Electric Power Systems Research 76 (2006) 786800

Double-fed induction generator control for variable speed wind power generation
Badrul H. Chowdhury , Srinivas Chellapilla
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Missouri-Rolla, Rolla, MO 65409-0040, USA Received 26 July 2005; received in revised form 31 October 2005; accepted 31 October 2005 Available online 20 December 2005

Abstract Vector control of a doubly fed induction generator drive for variable speed wind power generation is described. A wound rotor induction machine with back-to-back three phase power converter bridges between its rotor and the grid forms the electrical system. The control scheme uses stator ux-oriented control for the rotor side converter bridge control and grid voltage vector control for the grid side converter bridge. A complete simulation model is developed for the control of the active and reactive powers of the doubly fed generator under variable speed operation. Several studies are performed to test its operation under different wind conditions. A laboratory test setup consisting of a wound rotor induction machine driven by a variable speed dc motor is used to validate the software simulations. 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Vector control; Back-to-back power converter; Simulation

1. Introduction Grid-tied wind-powered electricity generation is growing at a phenomenal pace with nearly 7000 MW of new wind capacity installed worldwide in 2002 [1]. Many in the electric utility business are beginning to look at large-scale wind power projects as an attractive alternative to conventional capacity expansion in the face of high electrical demands and growing uncertainties in conventional generation sitting and permitting. Despite the renewed interest in wind power, this form of renewable energy still generates less than 1% of the electricity in the United States. In the present day network control structure with minimal transmission expansion possibility in the near future, concerns regarding thermal and voltage stability limits in the presence of large-scale penetration of wind power are real. Reactive power requirements as well as power quality issues continue to be hurdles and solution strategies are rather complex and expensive. Most wind turbine manufacturers now equip their power generating units with induction generators. These machines are operated either at xed speed or variable speed. Generators driven by xed speed turbines can be directly connected to grid.

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 573 341 6230; fax: +1 573 341 6671. E-mail address: bchow@umr.edu (B.H. Chowdhury).

However, variable speed generators need a power electronic converter interface for interconnection with the grid. Variable speed generation has better energy capture than xed speed generation. There are several other advantages of using variable speed generation such as mechanical stress reduction of turbine and acoustic noise reduction. With recent developments in power electronic converters, variable speed generation looks entirely feasible and cost effective. The paper characterizes the performance of a double-fed induction generator (DFIG) for variable speed wind power generation. Muljadi et al. [2,3] discuss stall regulation and pitch angle control for variable speed wind turbines. Double-sided pulsewidth-modulated (PWM) switching of inverters for the DFIG is discussed in [4,5]. Separate control of the rotor and the grid side converters for the double-sided PWM converter are discussed described in [69]. It is quite obvious from the present day literature that accurate variable speed wind generator models that will be widely accepted for power system studies are very much a necessity for model validation. This paper aims to model the variable speed operation of the DFIG conguration for given wind speed proles so as to observe the control response during wind speed changes. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy present in the wind into mechanical energy by means of producing torque. Since the energy contained by the wind is in the form of kinetic energy, its

0378-7796/$ see front matter 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.epsr.2005.10.013

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magnitude depends on the air density and the wind velocity. The wind power developed by the turbine is given by the following equation [10]: P= 1 Cp AV 3 (1) 2 where the symbols are as dened in an earlier section. The power coefcient Cp gives the fraction of the kinetic energy that is converted into mechanical energy by the wind turbine. It is a function of the tip speed ratio and depends on the blade pitch angle for pitch-controlled turbines. The tip speed ratio may be dened as the ratio of turbine blade linear speed and the wind speed: = R V 1 R Cp ()A 2
3

since there is no inherent reactive power control method in this conguration, it must use capacitor banks instead of drawing the reactive power from the grid; since the generator is made to run at a constant speed in spite of uctuations in wind speed, it will result in uctuation of generated voltage as well as output power. In variable speed systems, the turbine rotor absorbs the mechanical power uctuations by changing its speed. So the output power curve is smoother which greatly enhances the quality of power. However, since variable speed operation produces a variable frequency voltage, a power electronic converter must be used to connect to the constant frequency grid. 2.1. Variable speed WECS with squirrel cage induction generator In this setup the stator of the squirrel cage induction generator will be connected to the grid by means of back-to-back connected power electronic converter bridges as shown in Fig. 1. The converter is needed because the variable speed generator produces a variable frequency voltage that has to be converted to match the constant grid frequency. Since the power converter has to convert all the stator power, the converter size depends on the stator power rating. The advantages of this conguration are its ability to make the best use of available wind power and the fact that it eliminates the need for a capacitor bank since it is able to draw its required reactive power from the grid. However, the cost of the power converter can be high due to its large size. 2.2. Variable speed WECS with wound rotor induction generator Although a squirrel cage induction generator may be used in variable speed WECS, the power converter size in the earlier system can be reduced by using it on the rotor side of a wound rotor induction generator. Fig. 2 shows a variable speed system using a wound rotor generator. The power converter is now connected between the rotor and grid. So it needs to carry only the slip power, the magnitude of which will be the machine slip times the stator power. In general though, wound rotor induction generators cost more than the squirrel cage type. However, for large

(2)

Substituting (2) in (1), we have: P= 3 (3)

There is a value of the tip speed ratio at which the power coefcient is maximum [2,3]. Variable speed turbines can be made to capture this maximum energy in the wind by operating them at a blade speed that gives the optimum tip speed ratio. This may be done by changing the speed of the turbine in proportion to the change in wind speed. 2. Variable speed operation Fixed speed wind electric conversion systems (WECS) generally use squirrel cage induction generators with direct grid connection so as to maintain a xed speed that matches the electrical frequency of the grid. In order to operate the xed speed systems at low and high wind speeds efciently, pole changing is generally employed. Smaller number of pole pairs is used at high wind speeds and higher number at lower wind speeds. This allows the generator to operate at a different mechanical speed without affecting its electrical frequency. The advantage is that a cost-effective aerodynamic control like stall control [2,11] can be used. However, the drawbacks in xed speed systems are: it cannot optimally use the available wind power due to constant speed operation;

Fig. 1. WECS using squirrel cage generator with a full-rated power converter between the generator and the grid.

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Fig. 2. WECS using DFIG with partially rated power converter between rotor and the grid.

ratings, the costs become comparable. So, the net advantages of using a wound rotor generator outweigh that of a squirrel cage machine for utility scale wind power generation. 3. DFIG modeling

turning on of the lower transistor in a phase helps in decreasing the current. At any time, only one of the two transistors in any leg of the bridge will be on because of the obvious short circuit condition with both being on simultaneously. 4. Rotor side converter control

Double-fed induction machines can be operated as a generator as well as a motor in both sub-synchronous and supersynchronous speeds, thus giving four possible operating modes. Only the two generating modes at sub-synchronous and supersynchronous speeds are of interest for wind power generation. Thus, two power converter bridges connected back-to-back by means of a dc link, as shown in Fig. 3, can accommodate the bidirectional rotor power ow in a DFIG [5,12,13]. The purpose of the grid side converter is to maintain the dc link voltage constant. It has control over the active and reactive power transfer between the rotor and the grid, while the rotor side converter is responsible for control of the ux, and thus, the stator active and reactive powers. As seen in the gure, the converter bridge consists of three legs one for each phase. Each phase leg contains two transistors. A hysteresis control tracks the desired values of phase currents by turning on the upper transistor when the reference value of phase current exceeds the algebraic sum of the actual phase current and a specied hysteresis level and turning on the lower transistor when the actual current value is greater than the algebraic sum of hysteresis level and the reference value of the current. The reason for doing this is that turning on of the upper transistor helps in increasing the current in that phase where as

To exploit the advantages of variable speed operation, the tracking of optimum torque-speed curve is essential. Speed can be adjusted to the desired value by controlling torque. So, an approach of using active power set point from the instantaneous value of rotor speed and controlling the rotor current iry in stator ux-oriented reference frame to get the desired active power will result in obtaining the desired values of speed and torque according to the optimum torque speed curve. The reactive power set point can also be calculated from active power set point using a desired power factor. In the stator ux-oriented reference frame, reactive power can be controlled by controlling the d-axis rotor current. In stator ux-oriented control, both stator and rotor quantities are transformed to a special reference frame that rotates at an angular frequency identical to the stator ux linkage space phasor with the real axis (x-axis) of the reference frame aligned to the stator ux vector. At steady state, the reference frame speed equals the synchronous speed. The scheme makes use of stator ux angle, which is determined dynamically, to map the stator and rotor quantities onto the new reference frame. Fig. 4 shows the reference frames that are used during transformations [14].

Fig. 3. Back-to-back connected power converter bridges.

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Both stator and rotor current values are now computed in the stator ux-oriented reference frame by using stator ux angle: isx isy irx iry
Fig. 4. Reference frames.

cos s sin s cos s sin s

sin s cos s sin s cos s

isD isQ irD irQ

(8)

(9)

The equation for stator ux angle (s ) is obtained from its denition. By denition, stator ux angle is the angle made by stator ux linkage phasor with stationary D-axis: Thus, s = tan1 SQ SD = tan1 (4) (Ls /Lm )iSQ + irQ (Ls /Lm )iSD + irD (5) imsQ imsD Ls = isD + irD Lm

It can be shown that the choice of stator ux-oriented reference frame results in a decoupled control of stator side active and reactive powers as follows: stator ux linkages expressed in the new reference frame are: sx = Ls isx + Lm irx sy = Ls isy + Lm iry (10) (11)

s = tan1

Ls iSQ + Lm irQ Ls iSD + Lm irD

Since the real axis (x) of the new reference frame is aligned with the stator ux linkage vector, sy = 0. Thus, Ls isy + Lm iry = 0 Lm iry isy = Ls The stator magnetizing current is: sx + jsy s s = Lm Lm sx Lm (12)

= tan1 where imsQ

(6)

ims =

(13)

But, since imsD (7) sy = 0, ims = (14)

Ls = isQ + irQ ; Lm

Thus, the rst step towards nding the stator ux angle is to obtain the stator and rotor currents in their natural reference frames, i.e. stator currents (isQ ) in the stationary reference frame and the rotor currents (irQ ) in the rotor reference frame as follows [14]: 2 2 cos cos cos + 3 3 2 2 2 Ks () = sin sin sin + 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 isQ ir isa ira isD = Ks () isb ; ir = Ks () irb is0 isc ir0 irc The rotor currents in the stationary reference frame are obtained by obtaining the rotor angle ( r ), which is measured by a rotor position sensor. irD irQ x= cos r sin r sin r cos r ir ir

Thus, ims = |ims | is a constant value. From (10): isx = sx Lm irx Lm = (|ims | irx ) Ls Ls 3 3 Re(Vs s i s ) = (Vsx isx + Vsy isy ) s 2 2 (15)

It may be shown that the stator side real and reactive powers are Ps = and 3 3 Im g(Vs s i s ) = (Vsy isx Vsx isy ) (17) s 2 2 In stator ux-oriented reference frame, since Vsx = 0, we have Vsy = |Vs |. Thus, Qs = Ps = and 3 |Vs | isx 2 Substitution of (12) in (18) and (15) in (19) results in Qs = 3 Lm Ps = |Vs | iry 2 Ls Qs = 3 Lm |Vs | (|ims | irx ) 2 Ls (19) 3 |Vs | isy 2 (18) (16)

(20) (21)

From the stationary axis values of stator and rotor currents, the stationary axis values for stator magnetizing current are found from Eq. (7) and thus the ux angle may be found from Eq. (4).

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Thus, the variations in rotor currents will also reect in the variation of stator side currents isx , isy and hence in the stator side real and reactive powers also. This principle has been used in the control of stator real and reactive powers. The control scheme uses a PI controller to obtain the reference value for isx from real power error that is the difference between desired and actual values of real power. Similarly, a PI controller can be tuned to get the reference value for irx from the reactive power error. 5. Grid side converter control The objective of the grid side converter is to keep the dc link voltage constant irrespective of the direction of rotor power ow. Decoupled control of active and reactive powers owing between rotor and grid is done by using supply voltage vectororiented control. In such a scheme, current ix is controlled to keep the dc link voltage constant and current iy is used to obtain the desired value of reactive power ow between the supply side converter and the supply. All voltage and current quantities are transformed to a special reference frame that rotates at the same speed as the supply voltage space phasor with the real axis (x-axis) of the reference frame aligned to the supply voltage vector. At steady state, the reference frame speed equals the synchronous speed. The scheme makes use of the supply voltage angle determined dynamically to map the supply voltage, the converter

terminal voltage and the phase currents onto the new reference frame. First the supply voltage angle ( s ) has to be determined. By denition, the supply voltage angle is s = tan1 VSQ VSD (22)

The real axis (x) is aligned with the supply voltage phasor. Thus, Vy = 0. Hence, the powers between the grid side converter and the grid are: P= Q= 3 3 (vx ix + vy iy ) = vx ix 2 2 3 3 (vy ix vx iy ) = vx iy 2 2 (23) (24)

The dc power has to be equal to the active power owing between the grid and the grid side converter. Thus, Ei0s = C 3 v x ix 2 (25) (26)

dE = i0s i0r dt

where i0s is the current between the dc link and the rotor and i0r is the current between the dc link and the stator. Thus, the dc link voltage can be controlled by controlling ix .

Fig. 5. Main circuit containing wound rotor machine, wind turbine and power converter.

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Fig. 6. Obtaining quadrature axis rotor reference current in stator ux-oriented frame.

Fig. 8. Obtaining the reference current between the grid and the grid side converter.

6. Implementation of the simulation model There are many popular simulation tools such as ACSL, MATLAB/Simulink and PSCAD that can be used to simulate electric drives, power systems, power electronic circuits or a combination of those. However, as is the case with any software, there are certain advantages and disadvantages associated with any one of the above mentioned software and discretion has be used while choosing one of those depending on the type of application it is used for. PSCAD [15] was selected for the simulations effort in this study as it already has models for wind turbine, wind turbine governor, and the wind resource in addition to having a powerful simulation engine that is suitable for simulating time domain instantaneous responses. The main circuit developed in PSCAD is shown in Fig. 5. It contains a wound rotor generator shaft connected to a wind turbine shaft by means of a gearbox as modeled in PSCAD. The stator terminals are directly connected to the grid and the rotor terminals are connected to the grid by means of a back-toback power converter bridge. The pitch angle adjustment for the turbine is done by a wind turbine governor. The rotor side power converter controls the stator active and reactive powers and the grid side converter maintains the dc link voltage. To simulate these control schemes two subsystems were developed one for the rotor side converter control and the other for the grid side converter control. A hysteresis modulation strategy was used to implement the converter-switching logic, which makes the converter look like a current controlled, current source converter. 6.1. Rotor side converter control The rotor side converter control begins with the stator and rotor current transformation to the dq reference frame followed by both currents being transformed to the stator ux-oriented frame. Since the objective is to capture the maximum energy

available in the wind, the active power reference is always made equal to the available wind turbine power. The reactive power reference value was derived from the active power reference and the desired value of the power factor. The control uses the principle that in the stator ux-oriented frame, the rotor current variations will reect in stator current variations and hence, by controlling the rotor current, the stator active and reactive powers can be controlled. A reference current iry,ref was derived from the error between the active power reference and the actual active power by tuning a PI controller, as shown in Fig. 6. Similarly, a reference current irx,ref was obtained from the error between the reactive power reference and the actual reactive power, as shown in Fig. 7. Then, both reference currents were transformed to their natural reference frame that is the rotor frame. These rotor current references, after a dq-to abc transformation, were used for implementing the hysteresis modulation on the rotor side three-phase converter. 6.2. Grid side converter control The grid side converter control begins with transforming the grid voltages to the stationary reference frame to obtain the voltage vector angle as given by Eq. (22). As seen before, the dc link voltage can be controlled by control of the direct axis current ix in the voltage vector-oriented reference frame. Thus, a reference current ix,ref was derived from the dc link voltage error of the converter bridge by tuning a second PI controller, as shown in Fig. 8. The current iy,ref was forced to zero so as to make the displacement equal to zero. The reference currents in the grid voltage vector-oriented frame were then transformed to their natural frame of reference the stationary frame. An inverse transformation was used to obtain the reference currents as phase currents. With the reference currents for both rotor side and grid side converters, hysteresis modulation may then be implemented for both converters.

Fig. 7. Obtaining direct axis, quadrature axis rotor reference current in stator ux-oriented frame.

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7. Simulation results Simulation studies for various wind conditions were performed and the control response observed for each. Only the following conditions are shown in this paper: step increase in wind speed; ramp component in wind;

gust component in wind; noise component in wind. 7.1. Response to step increase in wind speed The response of the control is shown in Fig. 9 for a step increase in wind speed from 6 to 7 m/s at time 1.0 s. The graphs shown correspond to (in order of appearance):

Fig. 9. Response to step increase in wind speed.

B.H. Chowdhury, S. Chellapilla / Electric Power Systems Research 76 (2006) 786800 Table 1 Ramp wind component data Ramp maximum velocity Ramp period Ramp start time Number of ramps 1 m/s 1s 1.5 s 1 Table 2 Gust wind component data Gust peak velocity Gust period Gust start time Number of gusts 1 m/s 0.2 s 0.5 s 0.7

793

Fig. 10. Response to ramp component in wind.

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B.H. Chowdhury, S. Chellapilla / Electric Power Systems Research 76 (2006) 786800 Table 3 Noise wind component data Number of noise components Noise amplitude-controlling parameter Surface drag coefcient Turbulence scale Random seed number Time interval for random generation 20 1 rad/s 0.0192 600 m 13 0.35 s

(a) wind speed, (b) pitch angle, (c) stator real power reference, (d) stator real power, (e) stator-reactive power reference, (f) stator-reactive power, (g) generator speed, (h) rotor phase a current reference, (i) rotor phase a current, (j) dc link voltage across the capacitor, (k) reference current for a-phase between grid and grid side converter, and (l) a phase current between grid and grid side converter.

Fig. 11. Response to gust component in wind.

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As can be seen from the plots, the vector control achieves fast and accurate control of active and reactive powers. The rotor side and grid side converter reference currents are tracked well by the hysteresis controller as the dc link voltage reached the specied value. It is worth noting that the rotor phase a reference value of current obtained from rotor side converter control subsystem changes its frequency to achieve rotor current frequency to suit the new value of slip when the step increase in wind speed take place.

7.2. Response to ramp component in wind speed For the ramp wind component data given in Table 1, the response of the control is shown in Fig. 10. 7.3. Response to gust component in wind speed For the gust wind component data given in Table 2, the response of the control is shown in Fig. 11. The performance

Fig. 12. Response to noise component in wind.

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Table 4 dc Machine and wound rotor induction machine (WRIM) operating parameters and losses dc Machine operating as a motor to run the WRIM at a sub-synchronous speed of 1760 rpm dc Machine input voltage (Vdc) dc Machine input current (A) dc Machine input power (W) Armature winding losses (W) No load losses (W) Shunt eld losses (W) dcdc converter losses (W) dc Machine output power (at 1760 rpm) (W) Efciency (%) 125 8.5 1062.5 108.4 21.5 0.25 11 921.5 86.72 WRIM operating as a generator at a sub-synchronous speed of 1760 rpm

WRIM output power dcac Converter losses Output power factor (lag) WRIM efciency (%)

765 11 0.9 81.8

dc Machine operating as a motor to run the WRIM at a super-synchronous speed of 1940 rpm dc Machine input voltage (Vdc) dc Machine input current (A) dc Machine input power (W) Armature winding losses (W) No load losses (W) Shunt eld losses (W) dcdc converter losses (W) dc Machine output power (at 1940 rpm) (W) Efciency (%) 125 11.8 1475 208.9 21.5 0.3 11 1233.3 83.6

WRIM operating as a generator at a super-synchronous speed of 1940 rpm

WRIM output power (w) dcac Converter losses (w) Output power factor (lag) WRIM efciency (%)

1080 11 0.8 86.7

during a wind gust is also similar to the previous studies except that here, the pitch angle that was about to reach zero at 0.5 s again, increases to shed some of the aerodynamic power. Once the wind gust is over, the pitch angle remains in its optimum position, which is zero degree until any sudden increase in wind speed takes place again. 7.4. Response to noise component in wind speed

while Table 4 shows the operating parameters and efciencies of the machines. It should be noted that the induction machine operates at a higher efciency at super-synchronous speeds than at sub-synchronous speeds. One should also note that in an actual wind turbine, the input to the electrical generator is the converted aerodynamic power available from the wind turbines and therefore the overall efciency may be higher. 8.1. Speed control of the dc motor

For the noise wind component data is given in Table 3, the response of the control is shown in Fig. 12. The noise component best summarizes the state of wind uctuations that take place. The wind can be expected to resemble this study most of the time. Excellent control is achieved for both real and reactive powers. 8. Implementation of a laboratory test model A 2 hp wound rotor induction machine (WRIM) was used for testing on a laboratory-scale model. A 2 hp dc motor was used as the prime mover and the motor controls were performed with a power electronic converter comprised of IGBT switches and governed by a DSP board. The two machines were mechanically coupled and the dc motor was made to rotate at various speeds, at both sub- and super-synchronous speeds. To enable the induction machine to work as a generator, power at slip frequency was provided to the rotor of the induction machine at sub-synchronous speeds, while power was extracted from the rotor during supersynchronous speeds. The IGBT switches were driven using a hysteresis modulation technique derived from the stator uxoriented control of the WRIM. Fig. 13 shows a picture of the laboratory setup. The machine ratings are shown in Appendix A

The dc motor, which acts as the prime mover for the induction machine is required to operate in both the sub- and supersynchronous speeds. The speed control of the dc motor was performed using a dcdc buck converter. A voltage of 150 V was supplied to the buck converter, which was then reduced to the required voltage as governed by the speedvoltage relation of the dc motor. The dc supply has a maximum current limit of 25 A while the starting current of the dc motor exceeds this limit. In order to reduce the starting current, a resistor starter has been employed. An initial resistance of 25 was added in series to the armature of the dc motor, which was then reduced gradually and nally reduced the zero. The IGBT switches in the dcdc converter were controlled by a DSP processor, which has been programmed to change the voltage output of the converter every 30 s. The input voltage to the converter was 150 V and the maximum speed obtained was 2030 rpm at a duty cycle of 97%. 8.2. Sub-synchronous mode of operation During the sub-synchronous mode of operation, power at slip frequency was input to the rotor. To minimize the number of moving parts in the whole experiment, both sub- and

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Fig. 14. Sub-synchronous mode of operation.

Fig. 15. Plot of power generated (kVA) and speed (rpm) vs. time for subsynchronous speeds.

Fig. 13. Photograph of the laboratory setup.

super-synchronous modes of operation were performed separately. In order to minimize the complexity of the operation, dc power was supplied to the inverter governed by the DSP processor and the inverted ac power at slip frequency was input to the rotor. The block diagram representing this mode of operation is represented here in Fig. 14. Since the speed of the dc motor is known, all inputs required for the DSP processor are input to the program and hence the values of the rotor current and the frequency are calculated. This is then fed to the IGBT switches. The dc voltage was kept constant at 115 V since the speed of operation is very close to synchronous speed. The speed range of 17001780 rpm was used. Due to the low speed of the communication cables used, speeds much closer to the synchronous speeds were not used since the frequency of the rotor current reaches values close to zero. The variation of output power with respect to the speed of the dc motor is presented in Fig. 15. The gure shows the stator apparent power for a period of 240 s and the corresponding speed

of the induction machine for the same time interval. The total apparent power delivered by the induction generator can be noted to range from 0.73 to 0.87 kVA. This follows the power reference supplied to the DSP. It can also be noted that the change in power with a speed change is not smooth and there is a notable delay for the induction machine to react to a speed change. This is due to the delay caused by the DSP algorithm in calculating the exact rotor input current. The rotor input power variation is shown in Fig. 16. As the speed decreases below the synchronous speed, the amount of rotor power required increases. This change in rotor power is

Fig. 16. Plot of rotor power input (VA) and speed (rpm) vs. time for subsynchronous speeds.

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Fig. 17. Super-synchronous mode of operation.

from the rotor is rectied and is given to the laboratory dc supply, which is supplying power to the dc motor. The rectication process is governed by the DSP processor that commands the duty cycle of the IGBTs of the controlled rectier. A schematic of this mode of operation is presented here in Fig. 17. Fig. 18 represents the stator apparent power for a period of 4 min (240 s) and the corresponding speed of the induction machine for the super-synchronous mode. From this graph, it can be seen that the apparent power generated by the induction machine increases with speed. Since the rotor supplies power to a load, the change in rotor current is swift and thus the change in stator power output with speed change is faster when compared to the sub-synchronous mode of operation. The power output by the rotor and the speed of the machine are plotted against time in Fig. 19. The rotor apparent power output is seen to increase with increase in the speed of the machine. 9. Conclusion Poor power factors in some xed speed wind machines may result in the wind machine drawing high amounts of reactive power resulting in unnecessary stress on the transmission network. With the variable speed strategy and by use of a power converter in conjunction with a DFIG, the reactive power becomes controllable. Thus, the wind machine can be operated at near unity power factor or any desirable power factor. By software simulations, this paper has proven that such a strategy will work well under most wind conditions. The hysteresis modulation strategy appears to yield a fast and accurate control over the WRIMs active and reactive powers. The simulation model can also be used to test the controllers performance under network disturbances. A single lineto-ground (SLG) fault will result in a dip in the dc link voltage, but the controller should be able to recover and continue the tracking of stator and rotor currents after the fault is removed. However, the lineline (LL), a double line-to-ground (LLG) or a three-phase fault is likely to have a catastrophic effect on the controller as it may lose tracking of the current thereby resulting in a possible collapse of the dc link voltage. Induction generators, in general, cannot sustain an appreciable fault current for a fault at their terminals for a long time due to the collapse of excitation source voltage during the fault. However, they will inject a large amount of current for a short transient period of time and this can impact the power system. The results obtained from the laboratory setup have shown that the real power output of the induction generator can be varied by controlling the power handled at the rotor. This factor is helpful in optimally trapping the maximum amount of wind energy available in an efcient manner. Moreover, the power factor and hence the reactive power of the machine can be controlled. Near unity power factors have been achieved. The sub- and super-synchronous modes of operation could be easily combined to provide a continuous operation of the system at various speed ranges. The laboratory results also validate the results obtained from the software simulations. Similar rotor and stator power variations may be seen in both results.

Fig. 18. Plot of power generated (kVA) and speed (rpm) vs. time for supersynchronous speeds.

mainly due to the variation in the rotor voltage since the rotor current, which is given by the difference in the stator power and the reference power, is essentially constant. 8.3. Super-synchronous mode of operation In the super-synchronous mode of operation, power at slip frequency is output from the rotor that is rectied and then inverted into power at normal frequency (60 Hz) and is supplied to the grid in addition to the stator. In this case, the power

Fig. 19. Plot of rotor output power (VA) and speed (rpm) vs. time (s).

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Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge the Research Assistantship provided from UMRs Intelligent Systems Center for Mr. Chellapilla. The authors also acknowledge the many fruitful discussions with Dr. Ed Muljadi of the National Renewable Energy Labs, Golden, Colorado, USA. Appendix A A.1. Induction generator data

A.5. Laboratory-based dc machine

Armature voltage Armature current Power rating Rated speed Shunt eld voltage Shunt eld current

125 Vdc 16 Adc 2 hP 1800 rpm 125 Vdc 0.6 Adc

Appendix B. List of symbols

Nominal values Voltage Frequency (electrical) Power Machine parameters Stator resistance Rotor leakage inductance Stator leakage inductance Mutual inductance Angular moment of inertia (J)

690 V 60 Hz 1.8 MW 0.043 pu 0.0613 pu 0.0613 pu 1.0 pu 1.0 s

A.2. Wind turbine data The wind turbine is a MOD 5 type with the following data
Nominal values Turbine Rated wind speed Rotor radius Rotor swept area Air density Gear box efciency Gear ratio (machine/turbine)

1.8 MVA 7 m/s 40 m 5026.548 m2 1.225 kg/m3 0.979 pu 120

A.3. Induction generator used in the wind machine

Nominal values Voltage Frequency (electrical) Power Machine parameters Stator resistance Rotor leakage inductance Stator leakage inductance Mutual inductance Angular moment of inertia (J)

690 V 60 Hz 1.8 MW 0.043 pu 0.0613 pu 0.0613 pu 1.0 pu 1.0 s

A rotor swept area Cp called power coefcient E dc link voltage i0s current between the dc link and the rotor current between the dc link and the stator i0r ims stator magnetizing current irD , irQ rotor currents in the stationary DQ reference frame irx , iry rotor currents in the stator ux-oriented reference frame ir , ir , ir0 transformed rotor currents in the axis isa , isb , and isc phase currents in the stator iSD , iSQ stator currents in the stationary DQ reference frame isx , isy stator currents in the stator ux-oriented reference frame Ks () Parks transformation matrix Ls , Lm stator inductances Ps , Qs stator side real and reactive powers R wind machine rotor radius V wind velocity in m/s VSD , VSQ supply voltage in the stationary DQ reference frame r rotor angle s supply voltage angle SD , SQ stator ux linkage in the stationary DQ reference frame sx , sy stator ux linkage in the stator ux-oriented reference frame air density (about 1.225 kg/m3 at sea level) s stator ux angle m rotor speed in rad/s References
[1] P. Fairley, Steady As She Blows, IEEE Spectrum 40 (8) (2003) 3539. [2] E. Muljadi, K. Pierce, P. Migliore, Control strategy for variable speed stall regulated wind turbines, in: Proceedings of the American Control Conference, vol. 3, 2426 June, 1998, pp. 17101714. [3] E. Muljadi, C.P. Buttereld, Pitch-controlled variable speed wind turbine generation, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 37 (1) (2001) 240246. [4] R. Datta, V.T. Ranganathan, Variable speed wind power generation using doubly fed wound rotor induction machine a comparison with alternative schemes, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 17 (3) (2002) 414 421. [5] R. Pena, J.C. Clare, G.M. Asher, Doubly fed induction generator using back-to-back PWM converters and its application to variable-speed wind-energy generation, IEEE Proc. Electric Power Appl. 143 (3) (1996) 231241. [6] M.T. Abolhassani, H.A. Toliyat, P. Enjeti, Stator ux-oriented control of an integrated alternator/active lter for wind, in: Proceedings of the

A.4. Laboratory-based wound rotor induction machine

Armature voltage Armature current Power rating Rated speed

120 Vph 11.7 Aph 2 hP 1800 rpm

800

B.H. Chowdhury, S. Chellapilla / Electric Power Systems Research 76 (2006) 786800 IEEE International Electric Machines and Drives Conference, vol. 1, 14 June, 2003, pp. 461467. Eel-Hwan, Sung-Bo Oh, Yong-Hyun Kim, Chang-Su Kim, Power control of a doubly fed induction machine without rotational transducers, in: Proceedings of the 2000 Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference, vol. 2, 1518 August, 2000, pp. 951955. H. Azaza, A. Masmoudi, On the dynamic and steady state performance of a vector contolled DFM drive Systems, in: IEEE International Conference on Man and Cybernetics, vol. 6, 69 October, 2002. A. Tapia, G. Tapia, J.X. Ostolaza, J.R. Saenz, Modeling and control of a wind turbine driven DFIG, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 18 (2) (2003) 194204. G.L. Johnson, Wind Energy Systems, Prentice-Hall, 1985. Available at http://www.eece.ksu.edu/gjohnson/. P. Carlin, A.S. Laxson, E. Muljadi, History and state of the art of variable-speed wind turbine technology, NREL Tech. Rep. TP-50028607, 2001. S. Muller, M. Deicke, R.W. De Doncker, Adjustable speed generators for wind turbines based on doubly fed induction machines and 4-quadrant IGBT converters linked to the rotor, in: Proceedings of the 2000 Industry Applications Conference, vol. 4, 812 October, 2000, pp. 2249 2254. [13] D. Panda, E.L. Benedict, G. Venkataramanan, T.A. Lipo, A novel control strategy for the rotor side control of a doubly-fed induction machine, in: Proceedings of the 2001 IEEE Industry Application Conference, vol. 3, 30 September4 October, 2001, pp. 16951702. [14] P.C. Krause, O. Wasynzuk, S.D. Sudhoff, Analysis of Electric Machinery and Drive Systems, IEEE press, 2002. [15] PSCAD Version, 4 Users Manual, Manitoba HVDC Research Centre, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, 2003. Badrul H. Chowdhury obtained his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical Engineering from Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA in 1983 and 1987, respectively. He is currently a Professor in the Electrical and Computer Engineering department of the University of Missouri-Rolla. Dr. Chowdhurys research interests are in power system modeling, analysis and control; power electronics and drives. Srinivas Chellapilla received his B.Tech. degree in Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Kakinada, India in 2000. He received his M.S. degree from the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Missouri-Rolla in 2004.

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