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TER.201 Thermodynamics
Dr. Osman Azmi ZSOYSAL, Associate Professor Dept. of Naval Architecture

INSTRUCTOR: OFFICE: OFFICE HOURS:

Dr. O.A.ZSOYSAL NAOE Office 325

Monday and Wednesday 11:30 p.m. to 12:30 p.m. Please feel free to come to see me anytime! (212) 285-6516 ozsoysal@itu.edu.tr
www.gidb.itu.edu.tr/staff/ozsoysal
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PHONE: EMAIL: WEB:

GRADING: In-Class Work Home Work #2 Examination #1 Final Examination 00% 20% 40% 40% 100%

TEXTBOOK: Selected Chapters from Thermodynamics An Engineering Thermodynamics

3rd edition, Yunus engel and Michael Boles, McGraw Hill 1998

OTHER RESOURCES
Class notes will be made available on the internet as we go along during the summer term Address:
http://www.gidb.itu.edu.tr/staff/ozsoysal/dersler.html

IN-CLASS WORK:
Individual and team Quizzes/in-class problems/Reading Assessment Tests (RATS) Not all assignments taken up will be graded No credit if youre absent
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HOMEWORK
Assigned for each class period Due at the beginning of the period 10 points/class period penalty for late homework Individual and team assignments will be given
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EXAMINATIONS: * One examination - location D.401 * Unexcused absences = 0 FINAL EXAMINATION: * Comprehensive * 11 - 13 a.m., Friday, August 9, 2002
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ABSENCES:
Take documentation for university-excused absences directly to the NAOE Faculty, ITU and Staff. Absences without university documentation in the ITU's records are unexcused unless you work it out with the instructor.
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INFORMATION ON PLAGIARISM
The handouts used in this course are copyrighted. Handouts" are all materials generated for this class, which include but are not limited to syllabi, quizzes, exams, in-class materials, review sheets, additional problem sets, and Power Point lectures. Because these materials are copyrighted, you do not have the right to copy and distribute them, unless the instructor expressly grants permission.
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KEYS TO SUCCESS IN THIS COURSE

Relax - dont get psyched out Work with your team - interact Work every homework problem and try to understand what is going on rather than just getting the answer Read and study material for each class Ask questions! were all learning Think--it may be simple
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WHAT SHOULD YOU GET FROM THIS COURSE?

Systematic approach to problem solving An understanding of thermodynamic properties An ability to apply conservation equations to a system An understanding of the second law of thermodynamics The capability to analyze power and refrigeration cycles
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COOPERATIVE LEARNING: WERE IN THIS TOGETHER

Who learns the most from a class?
A) Teacher B) Student

Why?

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COOPERATIVE LEARNING...
Whats the average attention span of the typical person sitting in a lecture?
A) 5-7 minutes B) 10-15 minutes C) 25-30 minutes D) 45-50 minutes

--- Correct Answer

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WHY DO ENGINEERS HAVE TO TAKE THERMODYNAMICS?

Thermodynamics - Science of heat and work, energy and its transformations and those properties of substances that relate to heat and work Serves as a foundation for many engineering disciplines ALL engineers deal with energy and properties of matter

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TER.201 Thermodynamics

First, we will start with some definitions and vocabulary Definitions and proper vocabulary is always important for any technical subject
Law of Thermodynamics: Overview of Thermodynamics State Postulate 0th Law: Equilibrium 1st Law: Energy Conservation 2nd Law: Energy Quality 3rd Law: Unattainability of absolute zero temperature
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Automotive Engineering

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Aerospace Engineering

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Microprocessor Engineering

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Power Engineering

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Chemical/Petroleum Plant Engineering

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Agricultural Engineering

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Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Engineering

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Hydroelectric Dam Engineering

Concrete Power Production

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Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

Dimensions and units Forms of energy: kinetic, potential Internal energy State, systems, equilibrium, processes, cycles Pressure, temperature Biological systems
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System
A system is a region of space or quantity of matter we want to study.
Weight Piston
System boundary

The example shown here is a closed system or fixed quantity of matter.

Gas

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System
This is an example of an open system or fixed region of space we want to study. Its boundary is also known as a control volume.
Pipe

Boundary of the control volume

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System
System boundaries are often defined by dashed lines, as in the previous pipe flow example.

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TEAM PLAY
WHEN A TEAM PLAY EXERCISE APPEARS, IT IS TO BE SOLVED BY STUDENTS ACTING AS A TEAM.

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TEAM PLAY
Consider the two-stroke cycle engine. What problems might you need to solve? Identify the appropriate systems (open or closed) to solve the above problems.
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Property
A property is a characteristic of a system to which numerical values can be assigned to describe the system:
Mass Temperature Pressure Density
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Intensive Property
Intensive properties are independent of the size (mass or volume) of the system. EXAMPLES: Density Temperature
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Extensive Property
Extensive properties are properties which can be counted and their value for the whole system is the sum of the value for subdivisions of the system. For example, Volume Mass
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Well Use an Accounting Framework With Properties:

[INPUTS] [OUTPUTS ] + [GENERATION ] [CONSUMPTIO N ]

= [ACCUMULATION ]

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Consider Your Checking Account as an Example

Deposits
Interest

Checking Account

Checks

Withdrawls

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Were Going To Need to Think a Little More in Engineering Terms

System Boundary State Property

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Engineering System Is Conceptually Like the Bank Account

INPUT/OUTPUT

GENERATION / CONSUMPTION (INSIDE)

SYSTEM BOUNDARY
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Conservation is a form of accounting

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FOR EXAMPLE,

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ACCUMULATION IS ALSO

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Sketch possible system boundaries for the following and classify them as open or closed. Bicycle tire deflating. Kettle of water heating (but not boiling). Kettle of water boiling. Jet engine in flight.

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MORE DEFINITIONS! State--Condition of a system defined by its properties.

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Equilibrium
A system is in equilibrium if its properties are not changing at any given location in the system. This is also known as thermodynamic equilibrium or total equilibrium. We will distinguish three different types of equilibrium
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Types of thermodynamic equilibrium:

Thermal equilibrium -- the temperature does not change with time Mechanical equilibrium -- pressure does not change Chemical equilibrium -- chemical composition (amount of species) does not change
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Process
Change in state of a system from one equilibrium state to another.
P
1

V
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Path
Series of states through which a system passes.
P
1

V
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Properties at end points are independent of the process

P
1 Path 2 Path 1

2 Path 3

V
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Quasi-equilibrium Process
Idealized process in which the departure from equilibrium is infinitesimally small.
Incremental masses removed during an expansion of the gas or liquid Piston

Gas or liquid

Boundary

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Cycle
Series of processes where the initial and final states are the same.
P A . Path 2

Path 1

B T
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Units
Both the SI system and the English Engineering system will be used. The English system is also known as the inch-pound (IP) system and the US Customary System (USCS).

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Newtons 2nd Law

F ma * constant

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SI system constant
In the SI system the constant is unity SI system simplifies calculations The primary dimensions are mass (kg), length (m), and time (s)

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Force is a defined unit in SI:

1 kg x 1 m 1 N = --------------s2

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USCS
The IP system or USCS has four applicable primary dimensions for the equation. mass is lbm length is ft time is s force is lbf
.

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USCS
In the IP system we introduce gc, to allow us to go between lbf and lbm F=ma/gc

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Constant lbmft lbfsec2

gc = 32.174

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Advice to gain you points

Write out all units in all equations to the greatest of detail!

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Other units
Volume will be in m3 and ft3 Density is in kg/ m3 or lbm/ ft3 Specific volume is probably new to you; the inverse of density, it is in units of ft3/lbm or m3/kg.

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SLUG Caution: you may have heard of the slug as a mass unit. We will not be using this unit, but it is defined as follows: lbf s2 1 slug = 32.174 -------ft
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Pressure
The normal force exerted on a (small) area. [Small enough that changes over the area are unimportant, but large enough that molecular effects are unimportant.]

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Well See Several Different Pressures

P1

Pgage
Atmospheric Pressure (Patm)

Pvacuum

Pabsolute

Pabsolute
Zero Pressure (Complete Vacuum)

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In the SI system we use

1 Pa = 1 N/m2 1 kPa = 1,000 N/m2 1 bar = 100,000 N/m2=100 kPa 1 MPa = 1,000,000 N/m2

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In the IP system we use

lbf/in2 or psi, usually with an a suffix or a g suffix, for absolute or gage.

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Atmospheric pressure is
1 atm = 14.696 psia = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01 bar 0 psig = 14.696 psia Absolute pressure (Pabs) = gage pressure (psig) + atmospheric pressure (Patm)
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For example
A gage pressure of 20.0 psig is an absolute pressure at standard sea level conditions of Pabs = Patm + Pg = 14.7 psia + 20.0 psig = 34.7 psia

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TEAMPLAY
Discuss common examples of absolute and gage pressures you may have used. Consider the bicycle tire, which produces a pressure reading of 30 psig. What is the absolute pressure at sea level and at 10,000ft altitude where Patm ~ 10 psia.

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Pressure Measurement
p
atm

Gas at pressure p

P = g L
Manometer liquid
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Sample Problem
What pressure (above atmospheric) is exerted on your ears at the bottom of a 12 foot deep swimming pool?

12 ft

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Sample Problem - Solution

P = gL lb 62.4 m 32.174 ft (12 ft ) 3 2 ft s P = lb ft 32.174 m 2 lb f s

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Sample Problem (Continued)

= 748.8 = 748.8 lbf ft
2

lbf ft 2

1 ft

144 in 2

= 5.2 psi

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Thermal Equilibrium
Occurs when two bodies are at the same temperature T and no heat transfer can occur.

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We Need to Work With Temperatures

C
Boiling point 100

F
212

K
373.15

R
671.67

Triple point @ 0.006 atm, T = 0.01 C Ice point 0.00 32.00 273.15

491.67

Absolute Zero -273.15 -459.67

0
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Temperature relationships
T (R) = T (F) + 459.67 [use 460] T (K) = T (C) + 273.15 [use 273]

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Properties of Pure Substances

Phases, phase changes Property diagrams Phase equilibrium, vapor pressure Property tables Ideal gas relation Compressibility factor Other equations of state

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PROPERTIES - INTRODUCTION
We have discussed extensive properties such as U, m, and V (for volume) which depend on the size or extent of a system, and Intensive properties such as u, v, T, and p (sometimes we write a capital P for pressure, using p and P interchangeably) which are independent of system extent.
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Important questions :
How many properties are needed to define the state of a system? How do we obtain those properties?

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State Principle
The number of independent properties needed to characterize the state of a system is n+1 where n is the number of relevant quasi-equilibrium work modes. This is empirical, and is based on the experimental observation that there is one independent property for each way a systems energy can be independently varied.
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State Principle (continued)

The 1 is for heat transfer (the Q in the energy equation). The n is the number of relevant quasiequilibrium work modes. Usually, there will only be one applicable mode and it will be boundary or p-dV work.
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Simple system
A simple system is defined as one for which only one quasi-equilibrium work mode applies.

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Compressible
If we restrict our system to being compressible, we define what that quasi-equilibrium work mode is:

W = pdV,
W V = w = pd = pdv m m

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For a simple system,

We may write p = p(v,T)

or perhaps v = v(p,T).

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Pure
Pure means of uniform and invariable chemical composition (but more than one molecular type is allowed). This allows air to be a pure substance. All our substances will be pure. We will drop the use of the word. When we refer to a simple system we mean one filled with a pure substance--a simple, pure system.
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For a simple, pure substance

y1 = f(y2,y3), or p = p(v,T), v = v(p,T) and T = T(p,v) What do these equations define, in space? Equations used to relate properties are called equations of state
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Now lets look at real substances: p-v-T surface or phase diagrams (i.e., the functional dependence of one property on the others)

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Multiple Phase Substances

Many of the substances we use in engineering systems will change phase (vapor, liquid, solid, ) We need to understand the properties in relation to the proper phase.

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Look what happens when we have a constant pressure process

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T-v Diagram

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You should be able to discuss characteristics of the following:

Liquid to liquid/vapor to vapor transition (begin with a constant pressure process). Single phase regions--liquid, vapor, solid. Two-phase regions--liquid/vapor and solid/vapor. Melting--solid to liquid (freezing) vaporization--liquid to vapor (liquefaction) sublimation--solid to vapor 90

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Several definitions are in order.

Notice the triple-state line. Along this line all three states exist in equilibrium. How will this line appear in a p-T plane, which is also known as a phase diagram? For water, the triple point is at 273.16 K (32.018 F) and 0.6113 kPa (0.0887 psia).
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Vapor Dome
The dome-shaped region encompassing the two-phase, vapor-liquid equilibrium region. It is bordered by the saturated liquid line and the saturated vapor line, both of which end at the triple line and end at the critical point.
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Critical Point
A point beyond which T > Tc and a liquidvapor transition is no longer possible at constant pressure. If T > Tc , the substance cannot be liquefied, no matter how great the pressure. Substances in this region are sometimes known as fluids rather than as vapors or liquids.
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Look at the Pressure Temperature Diagram

Melting Curve

Solid Phase Region

Liquid Phase Region

Critical State

Triple State

Superheated Gas Phase Region

T
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Constant Temperature Process

P
a
d
Superheated Vapor

Compressed Liquid
Weight

GAS @ g
GAS Weight State d
GAS LIQUID @ a
LIQUID

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Constant Pressure Process

P
Subcooled Liquid

f
Superheated Vapor

Gas @ b
GAS STATE f
LIQUID GAS

LIQUID

Q Q

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Critical Point Sat. Liquid Line Sat. Vapor Line

Subcooled Region Saturation Region

Superheated Region

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Saturation temperature
Temperature at which a phase change takes place at a given pressure.

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Saturation pressure
Pressure at which a phase change takes place at a given temperature.

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TEAMPLAY
Discuss what happens when water boils on the stove at your residence. Start with a pan of water at 70 F, 1 atm pressure.
Q

Continued on next slide.

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TEAMPLAY (CONTINUED)
What is the pressure at various times during the entire process? Does the temperature of the water change? If the vapor (steam) were contained in an elastic container, what would happen as heat continued to be added after all the liquid disappeared. Sketch pV and TV diagrams.
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Ideal gas law is a simple equation of state

Pv = RT PV = mRT R R= M
Ru = universal gas constant = 8.314 kJ/kmol-K = 1545 ft-lbf/(pmol-R)

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Molar mass is sometimes confusing

Take air as an example:
kg M air = 28.97 in SI units kmol

g M air = 28.97 in SI units gmol

lb m M air = 28.97 in IP units lbmol
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Specific gas constant

Universal gas constant given on inside front cover of your textbook Specific gas constant calculated by dividing universal gas constant by molar mass

lbmol R 1.986 Btu x R= = M lbmolR 28.97 lbm

Btu R = 0.0686 lb m R
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STEAM IS NOT AN IDEAL GAS!

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Errors from assuming ideal gas behavior for steam:

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Saturation properties
Along the saturated liquid line, properties are identified by the subscript f Along the saturated vapor line, properties are identified by the subscript g

Both sets of properties can be found in the temperature and pressure tables in your books appendices. Both tables give the same data. There are different tables for different substances.
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Temperature table (also known as a saturation table)

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Temperature table, continued (also known as a saturation table)

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Pressure table (also known as a saturation table)

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Temperature and pressure are not independent in the vapor dome (the twophase region).
The temperature and pressure are uniquely related. Knowing a T defines the P and vice versa.

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A small section from the saturation tables

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TEAMPLAY Return to our pot of water at 1 atm:

Let there be 2 lbm of water substance in our system. What is vf at 70F (what is the pressure?)? What is V for saturated liquid at 70F? If we continue to add heat, what will be the amount of liquid and the amount of vapor if V2 = 33.44 ft3?
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TEAMPLAY
Find, for Refrigerant 134a, the following properties: the saturation pressure at a saturation pressure of -10 F. and find for the same substance the saturation temperature at a pressure of 0.6 bar. Make sure everyone at your table understands how to do this.
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Quality
We often represent the relative amount of vapor present by something called the quality x.

x=

m vapor m vapor + m liquid

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How do properties depend on x? Consider the specific volume:

v f m liq + v g m vap V Vliq + Vvap v= = = m m m

x=

m vap m tot
m liq m tot
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1 x =

So...
v = (1-x)vf + xvg = vf + x(vg - vf)

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Remember:

STEAM IS NOT AN IDEAL GAS!

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The P-V or P-v plane

For the next few lectures we will often look at the two-dimensions P and v or P and V. The p is always on the ordinate and the v is always on the abscissa, just opposite to the familiar x-y plane.

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Sat. Liquid Line

Subcooled or Compressed Liquid Region

Sat. Vapor Line

Superheated Region 100% Vapor

Two-Phase or Saturation Region - gas and liquid coexist

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TEAMPLAY
Complete the table below as a team. The substance is water. Make sure everybody understands how to do it!
P(bars) 1.5 5.0 T(C) 300 300 v(m3/kg) 0.65 x (if appl.) 1.0

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Sample Problem
A container holds 1 kg of liquid water and 1 kg of steam in equilibrium at 7 bars. (a) What is the temperature of the mixture in C? (b) If we hold the pressure constant and increase the temperature to 320 C, what is the change in volume? (c) Show the process on the Pv diagram.
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SOLUTION - Pg 1
(a) Liquid + Vapor in equilibrium implies saturationfor 7 bars, T=165C from Table A-3. To get v1, we need to calculate x1: x1 = 1 kg/2 kg = 0.5
v1 = vf+x(vg-vf) = 0.001108+0.5(0.2729-0.001108) m3/kg v1 = 0.137 m3/kg
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Solution - pg 2
(b)v=v2-v1 At 7 bars and T= 320 C , water is superheated. How do we know? See figure next page...

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Heres Where a PT Diagram Can Be Helpful In Determining Which Tables to Use...

P
Liquid-Vapor Saturation Line

P=7 bars Therefore, it is superheated

T=320C Tsat 165C

T
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Solution - Pg. 4
Get v2 from superheat tables: v2 = 0.385 m3/kg So v = (0.3852-0.237) =0.2482 m3/kg

v1

v2

v 130

Sample Problem
(the conclusion of this example is important!)

Compare the values of the specific volume of water at saturated liquid conditions at 100C at the following pressures: 50, 200, and 300 bars. What conclusions can be drawn from the comparison?

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SOLUTION
From compressed liquid tables (100C)
P (bars) 0.101 (sat) 50 200 300 V(m3/kg) 0.0010435 0.0010410 0.0010337 0.0010290
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What can we learn?

Specific volume is approximately constant over large changes in pressure if T=C An incompressible substance does not change specific volume as pressure is changedit cant be compressed When compressed liquid tables are not available, estimate property data at sat. liquid conditions at the same temperature as the compressed liquid.

IMPORTANT!!

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PROPERTY VALUES
In addition to giving values of p, T, and v, the property tables also give values of u. In the saturation region, u = uf + x(ug - uf)

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