NATO

NATO
North Atlantic Treaty Organization Organisation du Trait de l'Atlantique Nord (NATO / OTAN)

Flag of NATO

[1]

NATO countries shown in green Formation Type Headquarters Membership Officiallanguages English [2] French Anders Fogh Rasmussen 4 April 1949 Military alliance Brussels, Belgium

Secretary General

Chairman of the NATO Military Committee Giampaolo Di Paola Website nato.int [3]

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO ( /neto/ NAY-toh; French: Organisation du trait de l'Atlantique Nord (OTAN)), also called the (North) Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, one of the 28 member states across North America and Europe, the newest of which, Albania and Croatia, joined in April 2009. An additional 22countries participate in NATO's Partnership for Peace, with 15other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programs. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the world's defence spending.[4] For its first few years, NATO was not much more than a political association. However, the Korean War galvanized the member states, and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two U.S. supreme commanders. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, which formed in 1955. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the organization's goal was "to keep the Russians

NATO out, the Americans in, and the Germans down."[5] Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defence against a prospective Soviet invasiondoubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of the French from NATO's military structure in 1966. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the organization became drawn into the Breakup of Yugoslavia, and conducted their first military interventions in Bosnia from 1991 to 1995 and later Yugoslavia in 1999. Politically, the organization sought better relations with former Cold War rivals, which culminated with several former Warsaw Pact states joining the alliance in 1999 and 2004. The September 2001 attacks signalled the only occasion in NATO's history that Article5 of the North Atlantic treaty has been invoked as an attack on all NATO members.[6] After the attack, troops were deployed to Afghanistan under the NATO-led ISAF, and the organization continues to operate in a range of roles, including sending trainers to Iraq, assisting in counter-piracy operations[7] and most recently in 2011 enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 1973.

History
Beginnings
The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, and the United Kingdom, is considered the precursor to the NATO agreement. The treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Union's Defence Organization in September 1948.[8] However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the military power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism, so talks for a new military alliance began almost immediately resulting in the North Atlantic Treaty, which was signed in Washington, D.C. on 4April 1949. It included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland.[9] Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, anti-membership riot in March 1949.

The North Atlantic Treaty was signed in Washington, D.C., on 4April 1949 and was ratified by the United States that August.

The members agreed that an armed attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. Consequently they agreed that, if an armed attack occurred, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence, would assist the member being attacked, taking such action as it deemed necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor. Although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from ArticleIV of the Treaty of Brussels, which clearly states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily. The treaty was later clarified to include both the member's territory and their "vessels, forces or aircraft" above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France.[10] The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, which in many cases meant European countries adopting U.S. practices. The roughly 1300Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved. Hence, the 7.6251 NATO rifle cartridge was introduced in the 1950s as a standard firearm cartridge among many NATO countries. Fabrique Nationale de Herstal's FAL became the most popular 7.62 NATO rifle in Europe and served into

NATO the early 1990s. Also, aircraft marshalling signals were standardized, so that any NATO aircraft could land at any NATO base. Other standards such as the NATO phonetic alphabet have made their way beyond NATO into civilian use.

Cold War
The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 was crucial for NATO as it raised the apparent threat of all Communist countries working together, and forced the alliance to develop concrete military plans.[11] SHAPE, the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe, was formed as a consolidated command structure, and began work under Supreme Allied Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower in January 1951.[12] The 1952 Lisbon conference, seeking to provide the forces necessary for NATO's Long-Term Defence Plan, called for an expansion to ninety-six divisions. However this requirement was dropped the following year to roughly thirty-five divisions with heavier use to be made of nuclear weapons. At this time, NATO could call on about fifteen ready divisions in Central Europe, and another ten in Italy and Scandinavia.[13][14] Also at Lisbon, the post of Secretary General of NATO as the organization's chief civilian was created, and Baron Hastings Ismay eventually appointed to the post.[15] In September 1952, the first major NATO maritime exercises began; Exercise Mainbrace brought together 200 ships and over 50,000 personnel to practice the defence of Denmark and Norway.[16] Other major exercises that followed included Exercise Grand Slam and Exercise Longstep, naval and amphibious exercises in the Mediterranean Sea,[17] Italic Weld, a combined air-naval-ground exercise in northern Italy, Grand Repulse, involving the British Army on the Rhine (BAOR), the Netherlands Corps and Allied Air Forces Central Europe (AAFCE), Monte Carlo, a simulated atomic air-ground exercise involving the Central Army Group, and Weldfast, a combined amphibious landing exercise in the Mediterranean Sea involving British, Greek, Italian, Turkish, and U.S. naval forces.

The German Bundeswehr provided the largest element of the allied land forces guarding the frontier in Central Europe

Greece and Turkey also joined the alliance in 1952, forcing a series of controversial negotiations, in which the United States and Britain were the primary disputants, over how to bring the two countries into the military command structure.[12] While this overt military preparation was going on, covert stay-behind arrangements initially made by the Western European Union to continue resistance after a successful Soviet invasion, including Operation Gladio, were transferred to NATO control. Ultimately unofficial bonds began to grow between NATO's armed forces, such as the NATO Tiger Association and competitions such as the Canadian Army Trophy for tank gunnery. In 1954, the Soviet Union suggested that it should join NATO to preserve peace in Europe.[18] The NATO countries, fearing that the Soviet Union's motive was to weaken the alliance, ultimately rejected this proposal. The incorporation of West Germany into the organization on 9May 1955 was described as "a decisive turning point in the history of our continent" by Halvard Lange, Foreign Affairs Minister of Norway at the time.[19] A major reason for Germany's entry into the alliance was that without German manpower, it would have been impossible to field enough conventional forces to resist a Soviet invasion.[20] One of its immediate results was the creation of the Warsaw Pact, which was signed on 14May 1955 by the Soviet Union, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, and East Germany, as a formal response to this event, thereby delineating the two opposing sides of the Cold War. Three major exercises were held concurrently in the northern autumn of 1957. Operation Counter Punch, Operation Strikeback, and Operation Deep Water were the most ambitious military undertaking for the alliance to date, involving more than 250,000 men, 300 ships, and 1,500 aircraft operating from Norway to Turkey.[21]

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French withdrawal
NATO's unity was breached early in its history with a crisis occurring during Charles de Gaulle's presidency of France. De Gaulle protested the United States' strong role in the organization and what he perceived as a special relationship between it and the United Kingdom. In a memorandum sent to President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Prime Minister Harold Macmillan on 17 September 1958, he argued for the creation of a tripartite directorate that would put France on an equal footing with the U.S. and U.K.,[22] and also for expanding NATO's coverage to include areas of interest to France, most notably French Algeria, where France was waging a counter-insurgency and sought NATO assistance.
Map of the NATO air bases in France before Considering the response he received to his memorandum Charles de Gaulle's 1966 withdrawal from NATO unsatisfactory, de Gaulle began constructing an independent defence military integrated command force for his country. He wanted to give France, in the event of an East German incursion into West Germany, the option of coming to a separate peace with the Eastern bloc instead of being drawn into a larger NATO-Warsaw Pact war. In February 1959, France withdrew its Mediterranean Fleet from NATO command.[23] He later banned the stationing of foreign nuclear weapons on French soil. This caused the United States to transfer two hundred military aircraft out of France and return control of the ten major air force bases that had operated in France since 1950 to the French by 1967.

Though France showed solidarity with the rest of NATO during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, de Gaulle continued his pursuit of an independent defence by removing France's Atlantic and Channel fleets from NATO command.[24] In 1966, all French armed forces were removed from NATO's integrated military command, and all non-French NATO troops were asked to leave France. This withdrawal forced the relocation of SHAPE from Rocquencourt, near Paris, to Casteau, north of Mons, Belgium, by 16October 1967.[25] France remained a member of the alliance, and committed to the defence of Europe from possible Communist attack with its own forces stationed in the Federal Republic of Germany throughout the Cold War. A series of secret accords between U.S. and French officials, the Lemnitzer-Ailleret Agreements, detailed how French forces would dovetail back into NATO's command structure should East-West hostilities break out.[26]

Dtente and escalation

During most of the Cold War, NATO's watch against the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact did not actually lead to direct military action. On 1July 1968, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty opened for signature: NATO argued that its nuclear sharing arrangements did not breach the treaty as U.S. forces controlled the weapons until a decision was made to go to war, at which point the treaty would no longer be controlling. Few states knew of the NATO nuclear sharing arrangements at that time, and they were not challenged. In May 1978, Dtente led to many high level meetings between NATO countries officially defined two complementary aims of the leaders from both NATO and the Warsaw Pact. Alliance, to maintain security and pursue dtente. This was supposed to mean matching defences at the level rendered necessary by the Warsaw Pact's offensive capabilities without spurring a further arms race.[27]

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On 12December 1979, in light of a build-up of Warsaw Pact nuclear capabilities in Europe, ministers approved the deployment of U.S. GLCM cruise missiles and PershingII theatre nuclear weapons in Europe. The new warheads were also meant to strengthen the western negotiating position regarding nuclear disarmament. This policy was called the Dual Track policy.[28] Similarly, in 198384, responding to the stationing of Warsaw Pact SS-20 medium-range missiles in Europe, NATO deployed modern Pershing II missiles tasked to hit military targets such as tank formations in the event of war.[29] This action led to peace movement protests throughout Western Europe, and support for the deployment wavered as many doubted whether the push for deployment could be sustained.
During the Cold War, most of Europe was divided between two alliances. Members of The membership of the organization at this time remained largely NATO are shown in blue, with members of the static. In 1974, as a consequence of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, Warsaw Pact in red. Greece withdrew its forces from NATO's military command structure but, with Turkish cooperation, were readmitted in 1980. The Falklands War between the United Kingdom and Argentina did not result in NATO involvement because of the limited scope of NATO. On 30May 1982, NATO gained a new member when, following a referendum, the newly democratic Spain joined the alliance.

After the Cold War

The Revolutions of 1989 and the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact in 1991 removed the de facto main adversary of NATO. This caused a strategic re-evaluation of NATO's purpose, nature and tasks. In practice this ended up entailing a gradual expansion of NATO to Eastern Europe, as well as the extension of its activities to areas that had not formerly been NATO concerns. At the end of the Cold War, European countries accounted for 34% of NATO's military spending; by 2012, that had fallen to 21%.[30] The first postCold War expansion of NATO came with German reunification on 3October 1990, when the former East Germany became part of the Federal Republic of Germany and the alliance. This had been agreed in the Two Plus Four Treaty earlier in the year. To secure Soviet approval of a united Germany remaining in NATO, it was agreed that foreign troops and nuclear weapons would not be stationed in the east. The scholar Stephen F. Cohen argued in 2005 that a commitment was given that NATO would never expand further Reforms made under Mikhail Gorbachev led to east,[31] but according to Robert Zoellick, then a State Department the end of the Warsaw Pact. official involved in the Two Plus Four negotiating process, this appears to be a misperception; no formal commitment of the sort was made.[32] In May 2008, Gorbachev repeated his view that such a commitment had been made, and that "the Americans promised that NATO wouldn't move beyond the boundaries of Germany after the Cold War".[33] As part of postCold War restructuring, NATO's military structure was cut back and reorganized, with new forces such as the Headquarters Allied Command Europe Rapid Reaction Corps established. The Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe agreed between NATO and the Warsaw Pact and signed in Paris in 1990, mandated specific reductions. The changes brought about by the collapse of the Soviet Union on the military balance in Europe were recognized in the Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty, which was signed in 1999. The policies of French President Nicolas Sarkozy have resulted in a major reform of France's military position, culminating with the

NATO return to full membership on 4April 2009, which also included France rejoining the integrated military command of NATO, while maintaining an independent nuclear deterrent.[26][34]

Enlargement and reform

Further information: Enlargement of NATO Between 1994 and 1997, wider forums for regional cooperation between NATO and its neighbors were set up, like the Partnership for Peace, the Mediterranean Dialogue initiative and the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council. In 1998, the NATO-Russia Permanent Joint Council was established. On 8July 1997, three former communist countries, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Poland, were invited to join NATO, which each did in 1999. Membership went on expanding with the accession of seven more Northern and Eastern European countries to NATO: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania. They were first invited to start talks of membership during the 2002 Prague summit, and joined NATO on 29March 2004, shortly before the 2004 Istanbul summit. In Istanbul, NATO launched the Istanbul Cooperation Initiative with four Persian Gulf nations.[35]

NATO has added 12 new members since German Reunification and the end of the Cold War.

New NATO structures were also formed while old ones were abolished. The NATO Response Force (NRF) was launched at the 2002 Prague summit on 21November, the first summit in a former Comecon country. On 19June 2003, a major restructuring of the NATO military commands began as the Headquarters of the Supreme Allied Commander, Atlantic were abolished and a new command, Allied Command Transformation (ACT), was established in Norfolk, Virginia, United States, and the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) became the Headquarters of Allied Command Operations (ACO). ACT is responsible for driving transformation (future capabilities) in NATO, whilst ACO is responsible for current operations. In March 2004, NATO's Baltic Air Policing began, which supported the sovereignty of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia by providing fighters to react to any unwanted aerial intrusions. Four fighters are based in Lithuania, provided in rotation by virtually all the NATO states.[36] The 2006 Riga summit was held in Riga, Latvia, and highlighted the issue of energy security.[37] It was the first NATO summit to be held in a country that was part of the Soviet Union. At the April 2008 summit in Bucharest, Romania, NATO agreed to the accession of Croatia and Albania and both countries joined NATO in April 2009. Ukraine and Georgia were also told that they could eventually become members.[38] The issue of Georgian and Ukrainian membership in NATO prompted harsh criticism from Russia, as did NATO plans for a missile defence system. Studies for this system began in 2002, with negotiations centered on anti-ballistic missiles being stationed in Poland and the Czech Republic. Though NATO leaders gave assurances that the system was not targeting Russia, both presidents Vladimir Putin and Dmitry Medvedev criticized it as a threat.[39] In 2009, U.S. President Barack Obama proposed using the ship based Aegis Combat System, though this plan still includes stations being built in Turkey, Spain, Portugal, Romania, and Poland.[40]

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Military operations
Bosnia and Herzegovina intervention
The Bosnian War began in 1992, as a result of the Breakup of Yugoslavia. The deteriorating situation led to United Nations Security Council Resolution 816 on 9October 1992, ordering a no-fly zone over central Bosnia and Herzegovina, which NATO began enforcing on 12April 1993 with Operation Deny Flight. From June 1993 till October 1996, Operation Sharp Guard added maritime enforcement of the arms embargo and economic sanctions against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 28February 1994, NATO took its first wartime action by shooting down four Bosnian Serb aircraft violating the no-fly zone.[41]

NATO planes engaged in aerial bombardments during Operation Deliberate Force after the Srebrenica massacre.

On 10 and 11April 1994, during the Bosnian War, the United Nations Protection Force called in air strikes to protect the Gorade safe area, resulting in the bombing of a Serbian military command outpost near Gorade by two US F-16 jets acting under NATO direction.[42] This resulted in the taking of 150U.N. personnel hostage on 14April.[43][44] On 16April a British Sea Harrier was shot down over Gorade by Serb forces.[45] A two-week NATO bombing campaign, Operation Deliberate Force, began in August 1995 against the Army of the Republika Srpska, after the Srebrenica massacre.[46] NATO air strikes that year helped bring the Yugoslav wars to an end, resulting in the Dayton Agreement in November 1995.[46] As part of this agreement, NATO deployed a UN-mandated peacekeeping force, under Operation Joint Endeavor, named IFOR. Almost 60,000 NATO troops were joined by forces from non-NATO nations in this peacekeeping mission. This transitioned into the smaller SFOR, which started with 32,000 troops initially and ran from December 1996 until December 2004, when operations where then passed onto European Union Force Althea.[47] Following the lead of its member nations, NATO began to award a service medal, the NATO Medal, for these operations.[48]

Kosovo intervention
In an effort to stop Slobodan Miloevi's Serbian-led crackdown on Albanian civilians in Kosovo, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1199 on 23September 1998 to demand a ceasefire. Negotiations under UN Special Envoy Richard Holbrooke broke down on 23March 1999, and he handed the matter to NATO, which started an 78-day bombing campaign on 24March 1999.[49] Operation Allied Force targeted the military capabilities of what was then the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. During the crisis, NATO also deployed one of its international reaction forces, the ACE Mobile Force (Land), to Albania as the Albania Force (AFOR), to deliver humanitarian aid to refugees from Kosovo.[50]

German KFOR soldiers patrol southern Kosovo in 1999

Though the campaign was criticized for high civilian casualties, including for bombs that landed on the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, Miloevi finally accepted the terms of an international peace plan on 3June 1999, ending the Kosovo War. On 11June, Miloevi further accepted UN resolution 1244, under the mandate of which NATO then helped establish the KFOR peacekeeping force. Nearly one million refugees had fled Kosovo, and part of KFOR's mandate was to protect the humanitarian missions, in addition to deterring violence.[51][50] In AugustSeptember 2001, the alliance also mounted Operation Essential Harvest, a mission disarming ethnic Albanian militias in the

NATO Republic of Macedonia.[52] As of 30 March 2012, 6,226KFOR soldiers continue to operate in the area.[53] The United States, the United Kingdom, and most other NATO countries opposed efforts to require the U.N. Security Council to approve NATO military strikes, such as the action against Serbia in 1999, while France and some others claimed that the alliance needed UN approval. The U.S./UK side claimed that this would undermine the authority of the alliance, and they noted that Russia and China would have exercised their Security Council vetoes to block the strike on Yugoslavia, and could do the same in future conflicts where NATO intervention was required, thus nullifying the entire potency and purpose of the organization. Recognizing the postCold War military environment, NATO adopted the Alliance Strategic Concept during its Washington summit in April 1999 that emphasized conflict prevention and crisis management.[54]

Afghanistan War
The 11 September attacks in the United States caused NATO to invoke Article5 of the NATO Charter for the first time in its history. The Article says that an attack on any member shall be considered to be an attack on all. The invocation was confirmed on 4October 2001 when NATO determined that the attacks were indeed eligible under the terms of the North Atlantic Treaty.[55] The eight official actions taken by NATO in response to the attacks included Operation Eagle Assist and Operation Active Endeavour, a naval operation in the Mediterranean Sea and is designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction as well as to enhance the security of shipping in general which began on 4October 2001.

Despite this early show of solidarity, NATO faced a crisis little more than a year later, when on 10February 2003, France and Belgium vetoed the procedure of silent approval concerning the timing of protective measures for Turkey in case of a possible war with Iraq. Germany did not use its right to break the procedure but said it supported the veto. On the issue of Afghanistan on the other hand, the alliance showed greater unity: on 16 April 2003, NATO agreed to take command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan. The decision came at the request of Germany and the Netherlands, the two nations leading ISAF at the time of the agreement, and all nineteen NATO ambassadors approved it unanimously. The handover of control to NATO took place on 11August, and marked the first time in NATO's history that it took charge of a mission outside the north Atlantic area. Canada had originally been slated to take over ISAF by itself on that date. ISAF was initially charged with securing Kabul and surrounding areas from the Taliban, al Qaeda and factional warlords, so as to allow for the establishment of the Afghan Transitional Administration headed by Hamid Karzai.[56] In October 2003, the UN Security Council authorized the expansion of the ISAF mission throughout Afghanistan,[57] and ISAF subsequently expanded the mission in four main stages over the whole of the country.[58] On 31July 2006, the ISAF additionally took over military operations ISAF General David M. Rodriguez at an Italian in the south of Afghanistan from a U.S.-led anti-terrorism coalition. change of command in Herat. Due to the intensity of the fighting in the south, France has recently allowed a squadron of Mirage 2000 fighter/attack aircraft to be moved into the area, to Kandahar, in order to reinforce the alliance's efforts.[59] NATO is also training the military of Afghanistan and the Afghan National Police to be better equipped in forcing out the Taliban.

The 11 September attacks in the United States caused NATO to invoke its collective defence article for the first time.

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Iraq training mission

In August 2004, during the Iraq War, NATO formed the NATO Training Mission Iraq, a training mission to assist the Iraqi security forces in conjunction with the U.S. led MNF-I.[60] The NATO Training Mission-Iraq (NTM-I) was established at the request of the Iraqi Interim Government under the provisions of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546. The aim of NTM-I was to assist in the development of Iraqi security forces training structures and institutions so that Iraq can build an effective and sustainable capability that addresses the needs of the nation. NTM-I was not a combat mission but is a distinct mission, under the political control of NATO's North Atlantic Council. Its operational emphasis was on training and mentoring. The activities of the mission were coordinated with Iraqi authorities and the U.S.-led Deputy Commanding General Advising and Training, who is also dual-hatted as the Commander of NTM-I. The mission officially concluded on 17December 2011.[61]

Gulf of Aden anti-piracy

Beginning on 17August 2009, NATO deployed warships in an operation to protect maritime traffic in the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean from Somali pirates, and help strengthen the navies and coast guards of regional states. The operation was approved by the North Atlantic Council and involves warships primarily from the United States though vessels from many other nations are also included. Operation Ocean Shield focuses on protecting the ships of Operation Allied Provider which are distributing aid as part of the World Food Programme mission in Somalia. China and South Korea have sent warships to participate in the activities as well.[62][63]

USS Farragut destroying a Somali pirate skiff in March 2010

Libyan no-fly zone

During the 2011 Libyan civil war, violence between protestors and the Libyan government under Colonel Muammar Gaddafi escalated, and on 17March 2011 led to the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which called for a ceasefire, and authorized military action to protect civilians. Acoalition that included several NATO members began enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya shortly afterwards. On 20 March 2011, NATO states agreed on enforcing an arms embargo against Libya with Operation Unified Protector using ships from NATO Standing Maritime Group1 and Standing Mine Countermeasures Group1,[64] and additional ships and submarines from NATO members.[65] They would "monitor, report and, if needed, interdict vessels suspected of carrying illegal arms or mercenaries".[64] On 24March, NATO agreed to take control of the no-fly zone from the initial coalition, while command of targeting ground units remained with the coalition's forces.[66][67] NATO began officially enforcing the UN resolution on 27March 2011 with assistance from Qatar and the United Arab Emirates.[68] By June, reports of divisions within the alliance surfaced as only eight of the 28 member nations were participating in combat operations,[69] resulting in a confrontation between U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates and countries such as Poland, Spain, the Netherlands, Turkey, and Germany to contribute more, the latter believing the organization has overstepped its mandate in the conflict.[70][71][72] In his final policy speech in Brussels on 10

Libyan Army Palmaria howitzers destroyed by the French Air Force near Benghazi on 19 March 2011

June, Gates further criticized allied countries in suggesting their actions could cause the demise of NATO.[73] The German foreign ministry pointed to "aconsiderable [German] contribution to NATO and NATO-led operations" and

NATO to the fact that this engagement was highly valued by President Obama.[74] While the mission was extended into September, Norway that day announced it would begin scaling down contributions and complete withdrawal by 1August.[75] Earlier that week it was reported Danish air fighters were running out of bombs.[76][77] The following week, the head of the Royal Navy said the country's operations in the conflict were not sustainable.[78] By the end of the mission in October 2011, after the death of Colonel Gaddafi, NATO planes had flown about 9,500 strike sorties against pro-Gaddafi targets.[79][80]

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Participating countries
NATO has added new members seven times since first forming in 1949, and now comprises 28 nations. New membership in the alliance has been largely from Eastern Europe and the Balkans, including former members of the Warsaw Pact. At the 2008 summit in Bucharest, three countries were promised future invitations: the Republic of Macedonia,[81] Georgia and Ukraine.[82] Though Macedonia completed its requirements for membership at the same time as Croatia and Albania, NATO's most recent members, its accession was blocked by Greece pending a resolution of the Macedonia naming dispute.[83] Cyprus also has not progressed toward further relations, in part because of opposition from Turkey.[84] Other candidate countries include Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina, which joined the Adriatic Charter of potential members in 2008.[85] Their accession to the alliance is governed with individual Membership Action Plans, and will require approval by each current member. Russia continues to oppose further expansion, seeing it as inconsistent with understandings between Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and U.S. President George H. W. Bush that allowed for a peaceful German reunification.[31] NATO's expansion efforts are often seen by Moscow leaders as a continuation of a Cold War attempt to surround and isolate Russia.[86] After the 2010 election in Ukraine, pro-Russian President Viktor Yanukovych declared his administration would not be pursuing NATO membership.[87] Ukraine is one of eight countries in Eastern Europe with an Individual Partnership Action Plan. IPAPs began in 2002, and are open to countries that have the political will and ability to deepen their relationship with NATO.[88] Map of NATO affiliations in Europe

Bulgaria Canada Croatia Czech Republic

NATO Denmark Estonia France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Turkey United Kingdom United StatesNATO members Macedonia Montenegro Armenia Azerbaijan Bosnia-Herzegovina Georgia Kazakhstan Moldova Montenegro UkraineMembership Action Plan Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Bosnia Finland Georgia Ireland Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Macedonia Malta Moldova Montenegro Russia Serbia

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Bosnia-Herzegovina

Armenia

NATO Sweden Switzerland Tajikistan Turkmenistan Ukraine Uzbekistan Algeria Egypt Israel Jordan Mauritania Morocco TunisiaIndividual Partnership Action Plan Kuwait Qatar United Arab Emirates Australia Japan New Zealand South KoreaPartnership for Peace Mediterranean Dialogue Istanbul Cooperation Initiative Contact countriesMap of NATO partnerships globally

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Bahrain

NATO and the European Union signed a comprehensive package of arrangements under the Berlin Plus agreement on 16December 2002. With this agreement the EU was given the possibility to use NATO assets in case it wanted to act independently in an international crisis, on the condition that NATO itself did not want to actthe so-called "right of first refusal."[89] A double framework has been established to help further co-operation between the 28 NATO members and 22 "partner countries".

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The Partnership for Peace (PfP) program was established in 1994 and is based on individual bilateral relations between each partner country and NATO: each country may choose the extent of its participation. The PfP program is considered the operational wing of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership.[90] Members include all current and former members of the Commonwealth of Independent States.[91] The Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC) was first established on 29 May 1997, and is a forum for regular coordination, consultation and dialogue between all fifty participants.[92]
NATO organizes regular summits for leaders of their members states and partnerships.

Additionally, NATO cooperates and discusses their activities with numerous other non-NATO members. The Mediterranean Dialogue was established in 1994 to coordinate in a similar way with Israel and countries in North Africa. The Istanbul Cooperation Initiative was announced in 2004 as a dialog forum for the Middle East along the same lines as the Mediterranean Dialogue. The four participants are also linked through the Gulf Cooperation Council.[93] Other third countries also have been contacted for participation in some activities of the PfP framework such as Afghanistan.[94] Since 199091, the Alliance has gradually increased its contact with countries that do not form part of any of the above cooperative groupings. Political dialogue with Japan began in 1990, and a range of non-NATO countries have contributed to peacekeeping operations in the former Yugoslavia. The Allies established a set of general guidelines on relations with other countries, beyond the above groupings in 1998.[95] The guidelines do not allow for a formal institutionalization of relations, but reflect the Allies' desire to increase cooperation. Following extensive debate, the term "Contact Countries" was agreed by the Allies in 2000. Two of these countries are also members of the AUSCANNZUKUS strategic alliance.

Structures
The main headquarters of NATO is located on Boulevard LopoldIII, B-1110 Brussels, which is in Haren, part of the City of Brussels municipality.[96] A new headquarters building is, as of 2010, under construction nearby, due for completion by 2015.[97] The design is an adaptation of the original award-winning scheme designed by Michel Mossessian and his team when he was a Design Partner with SOM.[98] The staff at the Headquarters is composed of national delegations of member countries and includes civilian and military liaison offices and Anders Fogh Rasmussen took over as Secretary officers or diplomatic missions and diplomats of partner countries, as General of NATO in August 2009. well as the International Staff and International Military Staff filled from serving members of the armed forces of member states.[99] Non-governmental citizens' groups have also grown up in support of NATO, broadly under the banner of the Atlantic Council/Atlantic Treaty Association movement.

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NATO Council
Like any alliance, NATO is ultimately governed by its 28 member states. However, the North Atlantic Treaty, and other agreements, outline how decisions are to be made within NATO. Each of the 28 members sends a delegation or mission to NATO's headquarters in Brussels, Belgium.[100] The senior permanent member of each delegation is known as the Permanent Representative and is generally a senior civil servant or an experienced ambassador (and holding that diplomatic rank). Several countries have diplomatic missions to NATO through embassies in Belgium. Together, the Permanent Members form the North Atlantic Council (NAC), a body which meets together at least once a week and has effective governance authority and powers of decision in NATO. From time to time the Council also meets at higher level meetings involving foreign ministers, defence ministers or heads of state or government (HOSG) and it is at these meetings that major decisions regarding NATO's policies are generally taken. However, it is worth noting that the Council has the same authority and powers of decision-making, and its decisions have the same status and validity, at whatever level it meets. NATO summits also form a further venue for decisions on complex issues, such as enlargement. The meetings of the North Atlantic Council are chaired by the Secretary General of NATO and, when decisions have to be made, action is agreed upon on the basis of unanimity and common accord. There is no voting or decision by majority. Each nation represented at the Council table or on any of its subordinate committees retains complete sovereignty and responsibility for its own decisions.
[101] List of Secretaries General # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Name General Lord Ismay Paul-Henri Spaak Dirk Stikker Manlio Brosio Joseph Luns Lord Carrington Manfred Wrner Sergio Balanzino (acting) Willy Claes Sergio Balanzino (acting) Javier Solana Country Duration

United Kingdom 4 April 1952 16 May 1957 Belgium Netherlands Italy Netherlands 16 May 1957 21 April 1961 21 April 1961 1 August 1964 1 August 1964 1 October 1971 1 October 1971 25 June 1984

United Kingdom 25 June 1984 1 July 1988 Germany Italy Belgium Italy Spain 1 July 1988 13 August 1994 13 August 1994 17 October 1994 17 October 1994 20 October 1995 20 October 1995 5 December 1995 5 December 1995 6 October 1999

10 Lord Robertson Alessandro Minuto-Rizzo (acting)

United Kingdom 14 October 1999 17 December 2003 Italy Netherlands Denmark 17 December 2003 1 January 2004 1 January 2004 1 August 2009 1 August 2009present

11 Jaap de Hoop Scheffer 12 Anders Fogh Rasmussen

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15

List of Deputy Secretaries General # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Name Jonkheer van Vredenburch Baron Adolph Bentinck Alberico Casardi Guido Colonna di Paliano James A. Roberts Osman Olcay Paolo Pansa Cedronio Rinaldo Petrignani Eric da Rin Country

[102] Duration

Netherlands 19521956 Netherlands 19561958 Italy Italy Canada Turkey Italy Italy Italy Italy Italy Italy Italy Italy 19581962 19621964 19641968 19691971 19711978 19781981 19811985 19851989 19891994 19942001 20012007 2007present

10 Marcello Guidi 11 Amedeo de Franchis 12 Sergio Balanzino 13 Alessandro Minuto Rizzo 14 Claudio Bisogniero

NATO Parliamentary Assembly

The body that sets broad strategic goals for NATO is the NATO Parliamentary Assembly (NATO-PA) which meets at the Annual Session, and one other during the year, and is the organ that directly interacts with the parliamentary structures of the national governments of the member states which appoint Permanent Members, or ambassadors to NATO. The NATO Parliamentary Assembly is made up of legislators from the member countries of the North Atlantic NATO Ministers of Defense and of Foreign Alliance as well as thirteen associate members. Karl A. Lamers, Affairs meet at NATO headquarters in Brussels. German Deputy Chairman of the Defence Committee of the Bundestag and a member of the Christian Democratic Union, became president of the assembly in 2010.[103] It is however officially a different structure from NATO, and has as aim to join together deputies of NATO countries in order to discuss security policies on the NATO Council. The Assembly is the political integration body of NATO that generates political policy agenda setting for the NATO Council via reports of its five committees: Committee on the Civil Dimension of Security Defence and Security Committee Economics and Security Committee Political Committee Science and Technology Committee

These reports provide impetus and direction as agreed upon by the national governments of the member states through their own national political processes and influencers to the NATO administrative and executive organizational entities.

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16

Military structures
The second pivotal member of each country's delegation is the Military Representative, a senior officer from each country's armed forces, supported by the International Military Staff. Together the Military Representatives form the Military Committee, a body responsible for recommending to NATO's political authorities those measures considered necessary for the common defence of the NATO area. Its principal role is to provide direction and advice on military policy and strategy. It provides guidance on military matters to the NATO Strategic Commanders, whose representatives attend its meetings, and is responsible for the overall conduct of the military affairs of the Alliance under the authority of the Council. The Chairman of the NATO Military Committee is Giampaolo Di Paola of Italy, since 2008.

NATO E-3A flying with US F-16s in a NATO exercise

Like the Council, from time to time the Military Committee also meets at a higher level, namely at the level of Chiefs of Defence, the most senior military officer in each nation's armed forces. Until 2008 the Military Committee excluded France, due to that country's 1966 decision to remove itself from NATO's integrated military structure, which it rejoined in 1995. Until France rejoined NATO, it was not represented on the Defence Planning Committee, and this led to conflicts between it and NATO members. Such was the case in the lead up to Operation Iraqi Freedom.[104] The operational work of the Committee is supported by the International Military Staff. NATO's military operations are directed by the Chairman of the NATO Military Committee, and split into two Strategic Commands commanded by a senior US officer[105] and a senior French officer[106] assisted by a staff drawn from across NATO. The Strategic Commanders are responsible to the Military Committee for the overall direction and conduct of all Alliance military matters within their areas of command. The Military Committee in turn directs two principal NATO organizations: the Allied Command Operations responsible for the strategic, operational and tactical management of combat and combat support forces of the NATO members, and the Allied Command Transformation organization responsible for the induction of the new member states' forces into NATO, and NATO forces' research and training capability.[107]

References
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NATO
[14] Park 1986, p.28 [15] "NATO: The Man with the Oilcan" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,816183,00. html). Time. 24 March 1952. . Retrieved 17 January 2012. [16] Baldwin, Hanson (28 September 1952). "Navies Meet the Test in Operation Mainbrace" (http:/ / select. nytimes. com/ gst/ abstract. html?res=F20711FF3A5B117A93CAAB1782D85F468585F9). New York Times: E7. . Retrieved 10 April 2012. [17] "U. S. Navymen Work on NATO Team" (http:/ / www. navy. mil/ media/ allhands/ acrobat/ ah195209. pdf) (PDF). All Hands (BUPERS U.S. Navy): 3135. September 1952. . Retrieved 2 March 2010. [18] "Fast facts about NATO" (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ news/ world/ story/ 2009/ 04/ 03/ f-nato-fast-facts. html). CBC News. 6 April 2009. . Retrieved 16 July 2011. [19] "West Germany accepted into Nato" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ onthisday/ hi/ dates/ stories/ may/ 9/ newsid_2519000/ 2519979. stm). BBC News. 9 May 2011. . Retrieved 17 January 2012. [20] Isby & Kamps Jr. 1985, p.15 [21] "Emergency Call" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,891351,00. html). Time. 30 September 1957. . Retrieved 27 September 2008. [22] Wenger, Nuenlist & Locher 2007, pp.6769 [23] National Defense University 1997, p.50 [24] van der Eyden 2003, pp.104106 [25] Le Blvennec, Franois (25 October 2011). "The Big Move" (http:/ / www. nato. int/ docu/ review/ 2007/ issue2/ english/ history. html). NATO Review. . Retrieved 19 December 2011. [26] Cody, Edward (March 12, 2009). "After 43 Years, France to Rejoin NATO as Full Member" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2009/ 03/ 11/ AR2009031100547. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved December 19, 2011. [27] Garthoff 1994, pp.659661 [28] Njlstad 2004, pp.280282 [29] Njlstad 2004, pp.278279 [30] "The future of NATO: Bad timing" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ node/ 21551491). The Economist. 31 March 2012. . Retrieved 3 April 2012. [31] Cohen, Stephen F. (24 February 2005). "Gorbachev's Lost Legacy" (http:/ / www. thenation. com/ article/ gorbachevs-lost-legacy). The Nation. . [32] Zoellick, Robert B. (22 September 2000). "The Lessons of German Unification" (http:/ / www. highbeam. com/ doc/ 1G1-65576869. html). The National Interest. . [33] Blomfield A and Smith M (6 May 2009). "Gorbachev: US could start new Cold War" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ worldnews/ europe/ russia/ 1933223/ Gorbachev-US-could-start-new-Cold-War. html). Paris: The Telegraph. . Retrieved 22 May 2009. [34] Stratton, Allegra (17 June 2008). "Sarkozy military plan unveiled" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2008/ jun/ 17/ france. military). The Guardian (UK). . [35] "History" (http:/ / www. nato. int/ history/ index. html). NATO. 15 December 2011. . Retrieved 13 April 2012. [36] Melvin, Don (29 March 2012). "NATO: Member nations should share military systems" (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ world/ europe/ articles/ 2012/ 03/ 29/ nato_member_nations_should_share_military_systems/ ). The Boston Globe. Associated Press. . Retrieved 10 April 2012. [37] Nazemroaya, Mahdi Darius (17 May 2007). The Globalization of Military Power: NATO Expansion (http:/ / www. globalresearch. ca/ index. php?context=viewArticle& code=NAZ20070517& articleId=5677). Centre for Research on Globalization. . [38] U.S. wins NATO backing for missile defense shield CNN.com (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2008/ WORLD/ europe/ 04/ 03/ nato. members/ index. html) [39] Englund, Will (23 March 2012). "Medvedev calls missile defense a threat to Russia" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ world/ europe/ medvedev-calls-missile-defense-a-threat-to-russia/ 2012/ 03/ 23/ gIQA9Id2VS_story. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved 10 April 2012. [40] "Part of NATO missile defense system goes live in Turkey" (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2012/ 01/ 16/ world/ europe/ turkey-radar-station/ index. html). CNN. 16 January 2012. . Retrieved 16 January 2012. [41] Zenko 2010, pp.133134 [42] Zenko 2010, p.134 [43] NATO Handbook: Evolution of the Conflict (http:/ / www. nato. int/ docu/ handbook/ 2001/ hb050102. htm), NATO, [44] Report A/54/549 (http:/ / www. un. org/ Docs/ journal/ asp/ ws. asp?m=A/ 54/ 549), Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35: The fall of Srebrenica [45] Bethlehem & Weller 1997, p.liiv [46] Zenko 2010, pp.137138 [47] Clausson 2006, p.9497 [48] Tice, Jim (22 February 2009). "Thousands more now eligible for NATO Medal" (http:/ / www. armytimes. com/ news/ 2009/ 02/ army_natomedal_022209w/ ). Army Times. . Retrieved 11 April 2012. [49] Thorpe, Nick (24 March 2004). "UN Kosovo mission walks a tightrope" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ europe/ 3565799. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 11 April 2012.

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Bibliography
Bethlehem, Daniel L.; Weller, Marc (1997). The 'Yugoslav' Crisis in International Law (http://books.google. com/books?id=7SczBzxA6-IC&pg=PR55). Cambridge International Documents Series. 5. Cambridge University Press. ISBN9780521463041. Clausson, M. I. (2006). NATO: Status, Relations, and Decision-Making (http://books.google.com/ books?id=ei38uQH5M5kC&pg=PA94). Nova Publishers. ISBN1-6002-1098-8. Garthoff, Raymond L. (1994). Dtente and confrontation: American-Soviet relations from Nixon to Reagan (http:/ /books.google.com/books?id=mGG-x_tuNUcC&pg=PA660). Brookings Institution Press. ISBN0-8157-3041-1. Isby, David C.; Kamps Jr. (1985). Armies of NATO's Central Front. Jane's Information Group. ISBN0-7106-0341-X. National Defense University (1997). Allied command structures in the new NATO (http://books.google.com/ books?id=q3jLV75wFM4C&pg=PA50). DIANE Publishing. ISBN1-5790-6033-1. Njlstad, Olav (2004). The last decade of the Cold War: from conflict escalation to conflict transformation (http:/ /books.google.com/books?id=w0w31Yq5BYsC). 5. Psychology Press. ISBN0-7146-8539-9. Osgood, Robert E. (1962). NATO: The Entangling Alliance (http://books.google.com/ books?id=0V-OAAAAMAAJ). University of Chicago Press. Park, William (1986). Defending the West: a history of NATO (http://books.google.com/ books?id=1bkwAAAAMAAJ). Westview Press. ISBN0-8133-0408-3. Reynolds, David (1994). The Origins of the Cold War in Europe: International Perspectives (http://books. google.com/books?id=yvZNbkjCzwoC). Yale University Press. ISBN0-3001-0562-2. van der Eyden, Ton (2003). Public management of society: rediscovering French institutional engineering in the European context (http://books.google.com/books?id=QJyHlwgWnGQC&pg=PA104). 1. IOS Press. ISBN1-5860-3291-7. Wenger, Andreas; Nuenlist, Christian; Locher, Anna (2007). Transforming NATO in the Cold War: Challenges beyond deterrence in the 1960s (http://books.google.com/books?id=w3qeMymxoBYC&pg=PA67). Taylor & Francis. ISBN0-4153-9737-5. Zenko, Micah (2010). Between Threats and War: U.S. Discrete Military Operations in the Post-Cold War World (http://books.google.com/books?id=rJHU9VZRhjwC&pg=PA133). Stanford University Press. ISBN0-8047-7191-X.

Further reading
Early period Francis A. Beer. Integration and Disintegration in NATO: Processes of Alliance Cohesion and Prospects for Atlantic Community. (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1969), 330 pp. Francis A. Beer. The Political Economy of Alliances: Benefits, Costs, and Institutions in NATO. (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1972), 40 pp. Eisenhower, Dwight D. The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower. Vols. 12 and 13: NATO and the Campaign of 1952 : Louis Galambos et al., ed. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989. 1707 pp. in 2 vol. Gearson, John and Schake, Kori, ed. The Berlin Wall Crisis: Perspectives on Cold War Alliances Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. 209 pp.

NATO John C. Milloy. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, 19481957: Community or Alliance? (2006), focus on non-military issues Smith, Joseph, ed. The Origins of NATO Exeter, UK University of Exeter Press, 1990. 173 pp. Late Cold War period Heuser, Beatrice. NATO, Britain, France and the FRG: Nuclear Strategies and Forces for Europe, 19492000 (London: Macmillan, hardback 1997, paperback 1999), 256p., Index, Map. ISBN 0-333-67365-4 (hbk) Heuser, Beatrice. "NATO: Alliance of Democracies and Nuclear Deterrence", in Sven G. Holtsmark, Vojtech Mastny und Andreas Wenger (ed): War Plans and Alliances in the Cold War: Threat Perceptions in the East and West (London: Routledge, 2006), pp.193217. Heuser, Beatrice. "Victory in a Nuclear War? A Comparison of NATO and WTO War Aims and Strategies", Contemporary European History Vol. 7 Part 3 (November 1998), pp.311328. Beatrice Heuser (12 September 2008). "Cambridge Journals Online Abstract" (http://journals.cambridge.org/action/ displayAbstract?aid=1295548). Journals.cambridge.org. doi:10.1017/S0960777300004264. Retrieved 3 March 2011. Smith, Jean Edward, and Canby, Steven L.The Evolution of NATO with Four Plausible Threat Scenarios. Canada Department of Defence: Ottawa, 1987. 117 pp. Post Cold War period Asmus, Ronald D. Opening NATO's Door: How the Alliance Remade Itself for a New Era Columbia University Press, 2002. 372 pp. Bacevich, Andrew J. and Cohen, Eliot A. War over Kosovo: Politics and Strategy in a Global Age. Columbia University Press, 2002. 223 pp. Daclon, Corrado Maria Security through Science: Interview with Jean Fournet, Assistant Secretary General of NATO, Analisi Difesa, 2004. no. 42 Gheciu, Alexandra. NATO in the 'New Europe' Stanford University Press, 2005. 345 pp. Hendrickson, Ryan C. Diplomacy and War at NATO: The Secretary General and Military Action After the Cold War University of Missouri Press, 2006. 175 pp. Lambeth, Benjamin S. NATO's Air War in Kosovo: A Strategic and Operational Assessment Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 2001. 250 pp. General histories Alasdair, Roberts (2002/2003). "NATO, Secrecy, and the Right to Information" (http://www1.law.nyu.edu/ eecr/vol11_12num4_1/special/roberts.pdf). East European Constitutional Review (New York University School of Law) 11/12 (4/1): 8694 Kaplan, Lawrence S. The Long Entanglement: NATO's First Fifty Years. Praeger, 1999. 262 pp. Kaplan, Lawrence S. NATO Divided, NATO United: The Evolution of an Alliance. Praeger, 2004. 165 pp. Ltourneau, Paul. Le Canada et l'OTAN aprs 40 ans, 19491989 Quebec: Cen. Qubcois de Relations Int., 1992. 217 pp. Paquette, Laure. NATO and Eastern Europe After 2000 (New York: Nova Science, 2001). Powaski, Ronald E. The Entangling Alliance: The United States and European Security, 19501993. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1994. 261 pp. Telo, Antnio Jos. Portugal e a NATO: O Reencontro da Tradio Atlntica, Lisbon: Cosmos, 1996. 374 pp. Sandler, Todd and Hartley, Keith. The Political Economy of NATO: Past, Present, and into the 21st century. Cambridge Uiversity Press, 1999. 292 pp. Zorgbibe, Charles. Histoire de l'OTAN Brussels: Complexe, 2002. 283 pp. Other issues Kaplan, Lawrence S., ed. American Historians and the Atlantic Alliance. Kent State University Press, 1991. 192 pp.

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External links
Official NATO official website (http://www.nato.int/) Basic NATO Documents (http://www.nato.int/docu/basics.htm) Collected news NATO (http://english.aljazeera.net/category/organisation/north-atlantic-treaty-organization) collected news and commentary at Al Jazeera English NATO (http://www.dawn.com/tag/nato/) collected news and commentary at Dawn NATO (http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/nato) collected news and commentary at The Guardian NATO (http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/organizations/n/ north_atlantic_treaty_organization/) collected news and commentary at The New York Times NATO (http://topics.wsj.com/organization/N/NATO/4922) collected news and commentary at The Wall Street Journal Historic films The short film Big Picture: Why NATO? (http://www.archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.2569670) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more] The short film Big Picture: NATO Maneuvers (http://www.archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.2569561) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]

Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors

NATO Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=488327688 Contributors: 08OceanBeach SD, 12allanon1, 130.94.122.xxx, 143.97.2.xxx, 157.228.x.x, 159753, 1mac4u, 21655, 2D, 62.253.64.xxx, 999mal, 99lava, A-giau, ABF, AEMoreira042281, Aaronak, Abhijitsathe, Abunakhli, Achmelvic, Acoblogger, Adam Zbransk, AdamRaizen, Addshore, Adoubleplusgood, AdultSwim, Aesopos, Afrique, Ahoerstemeier, Ahtdoan, Ainlina, Air Miss, Aitias, Aivazovsky, AjitPD, Aka, Akhristov, Alaexis, Alai, Alakee, Alan Liefting, Alcuin, Alex2706, Alex:D, AlexJ, AlexanderWinston, Alexbaker, Alexius08, AlexiusHoratius, Alexsau1991, Alinor, Almost Anonymous, Alpha.three, Alphachimp, Alset, Amakuru, Amfx22000, Ancientworld, Andrew Chung, AndrewRT, Andrewaisgay, Andrewpmk, Andreww, Andriy155, Andrwsc, Andy Marchbanks, AndyZ, Andyroo161, Angelo De La Paz, Animum, AnnaFrance, AnnieBrave, Antandrus, AntiLiberal2, Anubiandragun, Aogouguo, Apcbg, Appzter, Aris Katsaris, Arj, Armymjm, Arnoldkul, Art LaPella, Artem Karimov, Arwel Parry, Asaba, Asav, Ash sul, Assassin3577, Asterion, Astrotrain, Astuishin, Aszumila, Avala, Axle Road, Axon, Ayapota, Ayrton Prost, AzaToth, Azder, B lav, B. Wolterding, BabyNuke, Bact, Badanedwa, Baki66, Balkanian`s word, Bambuway, BanRay, Bangkokbetty, Bark, Bart l, Barticus88, Baseballbaker23, Bayerischermann, Bazonka, Beckeny, Belinrahs, Ben-Zin, Bender235, Bennelliott, Beno1000, Berek, Bert Schlossberg, Betterthanbond, Bezzyhunter69, BigBen212, Billy Pilgrim, Binksternet, Birdie, Biruitorul, Bjarki S, Bjelleklang, Blacksand, Blahma, Blanchardb, Blink123, BlueGoose, Bluewind, Bobanny, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bobrayner, Bogdan Stanciu, Bolivian Unicyclist, Bomac, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Bonhumm, BoredArnold, Branddobbe, Breakwings90, Brendenhull, Brian Boru is awesome, Brian Crawford, BrianHansen, Brianga, Brighterorange, Brion VIBBER, Britannicus, BritishWatcher, BrokenSegue, Bromley86, Bruce1ee, Bsroiaadn, Buckshot06, Buianh, Bullytr, Burto88, Burzmali, Buttons, C0nanPayne, C12H22O11, CQJ, CWii, Cabalamat, Calabraxthis, Calmypal, Caltas, Cambrasa, CamperStrike, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canadian-Bacon, Canderson7, Canjth, Canley, Canthusus, Cantus, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Careful! They're ruffled!, Carl0006, Catgut, Cdc, Cdiasoh, Cerian, Chadloder, Chamal N, Chaplain, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Cheezisyum21, Chendy, Chenzw, Chepry, Chipmunkdavis, Christopher Kraus, Christopher Parham, Chronisgr, Chwyatt, CieloEstrellado, Civil Engineer III, Clayto.robbins, CletusVanStompU, Closedmouth, Clubminsk, Cnota, Cogitare, Colfer2, Colombianstar, Colonel Cow, Colonies Chris, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Contralya, Conversion script, CopperSquare, Copysan, Cordell, Cornellrockey, Couchinsurance, Counterfact, Cr4zi, Crazyturbo76, Credema, Creez34, CroManIvo, Crowish, Crweezerccr, Ctac, Cucumberson04, Cville Gamer, Cybercobra, CylonCAG, Cynical, Cyp, Czalex, DBG Heuser, DJ Bungi, DJ Clayworth, DMCer, DVD R W, DWolf2k2, Dajenk, Damian Radu, Damirgraffiti, Dammit, Dan Umbrage, Dancingwombatsrule, Dandv, Daniel C. Boyer, Danieltiger45, Danntm, Dante Alighieri, Dar-Ape, Dark Samus, DarkMario91, Darkjedi10, Darrien, DarthGator, Darwinek, Datastat, Date delinker, Davewild, David Biddulph, David Edgar, David Kernow, David Newton, David.Monniaux, Davydoug, Dawn Bard, Daycd, De Administrando Imperio, Deathphoenix, Deavenger, Debatesuperman, Deflective, Delirium, Delldot, Delux, Demibee, Demmy, Den fjttrade ankan, Denelson83, Denihilonihil, Dennis Brown, Depictionimage, Der Golem, DerHexer, Desiphral, Desyman44, Deutch-Editor-In-Chief, Devilsfanatic30, Dfrg.msc, Dharma6662000, Dhum Dhum, Digital1, Digwuren, Diligent Terrier, Dimitar2007, Dimka Kovalll, DinosaursLoveExistence, Dionysos1, Dirka Dubs, Dirtybutclean, Dispenser, Dlohcierekim's sock, DmitriyR, DocWatson42, Donarreiskoffer, DoubleBlue, Dougie WII, Dpr, Dr. Spikez, Dr.Gonzo, Draeco, Dragomiloff, Dumbo1, Duncan1800, Dutch Rongo, Dwrcan, Dynamization, DynamoDegsy, ESkog, Ecneislop, Edcolins, Edgar181, Edivorce, Edmilne, EdoDodo, Edward, EdwinHJ, 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Quibik, RL0919, ROOB323, RSK, Radiojon, Raerth, Raggz, Ragib, Ragster128, RainbowOfLight, Rama, RandomP, Rascalb, Raso mk, Rave92, Rdsmith4, RedGav, Redmage, Redvers, Reginmund, Regulus marzo4103, Rettetast, RevolverOcelotX, RexNL, Reanin, Rfl, Rhatsa26X, Rhinorow, Rich Farmbrough, RichJTD, Ringbang, Riwnodennyk, Rjanag, Rjecina, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi, Rklawton, Rlquall, Ro0103, Rob.bastholm, Robbyslaughter, Robert Skyhawk, Rohawn, Roleplayer, Roma007, Romanm, RossPatterson, Rougher07, Rpeblack, Rsquire3, Rtdixon86, RucasHost, Rudykog, Ruy Lopez, Rwendland, Ryan4314, Ryuu, S3000, SEWilco, SNIyer12, SP900, ST47, Saga City, Saganaga, Sahrin, SamSim, Samian, Sammyfoo93, Samuel, Sandstein, Sannse, Sapphic, Satandud, Satori Son, Satt 2, Savant13, Sceneshock, SchfiftyThree, Scientizzle, Sciurin, SeNeKa, Seabhcan, Sean Whitton, Seba, Secfan, Sfowler22, Sgt Pinback, SgtAvestrand1956, ShadowEdge, Shangrilaista, Shattered Wikiglass, Shimgray, Shoessss, Sidewinder, Sie777, SigPig, Signsolid, Sijo 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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:NATO flag.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NATO_flag.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: NATO Image:North Atlantic Treaty Organization (orthographic projection).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:North_Atlantic_Treaty_Organization_(orthographic_projection).svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Addicted04 File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bayo, Gmaxwell, Husky, Iamunknown, Mirithing, Myself488, Nethac DIU, Omegatron, Rocket000, The Evil IP address, Wouterhagens, 18 anonymous edits File:Truman signing North Atlantic Treaty.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Truman_signing_North_Atlantic_Treaty.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Patrickneil, User:US National Archives bot File:West German Bundeswehr 1960.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:West_German_Bundeswehr_1960.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown File:NATO AB in France map-en.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NATO_AB_in_France_map-en.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Eric Gaba (Sting - fr:Sting) File:Leonid Brezhnev and Richard Nixon talks in 1973.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leonid_Brezhnev_and_Richard_Nixon_talks_in_1973.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Knudsen, Robert L. File:Cold war europe military alliances map en.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cold_war_europe_military_alliances_map_en.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:San Jose File:Gorbachev Bush 19900601.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gorbachev_Bush_19900601.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Mikko Paananen at fi.wikipedia File:History of NATO enlargement.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:History_of_NATO_enlargement.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Patrickneil, based off of Image:EU1976-1995.svg by glentamara File:F-16 deliberate force.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:F-16_deliberate_force.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: US Army File:KFOR Kosovo2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KFOR_Kosovo2.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Nick Macdonald, 1 anonymous edits File:National Park Service 9-11 Statue of Liberty and WTC.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:National_Park_Service_9-11_Statue_of_Liberty_and_WTC.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: US National Park Service emloyee File:Rodriguez at Italian command change in Herat.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rodriguez_at_Italian_command_change_in_Herat.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: MSgt. 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