The area surrounded by the ribs and covered by wings. 28. Abdomen: The part beneath the vent and down to the loose end of breast bone. 29. Keel: The posterior end of the breast bone 30. Cloaca: The last tubular structure of the large intestine opening on the exterior. 31. Vent: The opening of the cloaca, which is common for the digestive, urinary and genital systems. 32. Fluff: The fine under coat feathers covering abdomen and upper part between pubic bones and legs. 33. Pubic bones: The bones projecting backwards below the vent and can be felt easily. LEGS 34. Thigh: Formed by the bulge of gastrocnemius muscle on tibia. 35. Hock: Joint between the thigh and the shank. 36. Shank: Formed by metatarsal bone and is covered by the scales. 37. Spur: Bony protuberance on the inside of the cocks shank not developed in female fowl. 38. Toes: Four in number and formed by phalanges having TOE NAILS on their ends. 39. Scale: The name given to the horny covering of the shank and toes. 40. Web of the foot: The skin in between the toes of the fowl. 41. Pads: The cushions on the planter side of the toes for absorption of the shock.

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WING 42. Wing: The organ of flight. 43. Shoulder: The region where wings join with body. 44. Flight feathers: They consists of PRIMARIES, the first ten big feathers in a fowl wing; SECONDARIES, the second lot of stiff feathers from the outside of the wing which are fourteen in number in an average fowl and nearer to the body; and AXIAL, a short feather situated in between primaries and secondaries. 45. Wing bar: Any dark line of colour or marking across the middle of the wing caused by lower wing coverts. 46. Wing way: The three cornered part of the folded wing above the bar. 47. Wing butts: The end or corners of the wing. The upper end is called SHOULDER BUTT and the lower end as LOWER BUTT. 48. Wing coverts: These are the broad feathers covering the roots of secondary feathers. POINTS OF A FEATHER 1. Axis: A typical feather consists of a straight structure called AXIS to which other parts called VANE is systematically arranged. 2. Quill: Lower part of the axis, which is round, transparent and hollow. 3. Shaft: The term applied to the axis other than quill to which vane is attached. It is solid, four sided, tapering and elastic with a longitudinal groove running along that surface which looks towards the body when the feather is in position. 4. Barbs: These are narrow slender lamellae springing from the vane and sloping obliquely outwards and the tip of the feather. 5. Barbules: It is a part of the barb, which grow from that side of barb, which looks towards the tip of the feather. They have fine hooklets, which hook on to the BARBICEL the growth on the opposite side of barbules on the barbs of the proximal row. 6. Accessory Plume: It is small variable tuft found in mature feathers at the junction of quill and vane. The vane consists of two rows of narrow slender lamellae or barbs springing from the axis of the vane (shaft) and sloping obliquely outwards and towards the tip of the feather. Definition and classification of feather: 1. Feather: These are epidermic structures partly embedded in follicles of the skin and forming the covering of a bird. 2. Plumage: The whole feathers of a bird. 3. Down: Initial hairy covering of the baby chicks. 4. Fluff: The downy part of the feather, soft fur or down-feathery stuff given off by blanket. 5. Coverts: Covered, concealed or secret feathers on the wings and tail. 6. Hangers: The short sickle like feathers at the base of the cocks tail also termed coverts. 7. Hackles: These are narrow lance shaped feathers on the neck of fowl and the saddle of a cock. All cocks have pointed hackles e.g. neck hackles, saddle hackle.

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EXERCISE - 4 Title : Identification of animals by branding, tattooing, notching & tagging. Objectives: To demonstrate the students various methods of identification of different species of animals. Purpose 1. Maintenance of different records for proper feeding, health coverage & management. 2. It is pre-requisite for registration of purebred animals, insurance, issuing a certificate etc. METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION 1. BRANDING It involves making a permanent impression into the skin of the animal by the application of hot iron or with some chemicals. Such markings are quite distinct, difficult to efface, cannot be lost by normal wear & tear of the skin and can be read from a distance. But these markings reduce the value of the hide to certain extent. Sites for branding: Upper aspect of the hind quarter, trunk, shoulder, neck, cheeks, fore arm and hind limb below the level of stifle joint. Procedure a) Hot Branding 1. Secure the animal properly. 2. Clip the area to be branded. 3. Place the branding no. on fire & let it be dull red. 4. Place this iron on the area to be branded, press gently and then remove it. This results in the partial burning of the tissues and produces a permanent mark. 5. Apply some antiseptic cream on the burn. b) Cold Branding 1. Secure the animal and clip the area to be branded. 2. Shake the branding solution and pour in a shallow enamel. 3. Dip the branding number in this solution just to fill the grooves. 4. Press the no. on the area to be branded and do not disturb the animal for some time. 5. The branding solution penetrates the layers of the skin, form a dry scab that heals within a week and thus leaves a permanent and easily visible marking on the skin.

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2. TATTOOING It consists of imprinting numbers of letters into the skin with the help of a tattooing forceps designed specially for the purpose. Combinations of letters can be used for proper identification. But these tattooed figures are not easily readable from a distance and fades out in due course of time. Sites for tattooing: Inner side of the ears, under surface of the base of tail, gums, inside of the thigh in sheep. It is done generally in calves, sheep and goats. Procedure 1. Secure the animal, clean and clip the area to be tattooed. 2. Arrange the desired combination of letters on the tattooing forceps. 3. Puncture the area to be tattooed by applying a little pressure, so that the numbers gets stamped. Be careful not to puncture the veins. 4. Rub the stain thoroughly on the puncture. 5. Let the wound heal which will leave a permanent mark. 3. NOTCHING Notching means cutting, slicing or puncturing the ear of an animal. The notches are made on the specified portions of the ears and with them it is easy to identify the animals from a distance. Each notch represents a number according to its location in the ear. A key to the numbering system adopted at the farm should be kept for ready reference e.g. a notch on the tip of the ear, upper border and lower border of the left ear will represent 1, 3 & 5 respectively and a hole in the center of the same ear will stand for 100. Similarly, notches on the right ear at the tip, upper border, lower border and a hole at the center will represent 10, 30, 50 & 1000 respectively. The process of notching some what disfigures the ears. Procedure 1. Secure the animal properly. 2. Make notches or hole with the help of a knife, punching pliers or special notching instrument on the specified portions of the ears. 4. TAGGING Tags are metal/plastic pieces with letter or numbers engraved/marked on them. These have pointed inter locking ends. They are liable to be torn off & could be read on close examination only.

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Sites for tagging In sheep, goats, calves, cattle & rabbits they are applied to the ears with special tools. Sometimes in cattle or sheep they are tied around the neck with a strap. In poultry a light metal tag bearing a number is inserted through a small slit made in the fold of the skin on the front edge of the wing. Leg banding is also another form of tagging common in poultry. Procedure 1. Secure the animal properly. 2. Sterilize the piercing end of the tag and ear of the animal with a spirit swab. 3. Place the tag in the proper position on the piercing instrument. 4. Catch hold the ear and boldly pierce the tag with a sudden force. 5. Apply some spirit on the wound. 5. OTHER METHODS A. Electronics tags B. Muzzle printing C. Photographs D. Karyotyping

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EXERCISE - 5 Title: Methods of restraining and casting of animals. Objectives: To teach the students different methods of restraining, casting of animals. Restraining of animals means controlling the movements, while casting means throwing of animals on the ground. Animal are controlled or restrained for a variety of reasons such as dehorning, shoeing, trimming of hooves, castration, major surgical operation etc. First of all one should be familiar with the handling of a rope. The parts of a rope are the end - a short piece and the standing part - a large piece. A bight is formed after doubling the rope and a loop after a complete circle. While restraining, the rope is secured by knots or hitches. A knot is an inter-twinning or tying together the pieces of a rope or ropes, whereas a hitch is temporary fastening of a rope to a post, hook or a fixed object. Various type of knots or hitches in common use are as follows: 1. 3. 5. 7. Overhand knot Surgeon's knot Granny's knot Half hitch a) Single half hitch b) Double half hitch 2. 4. 6. 8. 9. Square knot Slip knot Bowline knot Clove hitch Quick release knot

APPLIANCES USED FOR THE RESTRAINT OF ANIMALS 1. Halter: It is a piece of rope specially made up into a particular shape to adjust on the head of the animal. It is made from a rope of about one inch diameter and is used to restrain the animal. 2. Muzzles: These are made of either leather, wire or rope and are fitted around the muzzle of the animal. They are used to prevent the animal from eating their bedding and dung, biting, tearing of clothes and licking wall. The other uses are to prevent the animals from eating green herbage while working in the fields, for fasting, to prevent calves from suckling their mothers and to prevent dogs from biting while in transit during transportation. 3. Tape Muzzle: It is used to secure dogs from biting a person, while handling. It can be made from an ordinary bandage or cord. 4. Bull Nose Rings: These rings are of different sizes starting from 1.5 to 3 inches in diameter. These are generally made of non-rusting materials like aluminum or some other alloys and are used in the restraint of bulls. These are applied below the lower extremity of the septum nasi about 5 inch back from the nostrils. Too much force should not be applied on these rings, as it may tear through the nasal tissues.

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5. Pig rings: These are exactly of the same pattern as that of bull nose rings and are applied either in the septum nasi or the side of the middle lines, one on each side of the snout. These are useful in preventing pigs from disturbing its bedding. 6. Bull nose puncher: It is used to make a hole in the septum nasi for bullrings. It may be either point and socket type or just a puncture. 7. Pig snout puncher: It resembles bull puncher and is used for making hole in the pig snout for ringing. 8. Anti suckling shield (Milk suckling preventor): It is an aluminum disc with arrangement of screws, to be applied on the septum nasi of the animal. Its application does not interfere in the feeding of animals, but it prevents the cow from sucking its own teats and calves suckling their mothers. 9. Anti cow kicker: It consists of two metal spring-clips, joined together with a chain and are fitted to the tendo-achilis and used to prevent kicking while milking. 10.Twitch: It is a strong, stout, wooden stick to one side of which is attached a rope loop, through a hole. It is one of the oldest, simplest and most commonly used appliances for the restraint of horses. It works on the principle of pressure application to the sensory nerve and the pain produced diverts the attention of the animal, while less painful work is done else where on his body. It is generally applied on the upper lip, but can be applied on the lower lip and ears. For cattle, cord rope twitch is used in the upperlip. 11. Cradle neck: It consists of 10-12 pieces of wood about 2 inch long with blunt ends, one inch in diameter and having a hole at both ends. They are threaded along two ropes with the ropes knotted between them, so that they will be evenly spaced about 2 inch apart at one end and 3 inch at the other. The wider part of the cradle so formed is fitted at the base of the neck and the other around the throat. It is, thus, tied around the neck of the animal at the crest. The cradle prevents the bilateral movements of the animals head (i.e. turning and lowering of his neck) and thus is useful in keeping him away from licking a wound on his body or legs. 12. Bull leader or bull poles: It is a pole having chain or winch, which is fixed in the bull nose ring for leading the bull. 13. Dog - catcher: It is an appliance used in securing vicious dogs from a little distance. 14. Pig-catcher: It is used for securing pigs. Speed and accuracy are necessary for catching the pigs and strength is required for holding them.

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In addition to these appliances, various types of mouth gags or mouth speculums are also used to open the jaws and keep them apart, while examining the animals mouth. Commonly used gags for cattle are Houseman's gas (American gag), Probang gag (Wooden gag), and Drink water's gag. Similarly, Spring gag for dogs and Linton's gag for sheep are also used for the same purpose. Precautions to be taken before casting: 1. Animal should preferably be kept off feed 12 hrs. before casting, specially large animals having voluminous stomach, which is liable to rapture during casting if it is distended. Use of narcotics and tranquilizers obviates the risk involved in casting. Apply stable bandages on all four legs of the horse to prevent accidental bruises from ropes. Valuable horses may have kneecaps and hock boots put on. If twitch is applied to control the horse during application of hobbles, it must be removed before the horse is actually pulled over. For casting cattle, buffalo and horses, a circular area of approx. 8m in diameter would be sufficient, while for small animals, an area 2 of that size is required. At least 4 persons are required for casting cattle, buffalo and 7 for horses. The ground should be level, soft, grassy or sandy without stones, pebbles etc. If it is hard then straw bedding free from thorns, nails etc should be used. Apparatus used in casting should be thoroughly inspected and the persons/ attendants should be fully instructed with regard to their duties during the casting. Animal should not be casted for longer duration as they are likely to develop tympany. RESTRAINING OF CATTLE I. Methods for diverting animals attention: due to shifting of pain. They divert the attention of the animal

2. 3.

4.

5.

6. 7.

8.

9.

a) Tail restraint: Both hands are kept close to the base of the tail, and the tail is raised upwards without causing any injury. The operator should stand to one side to avoid kicking. b) Nose lead: It is applied at the nose of the animal and then rope is pulled and tied to a pole if required.

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c) Manual restraint of head: The nasal septum is firmly grasped with the thumb and forefinger of one hand and horn or ear with the other hand. d) Ear twitch: A loop is formed around the horns and the rope is carried around the ears, the end of the rope is passed under the standing part to form a half hitch. The end of the rope is then pulled to apply restraint. II. Methods to prevent kicking a) Milking restraint: A rope of about one meter long and inch in diameter is used for immobalising the hind legs to prevent kicking while milking. The rope is tied to one leg above the hock and then passed round the other in a figure of '8'. In the villages it is very common and called 'Niana'. b) Squeeze restraint: A loop is formed around the animals body in front of udder/prepuce with a rope having one eye at one end. The end of the rope is pulled light so that the rope squeezes the animal. III. Method to raise a leg a) Raising forelimb: The leg could be raised manually provided animal is docile and operator is physically strong. It can also be raised with the help of a rope having an eye at one end. A loop is formed around the pastern and the other end of the rope is passed over the withers and pulled by an assistant. b) Raising a hind limb: It can also be raised manually. The leg is grasped at the pastern with left hand and the animals flank is pushed with the operator's shoulder so as to shift the weight of the animal to the other leg. At this time the leg is raised and the position of the limb is so adjusted so as to hold its weight on the operators leg. IV. Special methods of restraint a) Temporary rope halter: A loop is fastened with a bowline knot and is placed around the animals neck. A bight in the standing part is then passed through the loop and over the nose. In order to use the halter, the nosepiece is pulled tight. b) Dehorning restraint/restraint for I/V injections: A temporary rope halter is applied and the nosepiece is tied to a fixed object on pole. A loop is formed with a rope having an eye at one end and is passed around the pole. The same loop is further passed around the neck of the animal so as to pass it over the pole again. The end of the rope is tied to a fixed object or is held by an assistant. c) Restraint for castration: After casting the animal, the limbs are secured in such a fashion that the right hind leg is pulled firmly towards the neck casting loops and the left is tied to the fore limb.

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V. Casting restraint a) Burley method or Alternate method A 12-15 m long rope is doubled and its center is placed over the withers of the animal. The ends of the rope are carried between the forelimbs and crossed at the sternum. One end is carried up each side of the animals body and the ends are again crossed over the back. The ends are now passed between the medial surface of the hind legs and pulled to cast the animal. After casting, the tail is pulled inside the leg and is held at the flank region. The head is held firmly and the hind and fore legs are tied separately to avoid any pressure on the thorax and injury to the leg. b) Rope squeeze method or Reuff's method A loop is made around the animals neck or horns using a bowline knot. The free ends of the rope is thrown over the back to the opposite side, then it is picked up and brought around the body under the standing part of the rope near the bowline to form a half hitch just behind the shoulder. An another half hitch is made by tossing the end of the rope over the animals back infront of the udder or prepuce. The rope is pulled to force the animal to lie down. The hind and fore limbs are then tied separately.

CASTING A BUFFALO Two ropes of about 5 m long are taken. With one end of a rope a clove hitch is applied on both forelimbs just above the fetlock, after bringing both the forelimbs together. With the second rope a similar half hitch is applied to the hind limbs around the hind cannon just above the fetlocks. The free end of the front rope is then passed back to that part of the hind rope which lies between the hind legs, first under it, then over it and then forwarded to the outside of the left fore-leg, where it is held by an assistant. In a similar fashion the free end of the hind rope is carried forward and under that part of the front rope which lies between the fore legs, then over it and back to the outside of the left hind leg. The two free ends of these ropes are then pulled in opposite direction by two men on each rope, thereby drawing all the feet together. The animal is supported with hands on the side to which the animal is expected to fall to prevent injury. The tail is slipped through the hind limbs and is held by an assistant. The limbs are then tied together.

RESTRAINING A CALF The operator passes one hand over the neck and the other on the front side of the hind leg, the calf is then casted down to the ground. The hind limbs are tied by passing the rope over them. Both the ends of the rope are pulled from medial side of corresponding legs and then taken between the front legs. One end of the rope is taken over each side of the neck and tied at the nape.

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RESTRAINING A HORSE a) Twitch: It is applied around the ear or upper lip. b) Hobbles: A hobble is a band of leather or a woven cord, which is applied around the animals leg. It may have a rope or a metal ring attached to it, through which rope is passed. They are applied around the pastern or hock. c) Halters: It is the simplest method of restraint and can be of a temporary or permanent type. A temporary halter is just like that for cattle and a permanent one is made of leather. d) Raising the forelimbs: The limb is raised for examination of hoof. The operator stands by the side of the leg as close to the animal as possible, with its face towards the hindquarter of the animal. The limb is held at the pastern and then raised. e) Raising hind limb: While raising the hind limb with hand, the operator should stand near the limb as close as possible, facing towards the back. The pastern is held and raised with the right hand and with the left hand tendo achillis is grasped tightly. The limb is then supported on the medial aspect of the thigh of the operator. f) Casting a horse (Double sideline method) It is an easy and practical way of casting a horse. A 18-20 m cotton rope is doubled and a rope collar, by putting a figure '8' knot, is applied around the shoulder behind brisket region. The left side of the rope is passed medial to the left hind limb around the pastern or passed through the hobbles and is brought forward from behind. Then a turn in the rope is taken, passed through the loop in the neck. The other end of the rope is passed in the same way on the right side. One end of the rope should be pulled in the front direction and that the other end in rear direction. In addition one person should hold the tail at the dock region tightly. On pulling ropes, the horse will lie down.

RESTRAINING DOGS Dogs are restrained by applying a temporary tape muzzle. A loop is made at the center of a 80-cm long bandage, using a surgeon's knot. The loop is slipped over the nose, half way upto the corner of the mouth and is drawn tight. The ends of the bandage are brought around the sides of the neck to tie it near the pole. RESTRAINING CATS Cats are restrained by applying a temporary tape muzzle in the same way as that for dogs.

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RESTRAINING SHEEP AND GOATS Sheep can be easily restrained than other livestock species. a) The restraining of adult sheep is done first by sitting the animal on its ramp and then tilting the animal somewhat backwards so that feet cannot touch the ground and the animal is not capable of offering much resistance. The handler remains behind the sheep with the animals back braced against his leg and holds the front legs. b) To cast sheep or goat, the operator reaches across the animals back and pulls the diagonal set of legs outwards. The animal is then eased down to the ground with his weight against the operators legs, so that it falls on the ground gently. Then keeping his knees against the back to hold the animal down, the operator presses the head of the animal. RESTRAINING OF PIGS The use of devices like pig catcher or pig holder can be used for simple restraint like I/V injections or dressing of wounds. The pig catchers clamp is applied just above the hock and is kept tight to hold the pig firmly. The pig holder is designed to slip over the snout and plying action on the snout, the pig is controlled.

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EXERCISE - 6 Title: Determination of age of farm animals. Objectives : To teach the students, different methods of estimating the age of farm animals. Purpose 1. Selection and purchase of animals. 2. Fixing the price of the animal. 3. Determining the dose of the drugs according to age. 4. Estimating the age of the animal in the absence of records. The age of the farm animals is estimated by the following methods: A) By general appearance of body 1. Younger animals are small sized having active disposition, smooth & tight skin and soft hair coat. 2. Older animals are larger in size having normal look, rough hair coat and loose skin. B) By Hooves 1. The hooves of younger animals are relatively smaller in size, smooth and evenly leveled at sole. 2. The hooves of older animals are larger in size, rough and may not be evenly leveled at sole. Both the methods (A and B) cannot ascertain the actual age of the animals, but categorize them into age groups such as very young, yearling, adults, old etc. C) By Horns As the age of the animal advances, the horns grow in size and rings get formed on it. The first ring appears at the age of 3 years in zebu cattle, thereafter one ring appears every year. Hence following formula is useful. Age (in years) = n + 2; where n = no. of rings in the horns.

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D) By dentition Dentition is the study of configuration and confirmation of the teeth with special reference to their periods of eruption through the gums. This knowledge helps to acertain the age of the animal and this method is reasonably accurate though by no means always accurate. The eruption of both temporary and permanent teeth depends upon the method of management, feeding and breeding of animals and there are great variations among different species and breeds of the animals. For the purpose of estimating the age of the animal, preference is given to incisors, the cheek teeth are examined only when irregularities are present in incisors. Structure of a tooth A tooth consists of outside cement and a layer of very hard enamel, followed by dentine and a dark center called pulp cavity. The enamel passes over the surface of the tooth and extends inwards forming a pit. Types of teeth There are two sets of teeth in each species. 1. Temporary or milk teeth These are present at birth and may erupt during early life. Later on these are pushed out by the growth of the corresponding permanent teeth. 2. Permanent teeth These teeth appear at a certain age and remain in the jaws throughout the life of the animal. Difference between temporary and permanent teeth S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. Temporary teeth Snow white in colour Small in size Have a distinct neck Have a short fang or root Permanent teeth Brownish in colour Large in size Have no distinct neck Have long stout fang

Parts of the tooth: A tooth has three parts: i) Crown: The part, which appears above the gums. ii) Root or fang: the part, which is embedded in the gums. iii) Neck: the part, which joins crown and fang. It is distinct in temporary teeth.

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The crown has a lingual surface (which remains in contact with the tongue), labial surface (which is next to the lips), buccal surface (which is next to the cheek in case of cheek teeth), contact surface (which is opposed to the neighbouring tooth of the same dental arc) and wearing surface or table (which comes in contact with the teeth of the other jaw, also called grinding or masticatory surface). Classification of teeth: The teeth are classified into 4 categories: 1. Incisors: These are present in the anterior part of the jaws and help in cutting and picking up food. They may be temporary as well as permanent. They are always described in pairs. In horse they are 6 in each jaw described as central, lateral and corner pairs. In cattle, sheep and goats these are present only in lower jaw and are 8 in number described as central, medial, lateral and corner pairs. The upper jaw is having a dental pad. 2. Canines: These are found between corner incisor and first cheek teeth and helps to tear the food. They are always permanent and never temporary, present in carnivorous animals and absent in ruminants. In equines, they are present in males only, but sometimes found in females as rudimentary. 3. Cheek teeth: These are situated on each side of the mouth, 24 in number, six on each side of each jaw and their function is the mastication of food. They are described as 1st , 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pair. The first three pairs are called pre-molars which are temporary as well as permanent whereas the last three pairs are called molars which are always permanent and never temporary. 4. Wolf teeth: These are small rudimentary teeth, occasionally found in mare. Dental Formulae Total no. of teeth present in any set of dentition of a particular species can be expressed in a single form of figures which is called dental formula. The formula consists of a horizontal line above, which is noted how many teeth of each category are present in the half of the upper jaw; while below the line the corresponding numbers of teeth present in the lower jaw are mentioned. In this formula the first figure represents incisors, second canines, third premolars and fourth molars. Thus the upper number represents the number of teeth present in the half portion of the upper jaw. Dental formula for cattle, sheep and goat 0 0 3 0 Temporary dentition = 2 ( ---, ---, ---, ---) = 20 4 0 3 0 0 0 3 3 2 ( ---, ---, ---, ---) = 32 4 0 3 3

Permanent dentition =

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Dental formula for horse Temporary dentition = 3 0 3 0 2 ( ---, ---, ---, ---) = 24 3 0 3 0 3 1 3 3 2 (---, ---, ---, ---) = 40 3 1 3 3

Permanent dentition =

Note: In case of mare canines are absent and total number of teeth in permanent dentition are 36. Dental formula for pig Temporary dentition = 2 3 1 3 0 ( ---, ---, ---, ---) = 28 3 1 3 0 3 1 4 3 (---, ---, ---, ---) = 44 3 1 4 3

Permanent dentition =

Dental formula for dog Temporary dentition = 2 3 1 3 0 (---, ---, ---, ---) = 28 3 1 3 0 3 1 4 2 (---, ---, ---, ---) = 42 3 1 4 3

Permanent dentition =

ERUPTION TABLES CATTLE Time of eruption Birth to one month 6 months 1.5 year 2 year 3 years 4 years 5 years Description All temporary incisors and all the three pairs of temporary pre-molars. 1st pair of permanent molar. 2nd pair of molar. Central pair of permanent incisor, 1st and 2nd permanent pre-molars, 3rd pair of permanent molar. Medial pair of permanent incisor. Lateral pair of permanent incisor. Corner pair of permanent incisor.

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Subsequent to eruption of permanent teeth, the age of the animal is estimated from the examination of the wear of the incisor teeth of the lower jaw. The time of wearing out of central, middle, lateral and corner permanent incisor teeth is 7-8 years, 8-9 years, and 9-10 years and 10-11 years; respectively. HORSE Time of eruption Birth to one week 2-4 week 7-9 months 18-20 months 2.5 years 3.5 years 4 years 4.5 years Description 2 temporary incisors. 2 temporary lateral incisor, all temporary premolars. 2 temporary corner incisor, 1st pair of permanent molar. 2nd pair of permanent molar. 2 permanent central incisor, 1st and 2nd pair of permanent pre-molars. 2 permanent lateral incisors, 3rd pair of permanent pre-molar. All 4 canines, 3rd pair of permanent molar. 2 permanent corners.

Subsequent to this, the age is estimated by the following observations: 1. Wearing of the mark or infundibulum. 2. Appearance of dental star. 3. Wearing out of enamel ring. 4. Shape of table. 5. Angle of incidence of upper and lower incisors. 6. Appearance and calculations from galvayns groove. 7. Appearance and disappearance of hook etc.

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EXERCISE - 7 Title: Washing, grooming and exercising of animals. Objectives: To teach the students methods of washing, grooming and exercising the animals. Purpose 1. To keep the animals clean. 2. To improve the condition and general appearance of the animals. 3. To detect hidden injuries and prevent skin diseases. 4. To help in clean milk production. 5. To stimulate blood and lymph circulation. 6. To remove lice, ticks and other skin parasites from hair coat. 7. Vigorous brushing keeps skin loose, pliable and brings out natural oil in the hairs. Materials required: Curry comb, body brush, animal, duster. hoof picker etc. Procedure: Following procedure is adopted for grooming of horses: 1. Pick out the hooves Curved part of the hoof picker is held in the palm and used from the heel to toe. Dung etc. is removed from the cleft of the frog, sole of the foot and fuller of the shoes. 2. Slapping with hollow hands It is carried out all over the back, quarter and lightly over the loin. The process frees the dust, dirt and scruff etc. and brings them to the surface from where it is easily removable with brush. It also promotes blood circulation. 3. Grooming with body brush It is done with a body brush. Start from the left side behind the legs, standing facing to the back, well away from the animal. The brush is held in the hand towards the animal and currycomb in the other. Brush in the direction of the hairs in a circular motion, putting the weight to the body and keeping elbow stiff. After the neck and shoulder on each side, groom the forelegs using the brush in and against the direction of the hairs. Thereafter back and belly is groomed, changing the brush to the other hand. Lastly groom the hind legs. The tendo achillis is grasped firmly while grooming inside of the hind legs, to avoid kicking. Same procedure is adopted on the other side.

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4. Brushing of head and tail Remove the head collar and groom the head lightly. Brush out tail by parting the hair avoiding too much use of brush otherwise it may spoil the tail. 5. Cleaning eyes, lips, nose and dock Use a moist, clean duster for cleaning the eyes, lips, nose and dock. 6. Hand message Start from the hindquarter, first against the hairs and then in the direction of the hair. Brush out and remove the loose hairs. Message legs in the direction of hair with fingers. Finally inspect and report all injuries, paying particular attention to the parts which are likely to be neglected e.g. poll, jowl, inside of the legs and hollow of the heels. How to judge the cleanliness Pass the fingers of the hand in the opposite direction of the hairs, the points of fingers running firm against the coat. The gray lines left on the skin and the gray scurf on the points of fingers indicates insufficient grooming. Note: For grooming of cattle, the whole process is much more superficial than in case of horses, because cattle do not wear harness and they are in the habit of licking themselves, thereby removing good deal of dirt from their body. Grooming of cattle also includes washing of their udder with warm water. Precautions 1. The animal must be dry before grooming. 2. Cleaning of sheath should be carried out at least once a week. 3. Each horse should be groomed daily, weather at rest or work, with a separate grooming kit. 4. Grooming of cattle should finish at least two hours before milking so as to allow the suspended dust particles to settle down.

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EXERCISING THE ANIMALS Purpose 1. To keep the animals active and fit. 2. Too much standing at one place (under tethered management system) weakens the leg muscles, causes the hooves and toes to overgrow; thus exercise avoids them. 3. Routine exercise is most necessary in breeding males. 4. It gives the animal an exposure to sunshine and thus helps in the synthesis of vit. D. Cattle and buffaloes Exercise in a loose housing system is not a problem, but it is must for the animals which are kept tied in a confined place. They must be turned out, once or twice a week, to an open area or pasture. Breeding bulls must be regularly exercised to keep then in good condition. For this, a bull exerciser can be used to exercise a number of bulls simultaneously. Horses Horses must be given regular exercise by walking or riding daily. Sheep and goat Normally they do not require exercise since they are taken outside for grazing. But the stall fed animals must be allowed to roam in the open paddock. Lack of exercise during pregnancy is a common contributing factor to difficult lambing. One way of making the stall-fed animals to move is to keep the water trough away from the feeding manger. Pigs Sows, which are provided sufficient exercise during gestation period, face less difficulty during furrowing. Nursing sows generally feed more and has a tendency to lie down. Hence, it is necessary to provide some means of exercise. Feeding place should be at some distance from the sleeping quarters. Access to pastures, of course, is desirable for all categories of pigs.

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EXERCISE - 8 Title: Dipping and spraying of animals. Objectives: To teach the students methods of dipping and spraying of animals. Purpose 1. To eradicate ectoparasites (lice, ticks etc.). 2. To cure and prevent skin diseases (mange). 3. To ward off attacks by the flies. 4. To remove dung, dirt and other waste materials from the fleece before shearing. When to dip 1. When mange or any other skin disease breaks out, two dipping are carried out at an interval of 7-14 days. 2. As a preventive measure, sheep are dipped once before shearing and second time when fleece has grown long enough to retain certain amount of dip on it. DIPPING EQUIPMENTS 1. Hand bath It is carried out in a tub made of galvanized iron, about 4x3.5x1.75 feet in dimensions. Each sheep is put into the bath and turned over on its back. Two men dip the sheep and one man catches them. It is useful when only small numbers of sheep are to be dipped. 2. Swim bath It is made of concrete or bricks, level with the ground or slightly raised. It is generally 25-30 feet long at the top and 15-20 feet at the bottom, 5 feet deep and 1.75 feet wide. It is used for larger flocks of sheep. Two or three sheep are put to swim in the bath at a time, from the side with dipper end. They swim through and walk up to the ramp into the drying pens. While swimming through the dip, they may be guided and helped along by a pole. The head must be immersed once. Qualities of a dip A reliable dip must provide protection against re-infestation, kill off the larvae, have prolonged stimulating action on skin and wool and should discourage fly striking. A large number of dips are available in the market. The active agents most commonly used are arsenicals, sulfur, tobacco, carbolic acid, DDT and gammexine. The instructions of the manufacturer should be carefully carried out while preparing the dipping solution.

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Precautions before and after dipping 1. Always offer water before dipping so that sheep may not drink the dipping solution. 2. The quantity of dipping material in the dipping tank should be sufficient enough to submerge the sheep. 3. The bath must be stirred from top to bottom occasionally since the chemicals have a tendency to settle down. 4. Choose a day when the weather is not too hot. The temperature of the water should be nearer to the body temperature. 5. The sheep dog should also be allowed to swim through the dip. 6. The dripping pen should drain back into the bath to avoid wastage of the dipping material. 7. On completion the dipping material must be disposed of properly so as not to pollute the water supply. 8. Do not dip sick or animals with open wounds. 9. Rams should not be dipped during the tupping period and ewes during lambing period. 10. The concentration f the dipping material falls during the dipping process owing to its absorption by fleece, hence frequent addition of more chemicals is required. 11. All the sheep and lambs of the farm must be dipped at one time, otherwise undipped animals are likely to re-infest them. SPRAYING Cattle and large animals are sprayed in stead of dipping. A weak fly repelling dip solution is sprayed over the back and sides of the animal. The spraying should be in the form of a fine mist. The mouth of the animal must be covered with a muzzle to avoid licking of the dip solution.

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EXERCISE - 9 Title: Clipping and shearing of animals. Objective: To teach the students the process of clipping or shearing. The cutting of hairs in horses is called clipping while cutting of fleece in sheep is called shearing. CLIPPING Purpose 1. To maintain condition and improve appearance. 2. To prevent excessive sweating. 3. To make the animal capable of greater amount of work with less distress. 4. To prevent saddle injuries. 5. For easy drying and grooming with less labour. Articles required: Hand clipper, clipping machine, shearing scissors etc. Procedure In horses long winter coat, if left to grow hinders efficient grooming and drying, therefore these are removed. 1. Secure the horse properly, use twitch if required. 2. 3. Groom thoroughly before starting clipping. The clippers are worked against the direction of hair, starting from neck, body and then legs, first on left side and then on right side. Mane is clipped with hand clipper and not by clipping machine.

4. 5.

Tail is thinned by pulling out hair at the root and cut at the bottom by scissors, so that length of the tail when carried is in level with the point of hock. Time of clipping Before the start of summer (March and April) and start of winter (October & November). SHEARING OF SHEEP Hand shearers or power driven shearing machines are used for this purpose.

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Preparation of sheep for shearing 1. Wash the animal in running water to clean the wool from waste material and dung. 2. 3. Do not feed the animal 10 hrs. prior to shearing. Clip away dung and urine stained wool and keep it separate.

4. The sheep should be placed on a clean and smooth board platform. Methods of shearing There are two methods of shearing sheep: 1. Along the sheep: The sheep is shorn in parallel strokes from head to tail until back is reached. First one side is done with the sheep lying on other side, then it is turned over and other side is completed.

Around the sheep: Sheep is made to sit on its buttocks, back away from the shearer. The wool is removed by strokes going round the sheep, from the fleece opening at the throat, first round the neck, then round the shoulder, back and so on. Time of shearing Sheep are generally shorn twice a year, before the start of summer (March to April) and beginning of winter (September to October). Precautions 1. Do not clip a sick horse. 2. 3. 4. 5. Avoid any cold or windy weather. Provide extra bedding and ration a few days after clipping/shearing. Shear only on clean and swept surface. The blades of the shears should be kept flat to the skin and last stroke should be as regular and as long as possible. Be careful not to clip the sheath/teats. Remove the fleece in one piece as it fetches more prices. Before releasing the fresh shorn animal, dress up accidental shear cuts if any with some antiseptics.

2.

6. 7. 8.

Note: Average person can shear 15-20 sheep per day with a hand shears, while over a hundred sheep would be shorn per day using power shears.

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EXERCISE - 10 Title: Recording body temperature, pulse rate and respiration. Objective: To teach the students the methods of recording actual body temperature, pulse rate and respiration rate per minute. Materials required: Clinical thermometer, vaseline, cotton wool, stop watch etc. Procedure BODY TEMPERATURE (AT REST) The temperature of an animal is recorded by means of a clinical thermometer after inserting it into the rectum of an animal and cloaca of the birds. The following points must be taken into consideration while taking the temperature: 1. Shake the thermometer to bring down the column of mercury to a level below the normal temperature of the species of animal whose temperature is to be recorded. 2. Lubricate the bulb of the thermometer with vaseline, oil or soap etc. 3. Secure the animal properly (a foreleg can be lifted in case of horse). 4. Approach from the near side (left) of the animal and raise the tail with left hand. 5. Insert the first finger into the rectum along with thermometer and then remove the finger. 6. Thermometer should be tilted to one side so that the bulb should come in contact with mucous membranes of the rectum and not merely buried in the dung. Keep the thermometer in this position for two minutes. 7. Take the thermometer out of rectum, clean it with cotton and then read the mercury column. 8. The temperature of fowl is taken in the cloaca. Do not insert the thermometer too far. 9. In case of contagious diseases the thermometer should be disinfected after taking the temperature of the affected animal. PULSE RATE OR HEART BEAT (AT REST) Pulse is the indication of the condition of heartbeat. It is felt from the superficial artery lying over hard tissue. Put the finger on the artery and press lightly with varying pressure. Before starting counting, one must have felt number of successive beats. It is desirable to

40

count the number of pulsation for atleast 30 sec as determined by the stop/ordinary watch. If the pulse is week, use stethoscope over the heart. Sites for recording pulse-rate Horse: Lower jaw where the external maxillary artery is continued across the face as a facial artery. Cattle: Coccygeal artery on the sides of the under aspect of the tail. Sheep, goat, dog and cat: Femoral artery inside the hind limb more than halfway between stifle and hip joint. Fowl: Wing artery on the inner aspect of the wing. RESPIRATION (AT REST) Respiration means taking air in (inhalation or inspiration) and blowing air out (exhalation or expiration). One inspiration and one expiration constitute one respiration. Respiration can be observed by the following methods: 1. By counting the movements of the flank. 2. By observing the movements of the nostrils. 3. By feeling the exhalation of hot air on the hand when kept in front of the nostrils. It should be noted that there is a rise and fall of the flank with an interval in between for each respiration. Animal often voluntary holds its breath for about ten sec and several deeper and quicker breaths follow it. General precautions 1. Stand quietly near the animal and give enough time to settle down in its new surroundings. 2. If the animal has traveled long distance, give him enough time to recover from the fatigue of long journey. 3. Count the respiration first while standing away from the animal, then take the pulse and finally temperature. 4. Both pulse rate and respiration are likely to accelerate to a varying degree on account of fear, anger or pain. Mere handling an excitable and nervous animal will also have the same effect. Observations: Record the pulse rate, respiration per minute and temperature of three animals of each species.

41

EXERCISE -11 Title: Weighing of farm animals, estimation of body weight by formulae and their correspondence or discrepancy. Objectives: To teach the students how to calculate body weight of farm animals by their body measurements. Purpose 1. To know the approximate weight of the dressed meat. 2. To compute the fodder and balanced ration requirements. 3. To calculate the dose of medicines to be administered. 4. To determine the growth of the animal so as to keep a check on the health. Materials required: Measuring tape 10 m long, measuring stick, weighing bridge etc. BODY MEASUREMENTS 1. HEIGHT It is the vertical distance from the ground to the highest point of withers. It is measured in hands (1 Hand = 4 inches) in horses and in inches in case of other animals. It is measured with the help of a measuring stick, which consists of a marked upright stick and a cross rod carrying a spirit level. The cross rod slides up and down the upright stick. It is important to make the animal stand on a hard level surface ground, on all its four legs with equal weight on each limb and let the cross rod rest on highest point of withers. In case of zebu cattle though hump is the highest point, the height is measured just behind the hump as the exotic cattle do not have any hump. 2. LENGTH It is measured from the point of shoulder to the point of buttock (in horse) or pin bones (in cattle sheep and goats). It is measured with an ordinary measuring tape and expressed in inches/cms. 3. GIRTH Girth or circumference is measured at girth place, which is just behind the point of elbow. It is measured with a measuring tape and expressed in inches. The tape is neither held loose nor tight, but just sufficient pressure is put on. It is important to keep the animal off feed and water for 12 hours for satisfactory results.

42

Frequently the weigh bridge is not available. Under such conditions, a simple but reasonably accurate method of estimating body weight on the basis of body measurements is useful. Procedure for weighing of animals and taking body measurements 1. Lead the animal gently to the weighing bridge platform. 2.Allow the animal to stand quietly. 3. Note the weight on the scale. 4. Now make the animal to stand on a hard-leveled ground, on all of its four legs. 5. Take the body measurements i.e. height, length and girth as discussed earlier. Estimation of body weight from body measurements Based on body measurements, a number of workers have developed following formulae for estimating the body weights. 1. Shaeffers formula: (For cattle, buffalo, young calves, sheep and goats). Live weight in pounds = L x G2 300 where L= Length in inches G= Girth in inches

Live weight in kg. 2. Agarwals formula:

= _____L x G2 660

3.

L x G__ Where L & G are length & girth in cm A The value of A is: 64.5 if girth is <164 cm 61.5 if girth is between 165-200 cm 57.5 if girth is > 200 cm Aggarwals (1967) formula for crossbred cattle: Live weight in kg = Live weight in pounds =(3xL) + (11xG)+(18xH)-907 Where L, G and H stands for length, girth and height in inches.

4.

Mullicks (1950) formula for buffaloes: Live wt. In pounds = 25.156 x G 960.232 Where G= girth in inches * To convert pounds into kg. divide by 2.2.

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Observations Record body measurements of three animals of each species and then calculate their body weight. Discrepancy Compare the weight calculated on the basis of formulae with that of actual weight. Note the difference and calculate error percentage. Note: It is not always easy to make accurate measurements of either the girth or the length of even a quiet animal. Experience has shown that estimates of live weight of animals on the basis of formulae are seldom variable by more than 10%. Cattle generally require fodder about 1/10th of its body weight and the weight of the dressed carcass, blood, hides and fat is 2/5th, 1/13th, 1/8th and 1/12th of body weight respectively. The weight of young calves, sheep and goats is calculated by the shaeffers is formula only.

44

EXERCISE -12 Title: Management of animals during transportation. Objectives: To educate the students regarding management of animals for transportation. The aim for easy and safe transportation of the animals should be: 1. 2. Minimum possible discomfort to animals. Arrival at the destination without any deterioration in physique and in a safe and fit condition. No economic loss in weight and mortality during transit.

3.

The common transportation routes are: 1. Road. 2. Rail. 3. Sea. 4. Air. 5. On foot (walking). TRANSPORTATION BY ROAD 1. 2. 3. 4. Clean the body of the truck with a broom. Provide 10-12 cm depth of sand flooring or 15-cm straw bedding. Take the truck to the loading ramp. Open the rear door on the loading ramp and cover the gap between the door and body of the truck by a plank. Lead the animal inside the truck gently pushing the animal from behind. Make separate partitions for individual animals with bamboo. Make sure that the attendant is present all the time when truck moves. Instruct the driver to avoid sudden stoppage, driving fast, sharp and sudden turns. TRANSPORTION BY RAIL 1. The consignor must give 24 hrs. notice to the station superintendent of dispatching station for booking the animals.

5. 6. 7. 8.

45

2.

During transit, cattle are fed, watered and cared at the cost of owner by the attendant. Pre payment of freight in cash is compulsory. All safety to the animals in transit rests with the consignor. Cattle are carried in 4 wheeled or 6 wheeled wagons.

3. 4. 5.

General precautions while transportation 1. Provide secure footing to animals while loading, as they are afraid on shaking objects. Check the wagon/truck for any projecting rail or object, which may injure the animal. For loading, cattle are moved slowly with patience, they should never be rushed or excited. Bulls should be transported individually. Cows in wagons are tied but the younger ones are kept loose. The feeding should be limited prior to transportation and also during the journey. The attendants should not smoke or cook in the wagon. Disinfect the wagon or truck thoroughly with suitable disinfectant. Disinfect the wagon/truck thoroughly with antiseptics such as carbolic, cresol, lye solution etc. Animals should be vaccinated for H.S. a week prior to transport. For nervous type of animals, tranquilizing drugs like reserpine be given @ 2.5 mg/kg body weight. Over crowding in any case be avoided. Animals may be insured before transportation.

2.

3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11.

12. 13.

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EXERCISE 13 Title : Preparation of animals for shows. Objective: To educate the students how to prepare different animals for show. The main purposes for the preparation of animals for shows are: 1. To exhibit the best type of animal in order to win the contest and to increase awareness in the farmers. It provides an opportunity of making comparisons among superior type of animals both within and between breeds and enables the breeders to exchange ideas and experiences between them.

2.

Material required: Best animal of a particular breed, leading rope, curry comb, body brush, soap, hair clipper, pair of scissors, rope halter, buckets, sarson oil, hoof rasp, dusters, clean water and sand paper. Procedure 1. Selection of winning type animal Select the animal possessing true breed characteristics, dairy confirmation, good temperament, proper growth and development according to its age and free from defects. The breeding programme should be adjusted in such a way that the selected cows may calve approximately a week prior to the show. If the animal had calved long in advance, it may appear unduly thin showing lack of capacity due to the loss of surplus body fat in the milk. The heifers for show are selected above the one years of age, rather than a lower age group. 2. Feeding Give extra quantity of concentrate mixture @ 1 to 1.5 kg. per day depending upon the condition of the animal. Linseed meal is quite popular since it improves the coat condition and adds a glossy appearance to the hair. Hence 250g-linseed cake be fed per day. Roughage (green and dry) should be fed ad lib. Horns There is no discrimination between horned and neatly dehroned animals. Horns, if retained, should be rasped to make them look symmetrical and smooth. Hooves Hooves should be carefully trimmed and properly shaped for improving appearance and gait.

3.

4.

47

5.

Training The animals should be made accustomed to the use of a halter or a leading rope, so that they are not excited during the show. The animal should be trained to be led while holding the rope nearest to his head. Improving the condition of the coat Clipping: The head, neck and tail of the show animal should be neatly clipped. In cows, the hair on the belly and udder be clipped for distinct appearance of milk vein. Do not clip the belly of the heifers unless the hairs are too coarse in order to depict little more body depth. Brushing: Groom the animal thoroughly to make the coat move glossy. Watch for ticks and lice, if any, and take necessary action to remove them. Washing: Wash the animal with mild soap to keep them clean. Dry the body with clean dusters and tie them in sun for an hour after washing. Blanketing: Take a piece of coarse cloth or blanket and rub vigorously to give brighter look to the coat. Blanketing raises the body temperature and retards the hair growth to some extent. Cover the body of the animal during night with some clean cloth to prevent from soiling. Bedding: Spread sufficient clean absorbent bedding material in the stall. Final preparation on the day of the show Wash the animal and dry it with clean towel. Brush the coat vigorously to give a good luster. Rub the horns and hooves with sandpaper. Apply little coconut oil on horns, hooves and tail. Comb the switch of the tail to give clean and fluffy look. Milk the cows several hours before the show to depict better capacity and balanced quarters. Keep halters and ropes well cleaned and polished. Few hours before the show, give some salt and deny water. Just prior to show offer water and feed in large quantity so that the animal shows a greater capacity than normal. Put clean and tidy dress before entering the show-ring. Keep the animal calm and at ease. Display the animal in a show ring with a pose to display all its best points.

6. a)

b)

c)

d)

e) 8. 1.

2.

3.

4. 5.

6. 7.

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EXERCISE -14 Title: Milking of dairy animals. Objective: To educate the students different methods of milking the dairy animals. Milking of dairy animals is by and large, done manually by hand milking. But modern dairy farms have switched over to mechanical or machine milking. Procedure HAND MILKING 1. 2. 3. 4. Clean the utensils and the milking room at least 2 hr. before actual milking. Wash the animal, especially hindquarters, before bringing them to milking barn. Tie the animal at its milking place and offer the concentrate. Apply milkmans knot (only to cows), wash the udder and teats with mild potassium permanganate solution and wipe with a clean duster. Massage the udder and teats till let down occurs. Take few strippings from each quarter in the strip cup and check for mastitis. Hold the diagonal teats and milk with full palm method. Milk quickly, silently and completely. Remove the last drops of milk by stripping method. Pick up the milking bucket, un-tie the animal, weigh the milk and record the quantity of milk produced against the animal number. Transfer the milk to the milk can through a strainer or muslin cloth and store at a cool place till its disposal. MACHINE MILKING With the growing industrialization, the skilled labour for milking is decreasing day by day, thus, necessitating the urgency for switching towards mechanical milking. In India machine milking was first introduced during early 20th century by the Britishers at M/S Tara Devi Farms near Shimla. Modern milking machines are called double action milking machines since they use alternatively negative and atmospheric pressure in a double chambered teat cup assembly. The main components of a milking machine are : 1. Vacuum pump assembly

5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

10.

49

2. 3.

Pulsator Milk claw or cluster comprising of a central metallic shell and an inner rubber liner Milk can

4.

Procedure 1. 2. Tie the animal after cleaning and wiping its udder & teats and offer concentrate. Turn the milking machine on and check the vacuum pressure. It should be 380 mm Hg for cows and 400/420 mm Hg for buffaloes. Massage the teats and udder to ensure let down. Apply the teat cups to the respective teats and see whether they are in correct position. Stand quietly near the animal till milking is in progress. When the milk flow ceases, remove the cluster by breaking its vacuum supply. Weigh and record the milk produced. Dip the teats of the animal in antiseptic solution. Untie the animal.

3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

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EXERCISE -15 Title : Training of breeding males. Objectives: To teach the students different methods of training of breeding males. The training of breeding males is essential for: 1. 2. 3. Easy handling at the time of collection of semen. Proving a sire. Maximum use of proven sires by collecting high quality semen.

Material required: Bull calf at puberty (1-2 years old), artificial vagina (A.V.), hot water at 42 to 450C. Procedure 1. 2. Put nose ring 2 to 3 months before giving training to a bull. Training must be done in familiar surroundings and should be free from insects and flies. Teaser should also be familiar with the site and she should be brought regularly at the site of semen collection. Change in attendant and teaser may result in more reaction time or less quantity of semen ejaculation, hence it should be avoided. To develop sex desire in young bull two methods are used: a) Particular sound familiar to bull should be used by the attendant to provoke the sex desire. If reaction time increases, bull may be temporarily withdrawn and return back in 10-15 minutes for mounting.

3.

4.

5.

b)

6.

Bull should be handled gently by the same attendant, who had been handing regularly. He must be active and stand near the rear quarters of bull at the collection time.

51

Precautions 1. 2. 3. Bull should not be beaten or frightened. Artificial vagina should be fitted properly and kept sterilized and clean. Hot water at 42 to 450C should be filled in the jacket of A.V. so that the temperature should not be more that 410C inside the A.V. Pressure should be optimum for effective stimulation and subsequent ejaculation. Position of A.V. should be at 450 angle at the time of semen collection. Mounting on single animal/dummy should be practiced.

4. 5. 6.

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EXERCISE -16 Title: Methods of administration of medicines. Objectives: To teach the students different methods of administration of medicines. Administration of drugs to the farm animals is a routine operation for a veterinarian, but he can not leave the drugs for owners to give to the animals by mouth just as the physicians do for their human patients. There are different routes of giving medicines to the animals as under: 1. By mouth (Orally) a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) II. By nose a) b) Nasal douche. Inhalation. Bolus Pills Capsules. Draughts or drenches Electuaries Powders Mixed in food Mixed in drinking water.

III. By rectum a) b) Anema or clysters. Suppositories.

IV. Urogenital tract a) b) c) d) e) Vaginal or uterine douche Pessaries/sponges. Catheterization. Implants Suppositories.

V. Mammary gland a) Intra-mammary injection.

53

VI. Body surface a) b) c) d) e) Poultices or Ketaplasma Fomentation Stupes. Baths Dips.

VII. Parentral (through injections) administration: a) b) c) d). e) f) g) Intra-venous injection Usually given in the jugular vein in the jugular furrow for large animals and external cephenous vein above hock in dogs. Intra-muscular injections A few inches infront of the point of buttock in the gluteal region in the neck region, deep into the muscles. Subcutaneous or Hypodermic injections- Middle third of the neck in the fold of skin or inner thigh region in case of dogs. Intra-tracheal injections- Middle third on ventral aspect of neck using special needle. Intra-peritoneal injections -Upper part of the left flank. Epidural or Extradural or Peridural injections- Between 1st and 2nd coccygeal vertebrae of horse and cattle, last lumber and 1st sacral vertebrae of dog. Intra-cardial injections - Directly into the heart muscles. BALLING A ball is a solid form of medicine, cylindrical in shape and the method of giving a ball by mouth is known as balling. Small animals such as sheep, goats, dogs and cats are given pills, capsules and tablets orally. The following procedure is adopted for giving a ball to a horse: 1. 2. The horse is secured by a halter standing on the left side of the animal. The ball is taken in the right hand and held by first three fingers arranged as a cone. The animals tongue is grasped by the left hand and turned in between the upper and lower jaw, so as to keep them apart. The right hand is then folded and quickly thrust, well back on the roof of the tongue to the entrance of the throat. The ball is released, hand withdrawn and tongue freed simultaneously. With the swallowing action, the ball passes down the gullet. The head should be kept up till the ball is swallowed. In difficult animals, a balling gun can be used.

3.

4.

5.

6.

54

Precautions 1. 2. Draw the tongue as far forward as possible. Keep the back of the right hand against the palate to drop the ball as far back as possible. Withdraw the hand as quickly as possible and release the tongue simultaneously. The animal should never be frightened by undue noise. DRENCHING Drenching is the method of giving liquid medicines orally to the animals. Cattle 1. Hold the mouth with left hand, insert four fingers into the mouth behind the dental pad and thumb on the bridge of nose. The head and neck must be kept straight. Pour medicine down into the throat using a drenching bottle or drenching-horn or drenching-bamboo. Allow the animal to swallow the medicine. Medicines can be drenched by a stomach tube but its size is as that made for a foal. It can be passed through nostril but probang gag can be used for passing through mouth.

3. 4.

2.

3. 4.

Precautions 1. If the animal coughs, lower the head at once, there is every possibility that the medicines might had entered trachea. Do not hold the tongue while drenching. Do not pour medicines more than the animal could swallow at a time.

2. 3.

Sheep and Goat 1. 2. Hold the animal in between the legs and steady it firmly with knees. Pour the medicine by means of a narrow necked bottle in the similar way as far cattle or use a rubber tube and funnel.

55

3.

For drenching large number of sheep or goats, a drenching pistol or a pig drencher may be used.

Dogs 1. 2. Secure the dog by applying the tape muzzle on the mouth. Make a pouch on one side of the dogs mouth by drawing out the check with the forefingers. Ask the assistant to pour the medicine into the pouch. In case of reluctance in swallowing, press the nostrils with four-finger and thumb of the other hand. Drenching spoons specially meant for dogs can also be used.

3. 4.

5. Birds

Generally plastic or rubber droppers or fountain pen filters are used for the purpose. Horse The medicines are drenched to the horse preferably by a drenching bottle of aluminum. 1. 2. Secure the animal with halter. Raise the head high either by hand or by placing the loop of the twitch in the mouth round the upper jaw. Pour the medicine down the throat in small quantities from a drenching bottle. It would be better if the person stands on a stool while pouring the medicines.

3.

The precautions while drenching are the same as for cattle. STOMACH TUBE The medicine could also be drenched through a stomach tube. The advantage of using a stomach tube is that there is less discomfort to the animal, no wastage of drugs, no risk of choking, large quantity of medicines could be administered at a time and above all the medicines of unpleasant order and bitter taste could be administered easily. The common stomach tube is made of a hard rubber, about 9 feet long, 5/8 inch in diameter with a 3/8 inch caliber, one end of which is rounded. There are two marks one about 10-12 inch from the rounded end and the other 4 feet further. When the first mark

56

is at the nostril, the round end is at the entrance of the esophagus. When the second mark is at the nostril, the round end is entering the stomach. Procedure of passing a stomach tube 1. 2. 3. 4. Clean the stomach tube, check its working by pumping water through it. Lubricate the round end of the tube. Secure the animal through an assistant standing on the right side of the animal. Grasp the nasal bones of the animal, open the wings of the nostrils and start passing the tube through the left nostril. Keep on pushing the tube gently and slowly till the first mark is reached at the nostril, then pause for a moment. Now push few inches further and let the animal swallow the tube, if he does not, induce him to do so by putting fingers in the inter dental space. Push the tube further, there will be resistance along the muscular tube till the second mark is reached at the nostrils. Push 4 to 6 inch more and then pump in the medicine by means of a stomach pump, which may be attached to the other end of the tube. After the medicine is administered, the tube is removed by withdrawing it gently. Avoid hurry especially when the end leaves the esophagus.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Precautions 1. The stomach tube should always be kept coiled so that the ends of the tube will always assume a slight curve. Plug both ends of the tube when not in use, to avoid any insect or dirt getting into them. If the animal coughs, it is possible that the tube has entered the trachea, at this stage tube must be withdrawn and another effort be made to pass it correctly into the esophagus.

2.

3.

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EXERCISE - 17 Title: Different types of bandages and bandaging of horses. Objective: To educate the students regarding different types of bandages and methods of bandaging horses. Bandages are usually 5 to 9 feet long and 3 to 4 inches wide and are made of cotton or woolen materials. They are very useful for horses. EXERCISE BANDAGE These are made of cotton material; 5 to 6 feet long, 3 to 4 inches wide and are applied tightly round the cannon between the knee and the fetlock. They should always have a layer of cotton under them. Uses 1. 2. 3. They give support to the back tendons. They save the cannon from bruises or thorn when jumping or hunting in the field. They prevent speedy cutting or over reaching high up while the horse is doing fast work.

Procedure 1. Take the exercise bandage and begin with a short loose end in front of and just below the knee. Carry the rolled part round the limb to form the first round, then make a spiral down the cannon bone, each turn over lapping the last one by 2/3rd of its breadth. Each fold should be of same tightness as the last. When the bandage has reached just above the fetlock joint, the process is reversed and an ascending spiral is begun. It should be slightly tighter then the downward one. Equal pressure between each fold is one of the most important factors in bandaging. The end of upward spiral should cone the first fold. The tapes are now tied in a bow fashion on the outside and the ends are neatly tucked in. When a layer of cotton is used underneath, the bandage should be applied more firmly.

2.

3.

4.

58

STABLE BANDAGE They are usually made of woolen or a mixture of wool and cotton, measuring 7 to 9 feet long and 3 to 4 inches wide. They are applied just below the knee or hock to just above the coronet and may have a thick layer of cotton wool under them. Stable bandages are applied exactly on the same lines as the exercise bandage the only difference being that the bandage will go upto the coronet from where the ascending spiral will start and end just below the knee or hock. Uses 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. They keep the legs warm during winter. They save the legs from injuries during transit by train or truck. They promote blood circulation during period of inactivity. They prevent rope galls during casting and guard the opposite legs from the effects of blisters. They are also useful to hold the surgical bandage and keep it clean.

Procedure 1. The bandage should be rolled correctly. The tapes are first sought and the bandage is then rolled from that end with the tapes inside the roll. During the process of bandaging, the rolled part should remain outside. Stable bandages should be removed twice a day, the part massaged and the bandage readjusted. The knot of the bandages should always be on the outside of the cannon.

2. 3.

4.

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EXERCISE -18 Title: Administering first aid to animals. Objectives: 1. 2. 3. 4. To educate the students regarding various ways of providing first aid to animal. To treat the cases of simple injuries, poisoning, burns etc. To become familiar with all requisites of first aid. To make aware and confident about different situations in which first aid is needed by animal. To keep all requisites of first aid ready in order to attend simple ailments.

5.

Materials required Sr.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13 14. Materials Scalpel or knife/pocket knife Cotton wool Bandages and surgical gauze Trocar and canula Surgical scissors Rubber tube Forceps, splints/split bamboo Cotton ropes, casting rope, and halters and bull holder. Clinical thermometers Potassium permanganate, dettol tincture of iodine, boric ointment. Tannic acid powder Tannic acid jelly, burnol Iodine ointment or Iodex Hydrogen peroxide Used for For cutting ropes/twines, threads, bandages. For cleaning wounds and injuries. For applying on wounds and injuries. For bloat. For cutting tissues. For tourniquet. For fractures. For restraining, casting and throwing. For recording temperature. For dressing of cuts/wounds. For poisons. For burns. For swelling and pains/aches. For wounds covered with dust/soil.

FIRST AID Any emergent situation arising due to accidental injuries and unforeseen complication involving risk of life, needs on the spot treatment as first aid for recovery from shock or relief from pain and to check bleeding etc. Thus, help in protecting life of the suffering animal.

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FIRST AID KIT On all animal farms a first aid kit box containing all required items should be kept handy so that it can be reached immediately in case of emergencies. BLOAT OR TYMPANY It is most common in ruminants which is characterized by the excessive formation of gas in the rumen and its enlargement. There is distension of rumen, which becomes tense and drum like. First aid 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Tie a smooth stick in the mouth to induce/promote profuse salivation. Force the animal to run/exercise vigorously for 15-30 minutes. Administer 250-500 ml linseed oil or groundnut oil or coconut oil along with 60100 ml turpentine oil. In severe case where animal is likely to die due to bloat, trocar and canula is used on left side in the lower third of flank region, which quickly releases the gas. In absence of trocar and cannula make use of long vaccinating needle to puncture the rumen in the flank region for release of gas.

Precautions 1. Control the patient and keep the animal quiet. 2. Drench the animal properly and accurately to avoid the enteries of the medicine in the respiratory tract. 3. In peracute frothy bloat better call for veterinary surgeon to perform ruminotomy.

CHOCKING Though choking means obstruction to respiration but in animals it signifies an obstruction to the passage of food through pharynx and esophagus. Choke causing agents are: 1. In cattle certain fruits and vegetables such as cabbage, apples, roots, potatoes, turnips etc. In horse, chocking is mostly on account of mass of dry impacted food material as oat or bran.

2.

The general symptoms of choking are profuse salivation, very rapid bloating, restlessness and gasping (difficulty in breathing). In most of the cases swelling could be seen and felt at the neck region.

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First aid 1. 2. Locate the object from outside the neck. Make an attempt to remove the obstruction by moving it gently upward into the mouth. Fix a gag between the teeth to discover the obstruction and remove it by passing right hand along the roof of the mouth and back into the throat. Pass a stomach tube well lubricated with oil. In case of failure of these measures, call for veterinary surgeon to administer drugs to relieve spasm of muscle. INJURIES

3.

4. 5.

Injury may occur with sharp objects wounding the skin, slipping, casting, falling, fighting etc. It can be as simple as minor skin cut or as complex as a multiple fracture. The first thing to be done in such conditions is to stop bleeding. Bleeding Bleeding means escape of blood as natural content from the blood vessels. It may be 1. 2. 3. Arterial, in which blood is of bright scarlet colour. Venous, in which blood is of dark colour. Capillary, in which blood oozes from slight injury.

First aid 1. Control the patient as excitement and struggling may lead to more severe bleeding. Arrange the animal into easy posture. Apply pressure on the wounded part with clean thumb or fingers. Apply a cotton swab soaked in clean water or antiseptic solution on the injured part. In emergencies a handkerchief may be tied round the part, the knot being arranged above the principal artery. A Rubber tubing for tourniquet (i.e. an appliance for the temporary stoppage of the circulation in a limb) can also be used.

2. 3. 4.

5.

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FRACTURE Fracture means breakage in bone, which may be simple, compound, multiple or complicated. First aid 1. 2. 3. First examine the injured part or the organ carefully. Ascertain the nature of dislocation. If simple fracture, make skillful attempt to push/pull the affected joint so as to set it in right position. If it is not a simple fracture then avoid disturbing the fracture site frequently. Immobilize the injured part temporarily with the help of wooden splints, bamboo splints, card or plastic hard board etc. by tying them tightly with jute, nylon threads ropes or available cloth. Give any sedative or tranquilizer to the restless animal. Take the animal on cart to nearest veterinary hospital for proper treatments.

4.

5. 6.

BURN Burns may be thermal, chemical or electrical and are very painful. Animals may suffer from burn in sheds, pens, byres, barns or electrically fenced pasture fields. First aid 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Immediately remove the animal trapped in fire. Pour running cold water on the affected part. Apply butter where possible. Apply white of an egg in simple burn. Administer a narcotic or anaesthetic drug to relieve pain and shock. Apply dusting powder of sulfanilamide or tannic acid jelly. Administer antihistaminic drug and 2-3 bottles of glucose saline through vein.

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8.

Burns caused by acids is treated with an alkali (washing soda 10 gm in a liter of water ) and burn caused by alkalis like caustic soda is treated with equal parts of vinegar and warm water. For electrical burns first remove contact of electrical line wire from the animal with the help of dry bamboo pole or stick and then apply butter or burnol on the affected part. POISONING

9.

Cattle are prone to poisoning due to licking of chemicals, inhalation or ingestion of poisonous plants or pastures grown with heavy dose of fertilizer. It may be accidental or cumulative poisoning. First aid 1. 2. On such cases the affected animal is kept in a safe place. To prevent further absorption of poison any skin application should be applied after washing the affected part with soap and water. Plenty of water is given to drink or by stomach tube to dilute the poison, which the animal has consumed. Give emetics like mustard powder in warm water for vomiting to remove poison. Give antidotes if the nature of poison is known.

3.

4. 5.

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Poison Snake bite

Emergency treatment and antidotes Open the wound at once, cauterize, injection of strong solution of Potassium permanganate S/C around the bite, take animal to veterinary hospital for further treatment and get injected antivenom-serum. Chalk, soda bicarb, weak alkalies, milk and water, emetic if danger of perforation. Vinegar, lemon juice, tartaric acid. 10 percent acetic acid. Same as for alkalies, when air passage are affected, inhalation of dilute acetic acid, hot water vapors inhalation. KMnO4 (10 percent), followed by an emetic. Artificial respiration, Atropine S/C, inhalation of ammonia, physiological saline I/V. Atropin sulphate (0.5 mg/kg body weight).

Acids

Alkalies Urea Ammonia

Morphia (Opium) Narcotics

Organo-phosphates (Malathion etc.) Bleaching powder Carbolic acid (Phenol). Copper sulphate

White of an egg. White of an egg, sodium sulphate.

White of egg.

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APPENDIX - I NORMAL TEMPERATURE, PULSE RATE AND RESPIRATION OF DIFFERENT DOMESTICATED ANIMALS Sr. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Species of Livestock Horse Foal Ass Mule Calf Cow Ox Buffalo Sheep Goat Pig Dog (small) Dog (large) Fowl Cat Camel Elephant Man Normal rectal temperature (oF) Range Average 100.0-101.0 100.0-102.0 99.5-102.0 100.0-102.0 100.2-104.0 100.0-102.5 100.0-102.0 101.5-102.5 102.0-104.0 102.0-104.0 102.0-104.0 100.0-102.0 101.0-102.0 106.5-108.0 100.5-102.0 98.0-100.0 96.6-98.0 98.0-99.0 100.4 100.8 100.8 100.8 102.8 101.5 101.5 101.0 103.0 103.0 102.6 101.8 101.0 107.0 101.0 99.6 97.6 98.4 Normal Pulse rate per minute 36-42 40-60 46-50 46-50 60-100 60-90 40-60 40-50 70-90 70-90 60-90 90-130 70-100 120-160 100-130 30-50 25-35 60-90 Normal respiration per minute 8-16 10-16 10-12 10-12 30-40 25-30 10-30 10-20 20-30 20-30 10-20 16-30 16-30 15-30 30-40 10-12 8-10 12-30

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APPENDIX - II COMMON TERMS USED IN DIFFERENT SPECIES OF LIVESTOCK Species of Livestock Horse (Equine) Cattle (Bovine) Sheep (Ovine) Goat (Caprine) Pig (Swine) Dog (Canine) Cat (Feline) Rabbit Fowl (Avian) Young ones Foal Calf Lamb Kid Pigling Puppy Kitten Kit Chick Up to maturity Male Female Colt Young Bull Ram Lamb Buckling Runner Cockrel Filly Heifer Gimmer Goatling Gilt Pullet Mature animals Male Female Entire Bull Ram Buck Boar Dog Tom cat Buck Cock Mare Cow Ewe Doe Sow Bitch Queen Doe Hen Castrated Animals Gelding Bullock Wether (Hogg) Wether Hogg (Barrow) Altered Dog Neuter Capon Act of Parturition Foaling Calving Lambing Kidding Farrowing Whelping Kittening Kindling -

APPENDIX - III REPRODUCTION TABLES Species of Livestock Horse Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat Pig Dog Cat Camel Elephant Rabbits Fowl Weaning time 5-8 months 4-6 months 6-8 months 3-4 months 3-4 months 6-8 weeks 5-7 weeks 5-7 weeks 8-12 months 1.5 years 4-6 weeks Puberty time 12-24 months 12-18 months 12-18 months 8-12 months 8-12 months 4-5 months 7-10 months 8-12 months 3-4 years 20-25 years 6-8 months Voices produced Neighing Bellowing Bellowing Bleating Bleating Grunting Barking Mewing Bleating/ bellowing Trumpeting Crowing Place of habitation Stable Byre Byre Pen (Bara) Pen (Bara) Sty Kennel Kettery Rabbitry/Nest Coop/Pen

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APPENDIX - IV OESTRUS AND GESTATION PERIOD OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF LIVESTOCK Species of Livestock Mare Cow Buffalo Ewe Goat Sow Bitch Cat Recurrence after Non Parturition conception 21 days 7-11 days 21 days 30-60 days 21 days 30-60 days 18 days 6-8 weeks 21 days 6-8 weeks 21 days 6-8 weeks Estrus occurs twice each year and they come into heat once each season. Duration of heat 6 days 6-30 hours 6-48 hours 1-2 days 2-3 days 3-4 days 11-18 days 7-10 days Gestation period Range Average (days) (days) 305-400 340 273-294 280 300-315 310 140-160 150 147-155 150 109-125 115 55-70 63 55-70 56

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