The Physical Layer

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Table of Contents
Physical Layer ............................................................................................ 3 Purpose .................................................................................................. 3 Operation ............................................................................................... 4 Identifying a frame ............................................................................... 4 Fundamental Principles ............................................................................ 4 Signaling and Encoding ............................................................................... 4 Signaling ................................................................................................ 4 Signaling Methods................................................................................. 5 Encoding ................................................................................................ 6 Signal Patterns ..................................................................................... 6 Grouping Bits ....................................................................................... 6 Data Carrying Capacity ............................................................................ 7 Bandwidth ........................................................................................... 7 Throughput .......................................................................................... 7 Goodput .............................................................................................. 7 Types of physical media .............................................................................. 8 Copper Media .......................................................................................... 8 External Signal Interference ................................................................... 8 Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) ................................................................ 8 Coaxial Cable (Coax) ............................................................................. 9 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) ................................................................. 10 Copper Media Safety .............................................................................. 10 Fiber Media ........................................................................................... 10 Cable construction .............................................................................. 11 Generating and Detecting Optical Signal ................................................ 11 Fiber Modes ....................................................................................... 11 Wireless Media ...................................................................................... 12 Types of wireless media ....................................................................... 12 Wireless LAN ...................................................................................... 12 Media Connectors ..................................................................................... 13 Copper Connectors ................................................................................ 13 Optical Fiber Connectors ......................................................................... 13

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Physical Layer
The physical layer controls how data is placed on the communication media. The role of the layer is to encode the binary digits that represent Data Link layer frames into signals and transmit and receive these signals across the physical media, which could be copper wires, optical fiber and wireless. The media is used to connect network devices.

Purpose
The Physical layer provides the means to transport across the network media the bits that make up a frame. It encodes a series of signals that are transmitted onto a local media. The encoded bits are received by an end device or an intermediate device. The layer requires the following four elements: The physical media and associated connectors: Responsible for transmitting the signals A representation of bits on the media: The actual data Encoding of data a control information: Encodes the frame to bit signals and again back to frames Transmitter and receiver circuitry on the network devices: Responsible for sending out the data

The purpose of the Physical layer is to create that signal, representing the bits in each frame, and to restore the signals back to a complete frame.

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Operation
The media does not carry a frame as a single entity, but as signals. For the different media, the representation differs. Copper Cables: Signals are electrical impulses

Fiber Cables: Signals are pattern of light

Wireless Media: Signals are patterns of radio transmissions

Identifying a frame When encoding the bits it is important to know where a frame ends and another begins. This is often a function of the Data Link Layer, but also the Physical Layer may add own signals for indicating a frame. This is accomplished by special patterns, which are only used when a frame begins or ends.

Fundamental Principles
The three fundamental functions are: 1. The physical components (Devices, Media and Connectors) 2. Encoding: Converting a stream of bits into a predefined code and predictable patterns 3. Signaling: Responsible for what signal represents a 1 or a 0.

Signaling and Encoding

Signaling
Although the Physical Layer retrieves a frame as a unit, the transmission across the media occur as a stream of bits sent one at a time, where each bit will be represented as a signal. Each signal has a specific time to occupy the media, the so called bit time. Signals are processed by the receiving devices and returned as bits.

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The bits are than examined for the start and end frame patterns to determine the complete frame and afterwards the Physical layer delivers all bits of a frame to the Data Link layer. Successful delivery requires methods for synchronization. The signals must be examined at specific times during the bit time to properly determine if it represents a 1 or a 0. That synchronization is accomplished by a clock. Signaling Methods Bits are represented by changing one of the following characteristics of a signal: Varying the Amplitude: One special signal (voltage level) represents 0 (low voltage) and another 1 (high voltage). Varying the Frequency: Depending on how often a signal changes during bit time. When there is no change during bit time it is 0, otherwise it is 1. Varying the Phase: The change says if its 0 or 1. If the signal is lower than the signal before it stands for 0, if it is higher it says it is a 1.

These types are standardized and both ends of the transmission need to have the same type, otherwise the communication will fail. With those three types many different transitions are possible. Two of them are: NRZ Signaling Non Return to Zero Signaling uses the concept of varying the Amplitude. It is a simple method, but only suitable for slow speed data links, because it uses bandwidth inefficiently and is susceptible to electromagnetic interference. Additionally there may come up problems when sending lots of 1s or 0s, because there is no voltage transition detectable and resynchronizing gets very hard. Manchester Encoding The Manchester Encoding uses the change of the signal level in the middle of the bit time. Therefore a transition from high voltage to low voltage represents a 0 and one from low to high represents a 1. It is not efficient enough for higher signaling speeds, but I can be used for Ethernet running on 10Mbit/s. Niklas Hsl Page 5 of 13 5CHDVK

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Encoding
Encoding in the Physical Layer is the symbolic grouping of bits transmitted through the media. With higher speeds more data will be sent and the possibility of error rises. With the using of coding groups and the use of patterns errors can be detected more efficiently. The Physical layer has to separate between data signals and other non-data signal, which are not passed to the Data Link Layer. Signal Patterns One way of frame detection is using special patterns for the beginning and the end of a frame. Signals outside between end and start patterns are ignored. Valid data is sent between start and end pattern. When receiving this data it can be passed to the Data Link Layer.

Grouping Bits Code Groups are consecutive sequences of code bits that are interpreted and mapped as data bit patterns. That means code bits 10101 could represent the data bits 0011.

They are used as an intermediary encoding technique for higher speed LAN technologies. Advantages of Code Groups are:

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Reducing Bit Level Errors Errors (e.g. with Synchronization) may come up on the Physical Layer, because too many 0s or 1s are transmitted in a row. Code Groups ensure that this will not happen. Limiting Energy Transmitted Code Groups also ensure that the balance between 1s and 0s in a string is about evenly. This process is called DC balance (DC means Gleichstrom). This also prevents excessive amounts of energy used for transmission, because when a long series of 1s is sent, the transmitting laser could overheat and errors come up. Distinguish Data from Control Code groups have three different types of symbols: Data symbols, Control Symbols (e.g. Start and end of frame) and Invalid symbols. Code groups now ensure that Data Symbols does not look like a Control Symbols to ensure frame detection. Better media Error Detection If a receiving node receives one of the Invalid Patterns, the Physical Layer can determine that there was an error in data reception.

Data Carrying Capacity

Data transfer can be measured in three ways: Bandwidth Digital Bandwidth measures the amount of information that can flow from one place to another in a given amount of time. It is typically measured in kilobits per second (kbps) or megabits per second (Mbps). The bandwidth depends on the Physical media properties, current technologies and the laws of physics. Throughput Throughput is the measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a given period of time. Due to many factors throughput usually does not match the specified bandwidth. This also depends on the type of network, the numbers of devices, the amount of traffic and the type of traffic. Goodput Goodput is the measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time and is therefore the measure that is of most interest to network users. That means the amount of data between the Application Layer of the two end devices. You can also say throughput minus the overhead for establishing sessions, acknowledgements and encapsulation. Example: The bandwidth of a LAN is 100 Mbps. Due to sharing and media overhead the throughput between the computers is only 60 Mbps. With the encapsulation overhead etc. the goodput is only 40 Mbps.

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Types of physical media

There are many different types of media with many different properties. Organizations have set standards, which guarantee that cables and connectors will function as anticipated with different Data Link layer implementations.

Copper Media
The most commonly used media for signal data are copper wires. Cabling used for communication usually consists of a series of individual copper wires that form circuits used for several signaling purposes. Another type are coaxial cables which have a conductor that runs through the center of the cable. The cables are used to connect nodes on a LAN to intermediate devices such as a router or switches. Copper cables can be used for connections with a maximal length of 100 meters. They usually make use of modular jacks und plugs, which provide easy connection and disconnection. Such plugs may also be used by multiple types (e.g. RJ-45). External Signal Interference Data is transmitted as electrical pulses (signals). The destination device must receive such signals, which can be successfully decoded to match the signal sent. But the timing and the voltage of these signals are susceptible to interference or noise from outside the communication system. These unwanted signals can corrupt the data signals, so that they cannot be decoded anymore. Such interferences can be electromagnetic devices, fluorescent lights, electric motors and other devices. To avoid that as good as possible, cables can be shielded or twisted. Also the design of the infrastructure as well as the cabling techniques and the selection of cable types can avoid corruption of data. Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) UTP cabling as it is used in Ethernet LANs, consist of four pairs of color-coded wires, which are twisted together and then encased in a flexible plastic sheath. The twisting of the cables has the effect of cancelling unwanted signals. This also helps to avoid interference from internal sources (cross-talk).

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UTP Cabling Standards UTP cabling found in workplaces, schools or homes conform to the standards established by the Telecommunication Industry Association. Some of the elements defined are Cable types, cable lengths, cable termination or connectors. The electrical characteristics of copper cabling are defined by the IEEE. It rates the cables according to its performance. They are placed into different categories according to their ability to carry higher bandwidth rates. Examples are Cat5, Cat5e and Cat6. For new installations Cat6 is recommended at the status quo of technology. UTP Cable Types UTP cabling, terminated with RJ-45 connector, is a common copper-based media for connecting network devices such as computers with intermediate devices such as routers and network switches. Different situations require different types of cabling. The following three types are mainly used: Ethernet Straight-through (Both T568A (Standard) or T568B): Used to connect a host to a network device such as a switch or a hub. Ethernet Crossover (T568A with T568B): Used to connect two network hosts or two network intermediate devices (router-router, computercomputer, router-computer, switch-switch) Rollover (CISCO proprietary): Connect a workstation serial port to a router console port, using an adapter.

Wrong cables do not damage anything, but no connection can be established. Coaxial Cable (Coax) That kind of cable consists of a copper conductor surrounded by a layer of flexible insulation.

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Mndliche Reifeprfung Over that layer is a woven copper braid, which acts as a shield for electromagnetic interference.

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It is used for wireless and cable access technologies. Therefore it is used for carrying radio frequency between the antennas and the radio equipment or as a cable to the television, because it carries data just in one direction. Currently (or in the past) providers replace the Coax cables with multi-fiber-optic cables, to let the customers access the internet. At the customers location coax is still be in use. This combination of fiber and coax is called hybrid fiber coax (HFC). Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) It is very similar to UTP, with the difference that there is a braid shield, which provides better noise protection. Therefore it has a significantly higher price. For many years it was used in Taken Ring installations. With the declining use of TR, the demand for STP decreased also. The new 10GB standard for Ethernet may provide a renewed interest in STP. Copper Media Safety An appropriate installation of copper cables is important to avoid electrical hazards and therefore potentially dangerous and damaging situations.

Fiber Media
Fiber-optic cabling uses either glass or plastic fibers to guide light impulses from source to destination. Optical fiber cabling is capable of very large raw data bandwidth rates. Advantages No electromagnetic interference Low signal loss Much greater lengths (many kilometers) Disadvantages More expensive than copper media Different skills and equipment required to terminate and splice the cable infrastructure More careful handling than copper media At is usually used as backbone cabling for high-traffic point-to-point connections between data distributions facilities and for the interconnection of buildings.

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Mndliche Reifeprfung Cable construction The cables consist of a PVC jacket and a series of strengthening materials that surround the optical fiber and its cladding, which is designed to prevent light loss from the fiber. Because flight can only travel in one direction, two fibers are required to support full duplex operation. Fiber-optic patch cables bundle together two optical fiber cables and terminate them with a pair of standard single fiber connectors. Some fiber connectors accept both the transmitting and receiving fibers in a single connector.

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Generating and Detecting Optical Signal Either laser or LEDs generate the light impulses that are used to transmit data as bits on the media. Electronic semi-conductor devices called photodiodes detect the light pulses and convert them to voltages that can then be reconstructed into data frames. Fiber Modes

Single Mode Single Mode uses a single ray of light, usually emitted from a laser. Because the laser light is uni-directional and travels down the center of the fiber, this type of fiber can transmit optical pulses for very long distances (up to 100 km). Multimode Multimode fiber typically uses LED emitters that do not create a single coherent light wave. Instead, light from a LED enters the fiber at different angles. Because of that, there are different amounts of time to travel down the fiber, where long fiber runs result in blurred pulses, which limits the length (ca. 2 km). Multimode fiber is cheaper than single-mode fiber.

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Wireless Media
Wireless media carries electromagnetic signals and microwave frequencies that represent the binary digits of data communications. As a networking medium, wireless is not restricted to conductors or pathways, as are copper and fiber media. Wireless data communication works well in open environments. However, certain construction material used in buildings and structures and the local terrain, will limit the effective coverage. It can also be interference by household cordless phones, some types of fluorescent lights, microwave ovens and other wireless communication. Because wireless communications do not require a physical connection, users which are not authorized can gain access to the transmission. Therefore security is very important in that type of media. Types of wireless media The IEEE and telecommunications industry standards have introduced some standards. Four common data communications standards are: Standard IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi, WLAN): Allows Multiple Access and Collision Avoidance. Standard IEEE 802.15 (Bluetooth): Device pairing process to communicate over 1-100 m Standard IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX): Commonly known as Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. Uses a Point-to-Multipoint topology to provide wireless broadband access. Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM): Includes Physical layer specifications that enable the implementations of the Layer 2 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) protocol to provide data transfer over mobile cellular telephony networks.

Wireless LAN WLAN allows the access to a LAN without being connected to it physically. It requires a Wireless Access Point (AP), which is usually the interface between wireless and copper and Wireless NIC adapters, which provide wireless communication capability to each network host.

As the technology has developed, new standards came up: Characteristics IEEE 802.11a Frequency 5 GHz Speed 54 Mbps IEEE 802.11b 2.4 GHz 11 Mbps IEEE 802.11g 2.4 GHz 54 Mbps IEEE 802.11n 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz 100 Mbps 210 Mbps 5CHDVK

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The benefits of wireless data communication are evident, especially the savings on costly wiring and the convenience of host mobility. However, there have to be strict security policies to protect wireless LANs from unauthorized access and damage.

Media Connectors
Copper Connectors
The layer standards specify the use of different connectors. They specify the mechanical dimension and the electrical properties for the different implementation. Although some connectors may look the same, they are may wired differently. The RJ-45 connector is for a range of specifications (e.g. Ethernet). The orders of the different colored pins define whether it is a straight-trough or a cross over cable. Generally used connectors are: RJ-45 110 block

Optical Fiber Connectors

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