VYTAUTAS MAGNUS UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF HUMANITIES DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY

STUDENT GUIDELINES FOR WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER IN LINGUISTICS

VIOLETA KALDAIT

Kaunas

2005

CONTENTS

Preface 1. Writing a research paper: methodological guidelines.........................1 1.1 Plagiarism ............................................................................................1 1.1.1 Tips on avoiding plagiarism........................................................2 1.1.2 Material requiring credit..............................................................3 1.2 Work-in-progress discussions...............................................................4 1.3 Research paper assessment.................................................................4 1.4 Thesis defence ......................................................................................8 2. Organisation of a research paper .........................................................9 2.1 Preliminaries .........................................................................................9 2.1.1 Title page....................................................................................9 2.1.2 Acknowledgements...................................................................10 2.1.3 Table of contents .....................................................................11 2.1.4 List of abbreviations..................................................................11 2.2 Sections of a research paper .............................................................11 2.2.1 Introductory chapters...............................................................11 2.2.2 Theory, material and method....................................................12 2.2.3 Results.....................................................................................12 2.2.4 Conclusion................................................................................13 2.3 Supporting material..............................................................................13 2.3.1 Appendices...............................................................................13 2.3.2 Documentation of sources........................................................14 2.3.2.1 References......................................................................14 2.3.2.2 Other source lists..............................................................15 2.3.2.3 Notes: endnotes and footnotes........................................16 2.3.3 List of tables and figures...........................................................17 2.4 A first try: writing a term paper.............................................................17 2.4.1 Criteria for term paper assessment.........................................19 3. Writing with style..................................................................................21 3.1 Writing as a conscious effort................................................................21 3.2 Writing effectively.................................................................................22 3.2.1 Organising your arguments.......................................................22 3.2.2 Cohesion and coherence..........................................................23 3.2.3 Transitions.................................................................................24 3.3 Questions of style................................................................................26 3.3.1 Revising and editing..................................................................26 4. Preparing the final typescript..............................................................29 4.1 Length of a thesis.................................................................................29 4.2 Format 29 4.3 Capitalisation ......................................................................................30 4.4 Headings and sub-headings................................................................30 4.5 Presentation of linguistic data..............................................................31 4.5.1 Examples .................................................................................31 4.5.2 Tables and figures....................................................................32 4.6 Quotations .........................................................................................35 4.6.1 Direct quotations.......................................................................36

4.6.2 Citing indirect sources...............................................................38 4.7 Documenting sources.........................................................................38 4.7.1 Textual references ...................................................................38 4.7.2 References: a list of works cited...............................................39 4.7.3 Forms of reference exemplified................................................40 Appendix A: Title page................................................................................ 43 Appendix B: Notes section...........................................................................45 Appendix C: Contents page.........................................................................46 Appendix D: Common abbreviations and expressions in Latin...................50 Appendix E: Vocabulary aid........................................................................52 References .......................................................................................55

Preface

Studying for a Bachelor or Master degree at Vytautas Magnus University requires, in addition to a successfully completed programme of study, writing and defending a BA / MA thesis. Most of our language students have some idea of what writing as a creative activity is all about. However, doing research and producing an adequate thesis may be a frustrating task. As Watson (1991: vi) in his book Writing a thesis rightly points out, No one ever wrote a thesis by the light of nature; and those who imagine that being intelligent and having something to say are enough have been known to fall flat on their faces when they try. This guide is intended to provide our language students with basic insights on writing a research paper in linguistics. The requirements were approved of by the Department of English Linguistics Section. The main attention in the guide is being paid to organisation of research material as well as formal and methodological aspects of the actual production of the paper. Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas V.K.

WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER: METHODOLOGICAL GUIDELINES

Writing any research paper (RP) is a challenging activity. First, such a task requires specific writing skills which have to be learnt. Second, a potential writer is expected to be able to select, to internalise, to argue effectively, and to arrange the subject matter in a lucid and logical way. And third, there are certain requirements of form to be followed. The main forms of scholarly writing at the Department of English Philology are term papers, bachelor thesis and master thesis; the three differ with respect to their level of complexity in tackling and presenting the research topic. However, what unites all these forms of research is their approach to the issue of plagiarism. 1.1 Plagiarism The following passage from Gibaldi (1995: 104) sums up what is actually involved in documenting sources: Nearly all research builds on previous research. Researchers commonly begin a project by studying past work in the area and deriving relevant information and ideas from their predecessors. This process is largely responsible for the continual expansion of human knowledge. In presenting their work, researchers generously acknowledge their debts to predecessors by carefully documenting each source, so that earlier contributions receive appropriate credit.
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When earlier contributions are not given appropriate credit in somebodys writing, we deal with the issue of plagiarism. Alexander Lindey points out that plagiarism derives from the Latin word plagiarius (kidnapper). In modern times the term refers to a form of cheating which has to do with the false assumption of authorship. To put it another way, plagiarism is the wrongful act of taking the product of another persons mind and presenting it as ones own (Gibaldi 1995: 26). It should be stressed that plagiarism can be found in a variety of situations. Therefore, it should be remembered at all times that a writer who fails to give appropriate acknowledgement when repeating anothers wording or particularly apt term, paraphrasing anothers argument, or presenting anothers line of thinking is guilty of plagiarism (ibid.). Plagiarism is considered to be a serious offence and as a rule implies certain measures to be taken against the offenderin the worst case, even rejecting the thesis. However, manuals on thesis writing often stress the idea that academic plagiarism in student writing is often unconscious. Some suggestions of how to avoid producing a piece of writing that can be accused of plagiarism are presented in Section 1.1.1. 1.1.1 Tips on Avoiding Plagiarism The rules of thumb given below are taken from Mecham (1992: 43) and Gibaldi (1995: 26-9). It is a regular practice to use other persons words and thoughts in your research paper, but do not present them as your own. Always let your reader know when you move from your own words to those of your source by introducing a quotation or a paraphrased portion. Every sentence with borrowed material (either ideas or words) must contain a signal to the reader: an authors name, quotation marks, page number, or pronoun reference. List the author in the References section. 1.1.2 Material Requiring Credit What you should document as a source is often determined by common sense. For example, sources are not given for proverbs, well-known quotations or common knowledge. Presented below is a list of material proposed by Lunsford & Connors (1989) that requires appropriate acknowledgement in scholarly writing (as quoted in Mecham 1992: 44). Direct quotations and paraphrased material. Whenever you use another persons words directly or use his/her ideas by paraphrasing or summarising, credit the source. Even if you quote a few words in the middle of a paraphrase, set those words off in quotation marks. Judgements, opinions, and claims of others. Whenever you summarise or paraphrase anyone elses opinion, give the source for that material. Even though the words may be completely your own, you need to give credit for the idea. Statistics, charts, tables, and graphs from any source. Credit all statistics or graphic material, even if you yourself created the graph from data found in another source.

Information or help provided by instructors or others who might be considered knowledgeable about your subject should be credited to that individual. Work-in-progress Discussions

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One of the best ways to evaluate how you are proceeding with your research paper, on the one hand, and to get some constructive feedback on something that you have already produced, on the other, is the so-called work-in-progress discussion. Such discussions are very important in that the response you get will necessarily help you to improve the quality of your paper. With respect to those who are going to comment on your writing, their gain is that responding to somebodys written work is a matter of analytical and critical thinking, a skill which needs to be learnt and which comes only with practice. The subsequent section contains a set of questions that should be asked when evaluating any research paper, no matter what stage it is at. It is also advisable to keep these questions in mind while preparing the final draft of your paper. 1.3 Research Paper Assessment

The points to be taken into account while assessing a research paper offered below build mainly on the suggestions advanced by Mecham (1992: 31-2) and Bjrk & Risnen (1997: 307, as cited in Katkuvien & ekauskien 1999: 28). When you have received the assignment to comment on what your peer has written, first, read the paper carefully. Be certain you understand what the author intends to do in the paper. After you are familiar with the contents of the paper, read it again to mark problems you see in grammar, punctuation, spelling, sentence structure, wordiness, introduction of source material, etc. A critique is an evaluation. While writing your comments, use the headings below to guide you through the task. 1) Choice of topic. Has the student successfully limited and focused the topic? Does the title predict the content and direction of the paper? 2) The aim/ hypothesis. Is it academically interesting, well-motivated? Is the aim clearly stated? Is the research topic defined properly? 3) Does the Introduction provide the necessary background, definition, or justification of the issue that is researched? 4) Theoretical framework. Is the choice of framework well motivated? Does the writer show an awareness of other approaches and frameworks, and explain why this particular one has been chosen? 5) Methodology. Is the research method chosen relevant to the topic and the aims of the thesis? Are basic concepts and procedures explained explicitly? Are the various categories properly defined? If there are statistics, are they used properly? Is there enough evidence for the claims that are made? 6) Sources of information: Are all sources valid and useful? What is the quality of those sources? Is the paper free from plagiarism?

7) Relation to other research. How relevant is the reviewed research? Is it critically reviewed? Does the writer show an ability to compare critically, to generalise, to select what is relevant? How clearly does the writer present his/her opinion? 8) Discussion of the results. Are the results supported by the evidence? Does the discussion give a helpful perspective to evaluate the results? How are the results related to those of other studies? Is the argument logical? 9) Is the author of the paper the speaker in the major portion of the paper? Are generalisations supported with relevant details to be convincing? Does all information have significance? Does all information move the discussion forward? Is it relevant? 10) Is introductory material proportionate to the main body of the paper? (Usually no more than of the paper should be devoted to introduction and background of the issue). 11) Are sub-topics logical? Are transitions between topics and sentences appropriate and sufficient? Do they give the reader a clear sense of the unity of the entire paper? 12) Is the Conclusion concise, and does it give the reader a clear sense of finality? Do the conclusions do more than merely repeat what has been said before? Do they attempt to show wider implications of the studygiving suggestions for further research or showing connections with other issues? Does the conclusion relate to the initial aim of the thesis? 13) Style and presentation. Is the study easy to read and follow? How is the reader guided along? How are academic conventions followed? Are the textual references to other works correctly presented? Is there an acceptable balance between quotation, paraphrase, summary and the like? Are the tables, diagrams, etc. relevant and easy to understand? Is the overall organisation clear? Is there a logical progression from section to section? 14) Are individual paragraphs properly developed, with a clear topic sentence? Is all material within a paragraph relevant to the topic sentence? Are there no one-sentence paragraphs? 15) Is the Table of Contents accurate, and are sub-topics worded exactly the same as in the body of the paper? 16) Check documentation very carefully. Is every source cited in the body of the paper accurately listed in References? Does the References section contain all the necessary information? 17) Check for style and mechanics. Note any instances of wordiness, misspelled words or punctuation errors. 18) Now check the overall logic of the paper. Are parts clearly and significantly tied to each other? Is argument convincing? Is the writer careful and thorough? Does the thesis do what it says it will? Is there something original in the thesis? 19)Comment on overall neatness and appearance. 1.4 Thesis Defence

The oral defence of the thesis is viewed as a final step in your BA or MA studies.

The grade given is mostly dependent on the quality of your BA / MA thesis. However, when the Examining Board is in doubt, a successful oral presentation may influence the final evaluation of your work. It is therefore important to track down any controversial aspects of your thesis beforehand, to predict questions you might be asked by your opponents, and to be aware of some basic questions that you are expected to discuss during the oral presentation. While preparing for the defence, concentrate on the following: the purpose of the paper the material and the method of research results and their discussion practical applicability of your work the strengths and weaknesses of your paper suggestions for future research Remember, that once you are through with your thesis, not many people can compete with your knowledge of the subject matter. Just be sure to show it properly!

ORGANISATION OF A RESEARCH PAPER

According to Watson (1991: 30), scholarly authorship involves three stages: the first is finding something to say, the second is arranging it, and the third is expressing it. Arranging it means that there is a commonly accepted pattern of organising a paper. Conventionally, in English-speaking countries a paper in linguistics is segmented into the following blocks: preliminaries, introductory chapters including a chapter on theory and method, main body, conclusion and supporting material. This particular structuring applies first and foremost to BA and MA theses, and it is the aim of this chapter to discuss it in more detail. Writing a term paper will be dealt with separately in Section 2.4. 2.1 Preliminaries

Preliminaries include Title page, Acknowledgements, Contents page, and List of Abbreviations. We will consider them in this order. 2.1.1 Title Page The information included into the title page is as follows: the title of the paper the students name (first and last) affiliation (the Department and University) the type of the paper (a term paper, a BA or MA thesis) the supervisors name the date of submission An example of the title page of a BA thesis is given in Appendix A. 2.1.2 Acknowledgements

There is no one final answer as to whether a BA or MA thesis should contain Acknowledgements, and which people should be mentioned there. Sajavaara (1994: 21), for example, claims that Supervisors and other persons who have been responsible for tutoring at various stages of the thesis through their formal capacity should never be thanked. The MHRA Style Book (1996: 66), on the other hand, proposes a different approach: A preface may usefully follow the list of contents. General assistance that you wish to recognizefrom supervisor, librarians, friends, grantgiving bodiesshould be acknowledged here. Acknowledgements of specific instances of assistance are frequently better placed in a note at the relevant point in the text; acknowledgement of permission to reproduce illustrations, quotations, etc, should appear with the material concerned. Practice shows, however, that the section Acknowledgements is more often found in PhD theses and books.

2.1.3 Table of Contents Before you are finished with your thesis, the Table of Contents will register numerous changes of your mind. The final version of the Contents is supposed to inform the reader not only about the topic of your paper but also about the way you are going to approach it. Two examples of the Contents page are presented in Appendix C. 2.1.4 List of Abbreviations Abbreviations which will be regularly used throughout a research paper should be listed with a key and placed before the first page of the main text. In this connection, the MHRA Style Book (1996: 19) stresses the following: Never begin a sentence with an abbreviation. The first use of an abbreviation should refer the reader to this list. 2.2 Sections of a Research Paper 2.2.1 Introductory Chapters There may be one or several introductory chapters in a thesis depending on the amount of material to be dealt with. The purpose of the introduction is to place your thesis in relation to the general topic and to other work in the subject area. Therefore, introduction provides an outline of your response to the topic and states your aim and hypotheses. It also informs what aspect(s) you intend to investigate in your work and gives a brief survey of the layout of your paper/thesis. 2.2.2 Theory, material and method

Chapters of this block provide the necessary background information and discuss theories that are relevant to your study. The method chapter describes the exact steps that will be taken to address your hypothesis. The nature and extent of your data and the lines along which your investigation will be carried out are described here. 2.2.3 Results The suggested outline of the results chapters draws on Rudestam & Newton (1992) and Halverson & Stenstrm (2001). There is no one answer how the results part should be organised. In a linguistic paper/thesis, presentation of findings and discussion of results is usually spread over several chapters. Rudestam & Newton (1992: 80) recommend not to overburden the reader with a large mass of data. The task of the writer at this point is to give a simple but complete account of the results without getting into an extended discussion of the meaning of the findings; the extended discussion belongs to the discussion section. Therefore, start by presenting your results and then go on to analysing them. Your results may be presented in the form of tables and figures, or list of examples, or both. Tables and figures should be properly introduced and followed by explanatory comments (for specific details, see Section 4.5.2). Halverson & Stenstrm (2001: 2) are of the opinion that long and complicated sections should have a short summary at the end. The analysis of the data usually makes up the larger part of the main body of the thesis. 2.2.4 Conclusion As regards the concluding chapter, Halverson & Stenstrm (2001: 2) point out several important tracks to be followed. First, the concluding chapter sums up the whole argument by presenting a general summary of the results; it also states the conclusions which can be drawn on the basis of the results. Next, the results of your study can be compared with other findings in the field and with the initial hypotheses of your project. In addition, if you feel that some of your results are inconclusive, e.g. because you have not had enough material, say so here. It is also advisable to indicate what aspects or areas discussed by you require or merit further study. Finally, remember to link what you say in the Conclusion with what you said in the Introduction. 2.3 Supporting Material 2.3.1 Appendices According to the MHRA Style Book (1996: 67), appendices should contain the kind of supporting information which would constitute too great an interruption of the main text and which is too extensive to be included in the notes. Therefore, writers of theses are advised to introduce appendices for the material which is not directly relevant to the argumentation in the paper/thesis, such as: lists statistical data questionnaire forms

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 copies of documents samples of texts under discussion transcribed material, etc. If there are more than one, Appendices are numbered and given a title. 2.3.2 Documenting Sources There are different kinds of source lists indicating the literary sources referred to in your paper, such as References, Works Cited, Literature Cited, Bibliography, and so on. 2.3.2.1 References

References, Works Cited and Literature Cited mean the same and contain all the works that are referred to in your paper. Gibaldi (1995: 106) points out that such a list simplifies documentation by allowing writers to make only brief references to these works in the running text. Traditionally, the Department of English Philology gives preference to the heading List of References or simply References, and every type of research paper must contain it. List of References appears at the end of the paper, and the entries are listed in alphabetical order by the surname of the author. A detailed description of the information that should be included into References is given in Section 4.7.2. An important note is in order here. Compiling the List of References should not be a last-minute task before submission of your thesis. Preparing the list is a time-consuming job which requires much careful work and attention to detail. 2.3.2.2 Other Source Lists

The information presented in this sub-section draws on Gibaldi (1995: 106-7). Bibliography (description of books) includes both works referred to and those that were consulted but not mentioned in the text. Annotated Bibliography (or Annotated List of Works Cited) contains descriptive or evaluative comments on the sources, as in the example below. (Note that this is a regular way to document a source in literature but NOT linguistic papers.) Thompson, Stith. The Folktale. New York: Dryden, 1946. A comprehensive survey of the most popular folktales, including their histories and their uses in literary works. The heading Selected Bibliography (or Selected List of Works Consulted) is appropriate for lists suggesting readings in the field. The title Works Consulted indicates that the list of entries is not confined to works cited in the paper. 2.3.2.3 Notes: Endnotes and Footnotes Notes serve to present different types of information, for example, comments or longer references; they are also used for documenting sources. In a thesis, it is a standard practice to make all notes endnotes. As the name implies, endnotes are notes which appear after the text, i.e. they are placed at the end

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of chapters. While presenting them, follow the procedure proposed by Gibaldi (1995: 242-3) and the MHRA Style Book (1996: 2): Number notes consecutively, starting from 1, throughout a research paper. Format note numbers as superscript, arabic numerals, (like this1), following any punctuation or at the ends of sentences whenever possible. Start the Notes section on a new page numbered in sequence with the preceding page. Present the notes in a consecutive order. The notes will normally be set by the printer in type smaller than that used for the text. Check that the reference numbers in the text agree with the numbers of the corresponding notes. Footnotes appear at the bottom of pages. They are less common now and we suggest avoiding them in your writing. Footnotes, however, can be used in a shorter paper, for example, a term paper. If you have decided to use footnotes, follow these requirements: Begin footnotes four lines (two double spaces) below the text. Single-space footnotes, but double-space between them. An illustrative example of Notes is given in Appendix B. 2.3.3 List of Tables and Figures If your study is based on the analysis of linguistic data, it is often best to present your data in tables or in some other schematic form, such as graphs, charts, or diagrams. They should be listed as separate items with page references under the heading of List of Tables as the final item on the Contents page (see Appendix C for an example of a Contents page). 2.4 A First Try: Writing a Term Paper

The purpose of writing a term paper is to produce an analysis of a selected topic presented, shaped and documented according to the established formal requirements. Therefore, writing a term paper is a good opportunity to learn a game with new rules (Watson 1991: vi). The general requirements for a term paper are as follows: The length of a term paper is 2000-2400 words (10-12 pages). It should be printed on A4 format paper and double-spaced. A 12 point type size for the main body of the text in Times New Roman or equivalent font should be used. The argument that you are presenting in a term paper is in response to a question/topic that you state in a brief title. Your writing should not be a list or collection of quotes, but rather an argument supported by analysis of the evidence that you have collected. While writing, employ neutral style and a formal way of presenting your ideas. Avoid, if possible, personal reference such as I, we, etc. After discussing the selected topic with your supervisor, study the background literature on your subject. This will give you some useful ideas about how you should approach your topic. Try to create your own system of making notes while reading the source material; make it a habit to write down the name of the source and the page number immediately.

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As is the case with a BA or MA thesis, a term paper has to be structured according to the formal requirements. Even much shorter, it should include the following elements: Title page. The title page should include the title of the paper, your name and affiliation. Pages should be numbered, starting with page 1 of the Introduction. Table of contents. Here you list sections and sub-sections of your paper with page references. The introductory section. The purpose of the introduction is to give an outline of your response to the topic. Tell what aspect(s) you intend to investigate. Give a brief survey of your paper. The body of the term paper. Here you should develop your ideas into a comprehensive and logical argument. Paraphrasing of ideas and quotations should be always indicated by references. The concluding section. This should sum up your argument, not repeating exactly what you have said before. Never end with a quotation. Quotations. Quotations must be used as a method of presenting evidence. For all formal matters as to quoting and textual references see Sections 4.6 and 4.7 below. The list of references. Your paper must have a list of references. Even if it consists of one item, you need to document it. Start on a new page. If there are several sources, arrange the entries alphabetically by the surname of the author (for details see Sections 2.3.2.1 and 4.7.2). 2.4.1 Criteria for Term Paper Assessment Presented below are the main criteria taken into account while evaluating your term paper. Keep them in mind when preparing the final copy of your paper for submission. Failing mark heavy plagiarism (any of these) less than 2000 words poor language and/grammar exceptionally poor treatment of topic mostly off-topic 5-6 some plagiarism (any of these) poor language and/grammar topic very poorly developed 7-8 some problems with English parts of topic well developed, parts not 9-10 good English well supported analysis source materials used creatively original ideas excellent technical form

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WRITING WITH STYLE

It is easy to write, hard only to write wellWatson (1991: 38) warns fresh writers, and his claim is amply supported by our own experience. It is no secret that a lot of students suffer from what Watson (ibid.) refers to as white-paper phobia brought about by the belief that if they are to write at all, they must write well. However, this is not exactly the case. 3.1 Writing as a Conscious Effort

Literature in the field argues with good faith that writing is a process and not a single act; therefore, there is nothing degrading about a bad first draft. Watson (1991: 39), for example, strongly believes that writing is a matter of pushing words on the pagealtering, reordering, adding, deleting, refining. And if you still feel that you are not ready to write, trust the credibility of the advice below (adapted from Watson 1991 and Mecham 1992). The first step towards defeating the fear of writing is to lower standards. Nothing need come out perfect the first time. Every sentence, every phrase is subject to later revision. Sketch a draft Table of Contents and start writing at once. Writing a thesis starts with writing, not with preparing to write. Feeling unready to write is no excuse at all. In scholarship one is never ready, since there is always something more that one could read. Since you are never ready to write, start writing before you are ready. Once a sentence is lying on the page, it becomes clear what is right and what is wrong with it. Go on with writing; everything can be mended later. Do not forget that your work will need polishingboth revising and editing. 3.2 Writing Effectively 3.2.1 Organising Your Argumentation The prevailing pattern of a thesis is an argument. Mechams (1992: 74) checklist for argumentative papers below will give you some guidance for this mode of writing. A good research paper presents a work that is of interest to both the writer and the audience, is debatable, and can be defended. Good scholarly prose is efficiently specific. Each statement offered in support of argument is backed up with enough evidence. All quotations and direct references to primary and secondary sources are fully documented. Supporting statements and data are organised in a way that builds the argument, emphasises the authors main ideas, and justifies the papers conclusions. The paper is written in a style and tone appropriate to the topic and intended audience. The authors prose is clear and readable. 3.2.2 Cohesion and Coherence

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Your research paper will be clear and readable and will make sense only if you succeed in turning it into a coherent textual whole. A good piece of writing is said to stick together, both linguistically and conceptually. The quality of hanging together is known in linguistic literature as the coherence and cohesion of a text. A coherent text has continuity of sense, whereas cohesion has to do with connectivity between its surface elements. Baker (1992: 218) sums up the difference between cohesion and coherence as follows: Like cohesion, coherence is a network of relations which organize and create a text: cohesion is the network of surface relations which link words and expressions to other words and expressions in a text, and coherence is the network of conceptual relations which underlie the surface text. [] We could say that cohesion is the surface expression of coherence relations, that it is a device for making conceptual relations explicit. Cohesion, as a feature of text organization, requires that texts cohere grammatically and lexically. It involves formal linguistic means, such as reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion (for more on this point, see Halliday & Hasan 1976). Coherent stretches of language are connected by conceptual or meaning dependencies (Baker 1992: 218). As regards your thesis, coherence presupposes the following: the individual paragraphs within a chapter are properly developed; they show a logical progression from section to section; the parts of the argumentation cohere as a total argument. One of the ways to achieve coherence and ensure a smooth forward movement from one bit of supporting information to the next is the use of transitions (conjunctions and linkers). They help to hold the parts of your argument together and to move the paragraph forward. 3.2.3 Transitions Transitions are often defined as signals that help readers to follow the direction of the writers thought; they are said to perform the role of signposts on the road that guide travellers (Langan 1989: 11). However, in spite of their indisputable significance, transitions must be used very carefully. Consider what Baker (1992: 218) writes on the issue: For instance, a conjunction such as therefore may express a conceptual notion of reason or consequence. However, if the reader cannot perceive an underlying semantic relation of reason or consequence between the propositions connected by therefore, s/he will not be able to make sense of the text in question []. Generally speaking, the mere presence of cohesive markers cannot create a coherent text; cohesive markers have to reflect conceptual relations which make sense. Given below are the most commonly used transitional words and expressions grouped according to the kind of signal they give to readers (the list is based on Langan 1989 and Mecham 1992). Purpose Transitional words and expressions To add an idea and, also, too, in addition, moreover,

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furthermore, besides, in fact To supply an example to for example, for instance, support generalisation specifically, as an illustration, such as To indicate the order in first, at first, initially, next, then, last, which events occur or finally, before, after, earlier, later, ideas are presented subsequently, while, until, as To indicate the cause or because, since, for, the reason is reason for something To indicate the effect or therefore, so, thus, as a result, result of something consequently, accordingly To indicate that one thing but, however, nevertheless, on the Is different from or contrasts contrary, although, whereas, while, in with another thing contrast, despite, in spite of, yet, on the other hand To indicate that one thing similarly, likewise, in the same manner, in Is similar to another thing that the same way, along the same lines, as, has already been mentioned like To indicate a condition unless, if, even if, or, provided that, as long as To indicate that something in other words, that is, that is to say will be restated for clarity To indicate the end of a finally, at last, after all, in conclusion, thought or list to conclude, to sum up Note that certain words provide more than one kind of signal; moreover, the words in each conceptual category are not always equivalent. To practice the use of transitions, turn to workbooks on the subject. 3.3 Questions of Style

In his book Writing a Thesis (1991), George Watson passes on his personal experience and invaluable advice to those who first engage in scholarly writing. Some of his ideas on questions of style are presented here in an adapted form (for a more thorough discussion, see Watson 1991: Chapter 11). Watsons basic claim about good writing is that it begins in freedom and ends in discipline: the self-discipline of a style (Watson 1991: 67). He argues strongly that Style is something which can wait for revision. Since it is unattainable at first drafting, the first draft may reasonably ignore it. A good style in scholarly prose is defined by the following properties: it is clear; it is rigorous without needless technicality; it can be read and understood, at a single reading, by someone outside the subject. The above properties are the ideal, not the requirement. A good thesis can do with something lessbut remember that a good style cannot be much less. 3.3.1 Revising and Editing Scholarly texts belong to the formal written register and, as such, they have to meet the requirements of an academic style of writing. However, Watson

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(1991: 67) draws our attention to the fact that For all but a few rare spirits, style is hard-wonan ultimate effect of revision and editing. Editing is an essential condition of writing in good style; it implies a close attention to detail and is concerned with words, phrases, sentence structure, and even punctuation. When revising and editing your research paper, try to apply (creatively) some of the suggestions below. Points 1 - 4 come from Mecham (1992: 6), while the rest draws on the ideas found in Strunk (1979). 1) Be aware that academic prose is characterised by the use of complex structures, passive constructions, and word-order variation. 2) Therefore, add variety to the structure of your sentences. Vary the beginnings of sentences, e.g., begin with: an adverb or an adverbial clause: Suddenly, Even though English rules remain the same, a prepositional or a verbal phrase: For the writer, To be really successful, a connective (a conjunction, conjunction adverb, or transitional expression), an appositive or an absolute phrase. 3) Vary the length of your sentences. 4) Give emphasis to important ideas by: placing important words at the end of the sentence, arranging ideas in the order of climax, using active voice and forceful verbs, occasionally inverting the word order, abruptly changing sentence length. 5) Use definite, specific, concrete language. 6) Omit needless words. Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraphno unnecessary sentences. Wrong: the question as to whether Correct: whether this is a subject that this subject, etc. 7) Express coordinate ideas in similar form (the principle of parallel construction), as in: To be French is to be like no one else; to be American is to be like everyone else. 8) By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must either be used only before the first term or else be repeated before each term: in spring, summer, or winter 9) Correlative expressions (both, and; not, but; not only, but also; either, or; first, second, third; and the like) should be followed by the same grammatical construction. Many violations of this rule can be corrected by rearranging the sentence. Compare: Wrong: It was both a long ceremony and very tedious. Correct: The ceremony was both long and tedious. Wrong: My objections are, first, the injustice of the measure; second, that it is unconstitutional. Correct: My objections are, first, that the measure is unjust; second, that it is unconstitutional.

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4.1

PREPARING THE FINAL TYPESCRIPT

Length of a Thesis

The length of a thesis depends on the local regulations which must be consulted and observed. At the Department of English Philology the requirements are as follows: BA thesis is 20-35 pages (plus appendices, if there are any); MA thesis is 55-70 pages (plus appendices, if there are any). 4.2 Format

A very important requirement with respect to the formal conventions of any research paper is be consistent. If you choose one way of doing things, follow the pattern throughout the paper. Format guidelines are as follows: use one side of the paper only, double line spacing, justification full OR left, preferably, 12 point Times New Roman or an equivalent font, the right margin should be 2-3 cm, the left margin should be wider, 3-4 cm, so that the paper might be bound, start numbering pages after Contents, with page 1 of the Introduction, page numbers should be centred or typed in the bottom right hand corner, use the tabulator key for indenting the first line of a new paragraph (except the first paragraph under a heading and the first line of a paragraph directly related to an immediately preceding table or figure). 4.3 Capitalisation

If you choose to capitalise the headings and sub-headings of your paper, or titles of books you refer to in the running text and document in References, follow the general rule for capitalisation (MHRA Style Book 1996: 25): capitalise the initial letters of the first word and of all nouns, pronouns (except that), adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and subordinating conjunctions, do not capitalise the initial letters of articles, possessive determiners (my, etc.), prepositions, and the co-ordinating conjunctions and, but, or, and nor. Note the examples: Put Out More Flags How Far Can You Go? A Voyage towards the South Pole 4.4

Headings and Sub-headings CHAPTER HEADINGS should be numbered and written in capital letters and in bold. Section and sub-section headings should be numbered and written in lower-case letters OR capitalised. The former (section heading) should be in bold, and the latter (sub-section) should be italicised. Both types should be separated from the following text by double spacing. The first para-

18

graph under a heading should start flush left. The following paragraphs are indented. Consider the relevant example: 3 3.5 CORPUS-BASED DESCRIPTIONS OF ENGLISH Lexical description

3.1.1 Pre-electronic lexical description for pedagogical purposes Whereas lexicographical studies have, until recently, typically described the lexicon without statistics, for much of the 20th century there has been a tradition of corpus-based lexical studies with statistical information for pedagogical purposes. Vocabulary research was undertaken with major support from the Carnegie Corporation in the 1930s. Conferences in the USA and the UK brought together leading linguists and English language teaching specialists including West from India, Palmer from Japan, Sapir and Thorndike from the USA and Faucett from China. (Taken from: Kennedy, Graeme. 1998. An Introduction to Corpus Linguistics. London & New York: Longman.) 4.5 Presentation of Linguistic Data 4.5.1 Examples If your research paper is based on the analysis and discussion of linguistic data, you will have to introduce actual examples and refer to them as you go along. For easier reference, examples should be numbered consecutively throughout the entire text, the number being put in parentheses. Place your examples flush left. In a thesis, which consists of several chapters and makes use of hundreds of examples, the numbering of examples should indicate chapter reference as well. Conventionally, the unacceptability of the utterance is marked with an asterisk (*). (1) There never was a Dracula. (1.4) *There is the wolf at the door. (4.16) Yra vardelis ir pavardl, nra mano is name:NOMsgDIM and surname:NOMsgDIM not-is my brolelio. brother:GENsgDIM 'There is a name and a family name, but my dear brother is no longer alive' When a particular example is used twice (i.e. you introduce it for a second time), it should be renumbered. Introduce such an example in the following way: In example (37), previously discussed/presented as example (9), If the number of examples in your paper is rather limited, they can be given in the running text in an italicised form; they can also be numbered consecutively without chapter reference.

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4.5.2 Tables and Figures Tables and figures are a concise way of organising and presenting your linguistic data. If you have decided to use them in your thesis, follow the general requirements (adapted from Halverson & Stenstrm 2001: 4): Plan your tables and figures so that they will fit onto one page without splitting them apart. Tables should not contain too much information; on the other hand, a table having only a few numbers is not justified. In the running text tables and figures should be placed as close to the relevant part of the text as possible. Tables and figures should be numbered consecutively and include chapter reference, e.g. Table 1.1, Table 3.2, Figure 2.1, Figure 4.2, etc. The number should be followed by a caption in headline style. Add an extra line space between the legend and the table / figure. You can use smaller typeface, e.g. 11-size script, to present your tables. Remember that you cannot just present your data in tablesthey have to be properly described and analysed. It is customary to locate the number and legend above the table and under the figure. Reference to tables and figures in the running text is made either directly as part of a sentence, as in: Table 5.5 below lists various groups of exceptions which have been widely discussed in the literature, or indirectly, i.e. referring to them in brackets, as in: (see also Table 3.4 above). Tables and figures should be put flush left and have an extra line space before and after them. An example of a possible arrangement of a table is presented below.

Table 5.1
Semantic type of ES English Ontological Ontological Ontological Ontological

Existential be/bti: dominant values and the corresponding semantic types of ES in English and Lithuanian
Existential verb BE/BTI English + + + + Dominant value of be / bti I. Absolute use of be / bti: (1) to exist in life, to live (2) to have place in the world of fact, to exist (3) existential formula there +be (4) to come into existence, come about, happen, occur, take place II. Locative model of existence: (5) to have or occupy a place (6) to have Lithuanian + + + + Semantic type of ES Lithuanian Type 1: Vital Type 2: Ontological Type 4: Pure existence Type 6: Occurrence of events (emergence) Type 3: Locative Type 5:

Locativeexistential (Existential-

+ --

+ +

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have device) Locative occurrence Presentative

+ +

(7) occur, take place (8) appearance on the scene

+ +

Possessive Type 6: Punctual emergence Type 7: Presentative

As concerns figures, Rudestam & Newton (1992: 84) define them in the following way: A figure may be a chart, graph, photograph, line drawing, or just about anything else that is not a table. Depending on the material presented, figures can take different shapes. The illustrative example is taken from Kennedy (1998: 84):
CB8 2667 172 32 <s n=2667> <w AJ0>Blue <w NN1>cheese <w NN2>lovers <w VM0>will <w VVI>welcome <w AJ0>new <w AJ0-NN1>French <w AJ0>blue <w NN1>cheese <w PRP>from <w AT0>the <w NN2>Pays <w UNC>de <w NN1-NP0>Bresse <w PRP>in <w AJ0>eastern <W NP0>France<c PUN>. Figure 2. 7 A fragment from the BNC showing SGML markup

4.6

Quotations

Other peoples ideas can be incorporated into your research paper as summary, paraphrase, or direct quotation. It is often stressed that originality in any research paper requires your personal presentation of the assimilated material. Remember that it is you who should be the speaker in the major portion of your thesis, and let the numbers below guide you through the process (from Mecham 1992: 45): Direct quotation should make up not more than 20% of the paper; About 20% to 30% may consist of paraphrased material; About 50% should be your own thinking. Mecham (ibid.) adds that there is nothing wrong with citing more than one source in a paragraph. Good research writing combines personal comments, direct quotation, and paraphrase or summary within the same paragraph.

4.6.1 Direct Quotations Students are often in doubt what kind of material suits best to be presented in a direct quote. On this Gibaldi (1995) writes: Quotations are effective in research papers when used selectively. Quote only words, phrases, lines, and passages that are particularly interesting, vivid, unusual, or apt, and keep all quotations as brief as possible. (72) Your decision to use a direct quote may also be influenced by the following reasons (from Mecham 1992: 48): I am quoting this passage because the authors words are so impressive or so clever that to put them in my own words would lessen the impact.
21

I am quoting this passage because the authors words are so precise that to put them in my own words would change their meaning. I am quoting this passage because the authors words are so concise that I would need twice as many words to paraphrase the passage. All direct quotations (integrated, separated, or block) should correspond exactly with the original. If you omit anything, indicate this by using three periods: In his discussion of pragmatic presupposition, Stalnaker (1973) makes the following important observation concerning certain apparent violations of pragmatic rules and principles: If, in a normal context, a speaker uses a sentence which requires a presupposition then by that very act, he does make the required presupposition. (1973: 451) (Taken from Lambrecht, Knud. 1998. Information structure and sentence form. Cambridge University Press.) If you insert comments or explanations of your own, e.g. alteration of grammatical forms, you may do so within square brackets, for example: In this connection we may note the following statement by Milsark: This larger set would be the 'list' which seems to be lurking in the background of the interpretation of sentences such as (97)-(99) [here (3.117) and (3.118), V.K.] (Milsark 1979: 209) You can use two ways of presenting quotes in the running text: 1) Use single quotation marks for the quotation and double quotation marks for quotes within quotes, e.g.: With respect to English, '...abstractions such as absence, probability, and generic activities are not "vividly on stage" and therefore require existential there' (Lakoff 1987: 542). 2) Another choice is to use double quotation marks for quotation in the running text and single quotation marks for quotes within quotes. Long quotations (50 words or more) should be given in one block, i.e. separated from the running text, introduced by a colon (if needed), not enclosed by quotation marks, single-spaced, and indented left, as in the one below: This second principle is based on the idea that statements, in respect of their informativeness, are not generally self-sufficient units, free of any reliance upon what the audience is assumed to know or to assume already, but commonly depend for their effect upon knowledge assumed to be already in the audiences possession. (Strawson 1964: 97) (From Lambrecht, Knud. 1998. Information structure and sentence form. Cambridge University Press). Note also that this is the only type of quote where the period comes before the parenthetical source page (see the block quote from Gibaldi at the beginning of this section). If you think a shorter quotation is very significant for your purposes, you can also separate it from the running text, i.e. present it as a block quote.

22

4.6.2 Citing Indirect Sources Though rare, there might be times when the original source which you want to quote is not available. In that case both the original and the secondary sources should be acknowledged, as in: Von der Gabelentz illustrated his point by listing several ways in which German expressed the idea of generality (1891: 97-8, as cited in Mustajoki 1993: 21) 4.7 Documenting Sources 4.7.1 Textual References References in the running text consist of a page reference to a specific work of an author. In the running text they should be enclosed in brackets, e.g. (Chesterman 1991: 26); (Babby 1980: 12-4); (Chafe 1976: 7ff), where ff means the following pages. References to an entire work are given like this: (Jespersen 1949). Initials are used only when it is necessary to distinguish two writers with the same surname, e.g. J. Lyons (1981) and C. Lyons (1999). If the authors name is part of the text, only the year and a page reference is taken into brackets, as in According to Chomsky (1986: 57), the same view is implicit If a work is by more than one author, the reference needs plural verb: Quirk et al. (1985: 1045) point out that When referring to two or more authors with respect to a particular problem or topic, mention them in chronological order. Use italics for titles of books and journals (both in References and in the running text). 4.7.2 References: a List of Works Cited Under the heading of References (located at the end of your research paper) you list your sources in alphabetical order. Start on a new page, continuing the page numbers of the text. Arrange the entries alphabetically by the surname of the author. If there are several works by one author, list them chronologically (the earliest first). If one author has several works published in the same year, write 1998a, 1998b, etc. Cite a book published in a language other than English like any other book. Each entry in References should contain the following information: author's name, given in full OR the first letter of the name; in either case, be consistent throughout; year of publication (not printing); title of the work; name of periodical (only in the case of articles), with word-initial letters capitalised; place of publication (except in the case of journals); page numbers in the case of articles in books and journals as a final item. Italicise titles of books and journals (but not articles).

23

You can present titles of articles either (a) within quotation marks OR (b) not; in either case, be consistent throughout.

4.7.3 Forms of Reference Exemplified Where relevant, we also give an alternative way of presenting bibliographical information in your References. A monograph Baker, Carl Lee. 1989. English syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. OR: Baker, C. L. 1989. English Syntax. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. A monograph in a new edition Breivik, Leiv Egil. 1990. Existential there. A synchronic and diachronic study. 2nd ed. Oslo: Novus. A review Coopmans, Peter. 1983. Review of Language universals and linguistic typology: syntax and morphology by Bernard Comrie. Journal of Linguistics 19: 455-73. A work in more than one volume Givn, Talmy. 1990. Syntax: a functional-typological introduction. Vol 2. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Several works by the same author published the same year Dane, Frantiek. 1974a. Functional sentence perspective and the organization of the text. In Dane 1974b (ed), 106-128. Dane, Frantiek (ed). 1974b. Papers on functional sentence perspective. Prague: Academia. A work by more than one author Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. & J. Svartvik. 1985. A comprehensive grammar of the English language. London: Longman. A book in a language other than English Dahlhaus, Carl. 1967. Musiksthetik. Kln: Gerig. A collection of papers/articles Reuland, Eric & Alice ter Meulen (eds). 1987. The representation of (in)definiteness. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. A dictionary Longman dictionary of contemporary English. 1987. London: Longman. An encyclopedia Malmkjr, Kirsten (ed). 1991. The Linguistics encyclopedia. Routledge. An article in a journal Allan, Keith. 1971. A note on the source of there in existential sentences. Foundations of Language 7: 1-18. OR: Allan, K. 1971. A note on the source of there in existential sentences. Foundations of Language 7: 1-18. An article in a collection of papers Chafe, W.L. 1976. Givenness, contrastiveness, definiteness, subjects, topics, and point of view. In Charles Li (ed) Subject and topic. New York & London, 25-55. An unpublished thesis / dissertation Hasund, Kristine. 1996. Girls' conflict talk. Unpublished MA thesis. Department of English, University of Bergen. Gundel, Jeanette K. 1974. The role of topic and comment in linguistic theory. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas at Austin.

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 An unpublished conference paper Mustajoki, Arto. 1995. Is a meaning-based syntax model possible? Paper presented at the conference 'Linguistics by the end of the twentieth century: achievements and perspectives'. Moscow, February 1-4, 1995. Szabolsci, Anna. 1984. (In)definiteness effects in Hungarian. Paper presented at the Fifth Groningen Round Table, Groningen, June 1984. The Internet address/Web site Hertfordshire County Council Internet Homepage. http://www. Hertscc.gov.uk

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Appendix A:

TITLE PAGE (in English and Lithuanian)

SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF CONNOTATIONS AND THEIR ROLE IN INTERPRETING MEANING OF WORDS

By Egl Gineikait

Department of English Philology Vytautas Magnus University Bachelor of Arts Thesis Supervisor: Assoc.prof. Dalia Masaitien 30 May 2001

Appendix B:
NOTES 1

NOTES SECTION

The term derived intransitivity is used in Cranmer (1976:9) and applies to Russian -sja verbs, which are derived from transitive verbs syntactically, ie, no change in lexical meaning is involved. In Lithuanian scholarship, this type of reflexive verb is referred to as decausative reflexive verbs; such verbs as these are claimed to denote states, processes and actions (cf LG: 231). This section primarily draws on Kaldait 1996. It has undergone some revision in order to incorporate the overall methodology of Contrastive Functional Analysis laid out in Chesterman 1998. Krzeszowski (1990:35) differs in this respect positing three stages of CA: (i) description, (ii) juxtaposition, and (iii) comparison. For an exhaustive survey of the nature of controversies and problems connected with the methodology of traditional Contrastive Analysis see Krzeszowski 1990, especially Introduction and Chapters 1 through 6, and also Chesterman 1998, Chapters 1 and 2.

3 4

26

(Taken from Kaldait Violeta. 2000. Existential sentences. A contrastive study of English and Lithuanian. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Bergen.)

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Appendix C:

The title of the authentic MA thesis is A study of word order patterns in Old English with special reference to the verb-second constraint submitted to the University of Bergen, Department of English.

CONTENTS PAGE

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background 1.2 Hypothesis, aim and scope 1.3 Material and method 1.3.1 Paulus Orosius and King Alfred 1.3.2 lfric 1.3.3 The translations 1.3.4 Problems 1.4 The clitic hypothesis 1.4.1 Van Kemenade 1.4.2 Discussion 1.4.3 Conclusion 2 PREVIOUS RESEARCH 2.1 Theories supporting the V2 hypothesis 2.1.1 Vennemann 2.1.2 Haiman 2.1.3 Stockwell 2.1.4 Others 2.2 Other views of OE word order 2.2.1 Bean 2.2.2 Others 2.3 Discussion 2.3.1 Vennemann, Stockwell and Haiman 2.3.2 Bean and Vennemann 3 PRESENTATION OF DATA 3.1 Word order patterns in Orosius and lfric 38 3.1.1 The notion of clitics disregarded 3.1.2 Clitics 3.2 Conclusion 4 THEMATIC STRUCTURE AND TRANSFORMATIONS 4.1 Definitions 4.1.1 Given and new information 4.1.2 Theme and rheme 4.1.3 Topicalization and commentization 4.2 Thematic structure and transformations 4.2.1 Subjects 4.2.2 Objects 4.2.3 Adverbials 4.2.4 Verbs 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12 13 16 16 16 20 23 26 29 29 30 32 32 34 37 38 56 60 65 66 66 71 72 74 74 78 82 86

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4.3 Conclusion 5 CONCLUSION REFERENCES APPENDIX Key to abbreviations

90 93 97 101

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The second (hypothetical) thesis has a different structuring:

CONTENTS List of tables Abbreviations 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Aim of the study 1.2 Theoretical framework and method 1.2.1 Corpus of data 1.3 Previous research 1.4 Outline of the thesis NOTES 2 RELEVANT ASPECTS OF THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Word order typology 2.3 Information structuring 2.4 Translation as a basis for contrastive analysis NOTES 3 THE ENGLISH FULL PRESENTATIVE CONSTRUCTION 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Verbs in the EFPC 3.2.1 Be 3.2.2 Intransitive verbs 3.2.3 Transitive verbs 3.3 The postverbal NP 3.3.1 The definiteness restriction: overview 3.4 Patterns of the EFPC 3.5 Conclusion NOTES 4 THE LITHUANIAN PRESENTATIVE CONSTRUCTION 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Be-sentences: the problem 4.2 Presentative constructions in Lithuanian 4.2.1 Semantic organization 4.2.2 Verbs in the LPC 4.2.2.1 Intransitive verbs 4.2.2.2 Transitive verbs 4.2.2.3 The postverbal NP 4.3 Conclusion NOTES 5 COMPARING THE ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN PRESENTATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The verbs in English and Lithuanian PCs 5.3 Definite postverbal NPs in English and Lithuanian PCs 5.4 Conclusion NOTES 6 CONCLUSION 6.1 The functions performed by the presentative construction
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i iii 1 1 2 4 4 7 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 32 33 34 34 35 37 38 41 42 43 45 46 47 48 48 48 50 52 53 54 56

6.2 Areas for future research APPENDIX A. Forms of the verb bti be REFERENCES List of tables Table 3.1 Frequency and position of the locative element Table 3.2 Verbs in the EFPC Table 4.1 Subject case marking in Lithuanian PCs Table 4.2 Types of postverbal NPs in Lithuanian PCs Table 6.1 Basic structural constituents of PCs in English and Lithuanian

58 59 61 24 31 45 46 53

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Appendix D:
ad hoc

COMMON ABBREVIATIONS AND EXPRESSIONS IN LATIN

(to this) for this specific purpose; for a special case only, without general application ceteris paribus (other things being equal) all else remaining the same cf. (confer) compare dictum (something said) a formal statement of fact, opinion, principle, etc. e.g. (exempli gratia) for example et al. (et alii) and others etc. (et cetera) and others ff. following (pages, lines, etc.) Ibid. (ibidem: in the same place) used in referring again to the book, article, chapter, or page cited just before i.e. (id est) that is (to say) ipso facto (by the fact or act itself) by that very fact loc.cit. (loco citato) in the place cited (in textual annotation) mutatis mutandis the necessary changes having been made op.cit. (opere citato) in the work cited pace (prep.) with all due respect to; used in expressing polite disagreement par excellence (by way of excellence) being the most excellent or the (French) most typical example of its type passim here and there; (of allusions, phrases, etc.) in various parts (of a book, etc.) prima facie at first sight; on first view, before further examination q.v. (quod vide) which see (denoting a cross reference), e.g. q.v. Chapter 3 sic thus; so: used within brackets, (sic), to show that a quoted passage, esp. one containing some error or something questionable, is precisely reproduced sine qua non (without which not) an essential condition, qualification, etc.; indispensable thing; absolute prerequisite sui generis (of its own kind); unique vice versa the order or relation being reversed; conversely viz. (contr. for videlicet) that is, namely

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Appendix E:

VOCABULARY AID

INTRODUCING A TOPIC As a convenient starting point For the purposes of this paper a distinction should be made between As a last point in this section, consider The point / suggestion / etc. is considered in more detail below. A question that is hotly debated today A question which will be one of our concerns... To illustrate the possibilities of this approach... One problemcan be stated as follows The last topic to be dwelled on in this section is... Let us take the much-argued case of Consider, for instance, how Halliday (1976) analyses... The present analysis will be confined to Getting back to our distinction, Before we proceed to analyse..., let us come back to Let us now reconsider..., which I repeat here for convenience. POSTPONING SOMETHING TO A LATER DISCUSSION This idea will be picked up again in Chapter 3. taken up in due course. discussed in 2.2 below. discussed at length in subsequent sections. This matter will be taken up in detail in later chapters. We will look into this more closely on page 62. This argument will be dealt with later. The consideration of... will be postponed until Chapter 6. will be considered at length in later sections. This question will occupy my interest later. This issue will be the subject of discussion in Chapter 3. (to be discussed at length in Chapters 3 to 6) (this kind of phenomenon will be dealt with at length later, in Sections...) (see Section 5.2 for a more explicit definition) PARAPHRASING; INTRODUCING QUOTATIONS AND SOURCES According to Chvany claims that To use Stalnaker's expression, ... To quote Di Petro, Thus Quirk et al. observe the following: Birner supports this contention with the following words:'... On this he writes: ... as Corder puts it: This point is made in Prince (1994): My view ofis based primarily on... The idea ofwas already expressed by Babby (1980) in the following terms: We might say, following Abbot (1993), that As noted by Gil (1992),

33

There is a variety of approaches to these topics available in the literature. see Benveniste (1963) for original source references in connection with As has often been observed in the pragmatic literature, Following a research tradition inaugurated by..., Habermas (1970) offers a good exposition of... (see Kim 1988 for discussion of a similar issue) (see Kahn 1966 for extensive discussion) (on this point, see also Hawkins 1978) (for useful summaries of work on...see) (for terminology, cf. Lyons 1975) (for a recent English-language description of Lithuanian, see...) (for details / further problems see) SUMMARIZING; MAKING CONCLUSIONS; FINAL REMARKS The argument can be summarised in three points. In order to conclude this section, let us sum up the main points that The main objections to... may be summed up as follows: The relevant points can be briefly summarised as follows To summarise,... By way of summing up, Recapitulating this section,... There are two final remarks to be made about... The first has to do with the relationship between Before closing this brief overview of common topics in... To round off the discussion In view of the above, Given the facts presented above,

34

REFERENCES
Baker, M. 1992. In other words. London and New York: Routledge. Bjrk, L. and C. Risnen. 1997. Academic writing: a university writing course. Chatwell-Bratt. Gibaldi, J. 1995. MLA handbook for writers of research papers. 4th edition. New York: The Modern Language Association of America. Halliday, M.A.K. and R.Hasan. 1976. Cohesion in English. London and New York: Longman. Halverson, S. and A-B. Stenstrm. 2001. How to write a term paper/thesis. University of Bergen, Department of English. Katkuvien, L.E. and I. ekauskien. 1999. Writing a research paper. The students guide. University of Vilnius, Department of English Philology. Langan, J. 1989. English skills. 4th edition. McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. Lindey, A. 1952. Plagiarism and originality. New York: Harper. Lunsford, A. and R. Connors. 1989. St. Martins handbook. Mecham, D. 1992. Argumentation and research writing essentials simplified. Weber State University. MHRA Style Book. 1996. 5th edition. London: Modern Humanities Research Association. Rudestam, K. E. and R. R. Newton. 1992. Surviving your dissertation. SAGE Publications, Inc. Sajavaara, K. 1994. The thesis. A writers guide. Jyvskyl. Strunk, W. Jr. 1979. 3rd edition. The elements of style. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. Watson, G. 1991. Writing a thesis. A guide to long essays and dissertations. London and New York: Longman.

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