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Contemporary theories
Motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort to organizational goals, conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfy some individual need. outcomes appear attractive. This need is the internal state that makes certain Motivation is also the process that account for an individuals intensity,

direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. The concept of motivation refers to internal factors that impel action and to external factors that can act as inducements to action. Individuals differ in their basic motivational drive and the level of motivations varies both between individuals and within individuals at different times

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

In the late 1960s, one researcher proposed that the introduction of extrinsic rewards, such as pay, for work effort that had been previously intrinsically rewarding due to the pleasure associated with the content of the work itself, would tend to decrease the overall level of motivation. This has come to be called the cognitive evaluation theory. Well researched and supported theorists have assumed that intrinsic motivations, such as achievement, etc., are independent of extrinsic motivators such as high pay, promotions, etc. Cognitive evaluation theory suggests otherwise. When extrinsic rewards are used by organizations as payoffs for superior performance, the intrinsic rewards, which are derived from individuals doing what they like, are reduced. If the cognitive evaluation theory is valid, it should have major implications for managerial practices.

If pay or other extrinsic rewards are to be effective motivators, they should be made contingent on an individuals performance.

Cognitive evaluation theorists would argue that this will tend only to decrease the internal satisfaction that the individual receives from doing the job.

If correct, it would make sense to make an individuals pay non-contingent on performance in order to avoid decreasing intrinsic motivation.

Goal-Setting Theory

In the late 1960s, Edwin Locke proposed that intentions to work toward a goal are a major source of work motivation. Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is needed. The evidence strongly supports the value of goals. If factors like ability and acceptance of the goals are held constant, we can also state that the more difficult the goal, the higher the level of performance. The evidence is mixed regarding the superiority of participative over assigned goals. If employees have the opportunity to participate in the setting of their own goals, will they try harder? A major advantage of participation may be in increasing acceptance.

There are contingencies in goal-setting theory. In addition to feedback, four other factors influence the goals-performance relationship. Goal commitment: Goal-setting theory presupposes that an individual is committed to the goal. Adequate self-efficacy: Self-efficacy refers to an individuals belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in a task. Task characteristics: Individual goal setting does not work equally well on all tasks. Goals seem to have a more substantial effect on performance when tasks are simple, well-learned, and independent. National culture: Goal-setting theory is culture bound and it is well adapted to North American cultures.

Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by BF Skinner and his associates. It states that individuals behaviour is a function of its consequences. It is based on law of effect, i.e, individuals behaviour with positive consequences tends to be repeated, but individuals behaviour with negative consequences tends not to be repeated. Reinforcement theory of motivation overlooks the internal state of individual, i.e., the inner feelings and drives of individuals are ignored by Skinner. This theory focuses totally on what happens to an individual when he takes some action. Thus, according to Skinner, the external environment of the organization must be designed effectively and positively so as to motivate the employee. This theory is a strong tool for analyzing controlling mechanism for individuals behaviour. However, it does not focus on the causes of individuals behaviour.

Flow and Intrinsic Motivation Theory

. A key element of the flow experience is that its motivation is unrelated to end goals.

When a person experiences the flow he or she is completely intrinsically motivated. There is extreme concentration during the activity. It is when the individual looks back on the experience he or she is flooded with feelings of gratitude for the experience.

It is the desire to repeat the experience that creates continued motivation.

Conditions likely to produce a flow state:

Task is challenging and require high level of skill They were goal directed and received feedback on how they were doing. Task demanded total concentration and creativity.

A Model of Intrinsic Motivation, as described by Ken Thomas, is an extension of the flow concept. He identifies the key elements that create intrinsic motivation as:

Choice: The ability to select task activities that make sense to you and perform them as you think appropriate.

Competence: The accomplishment you feel in skillfully performing task activities you have chosen.

Meaningfulness: The opportunity to pursue a worthy task purpose, that matters in the larger scheme of things.

Progress: Feeling you are making significant advancement in achieving the tasks purpose.

Equity Theory

Additionally, the referent that an employee selects adds to the complexity of equity theory. There are four referent comparisons that an employee can use:

Self-inside: An employees experiences in a different position inside his or her current organization

Self-outside: An employees experiences in a situation or position outside his or her current organization

Other-inside: Another individual or group of individuals inside the employees organization

Other-outside: Another individual or group of individuals outside the employees organization

. Which referent an employee chooses will be influenced by the information the employee holds about referents, as well as by the attractiveness of the referent.

There are four moderating variables: gender, length of tenure, level in the organization, and amount of education or professionalism.

Men and women prefer same-sex comparisons. This also suggests that if women are tolerant of lower pay, it may be due to the comparative standard they use.

Employees in jobs that are not sex-segregated will make more cross-sex comparisons than those in jobs that are either male- or female-dominated.

Motivation is the force that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. It is what causes us to take action, whether to grab a snack to reduce hunger or enroll in college to earn a degree. The forces that lie beneath motivation can be biological, social, emotional or cognitive in nature.

Bibliography
Robbins and Judge, Organizational Behavior, 12th Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. P.C. Early, P. Wojnaroski, and W. Prest, Task Planning and Energy Expended: Explorations of How Goals Influence Performance, Journal of Applied Psychology, Feb 1987. J. Greenberg and S. Ornstein, High Status Job Title as Compensation for Underpayment: A Test of Equity Theory, Journal of Applied Psychology, May 1983.