Information Technology & People

Emerald Article: Enterprise architectures: enablers of business strategy and IS/IT alignment in government Shirley Gregor, Dennis Hart, Nigel Martin

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To cite this document: Shirley Gregor, Dennis Hart, Nigel Martin, (2007),"Enterprise architectures: enablers of business strategy and IS/IT alignment in government", Information Technology & People, Vol. 20 Iss: 2 pp. 96 - 120 Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09593840710758031 Downloaded on: 30-03-2012 References: This document contains references to 55 other documents To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com This document has been downloaded 3696 times.

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ITP 20,2

Enterprise architectures: enablers of business strategy and IS/IT alignment in government

Shirley Gregor and Dennis Hart
School of Accounting and Business Information Systems, Faculty of Economics and Commerce, College of Business and Economics, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia, and

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Nigel Martin
National Centre for Information Systems Research, College of Business and Economics, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
Abstract
Purpose Drawing on established alignment and architectural theory, this paper seeks to present the argument that an organisations enterprise architecture can enable the alignment of business strategy and information systems and technology (IS/IT). Design/methodology/approach The paper presents a detailed case study of the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), where a high degree of alignment and international recognition of excellence in business and enabling IS/IT performance are documented. Findings The ABS enterprise architecture was developed in 1999-2001 and describes the organisations physical business and IS/IT elements, and the connective relationships that inform the alignment condition. The ABS architecture is robustly holistic in form, and is characterised by a strong and equal focus on business operations, the deliberate inclusion of an IS/IT governance framework, the structuring and hosting of corporate information for business delivery, and the efcient reuse of IS/IT components. Originality/value The ABS case study also examined empirically the social aspects and formal mechanisms of organisational alignment, and shows how a formal enterprise architecture mechanism can integrate into a successful alignment process. Keywords Information systems, Architecture, Strategic alignment, Communication technologies, Business enterprise Paper type Research paper

Information Technology & People Vol. 20 No. 2, 2007 pp. 96-120 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0959-3845 DOI 10.1108/09593840710758031

Introduction Government agencies in Australia, as elsewhere, face a dynamic business environment, with increasing expectations of operational efciency. This operating environment means that government agencies may use a range of mechanisms to align their business strategy and IS/IT. Alignment allows an organisation to apply information resources to the most important business delivery tasks and operational activities. This alignment is dened as the condition where agency information systems support, and are supported by, the agency business strategy. Prior research suggests that alignment, and its relationships to company business performance outcomes and information systems effectiveness, is foremost in the mind of many executives (Reich and Benbasat, 1996, 2000; Croteau et al., 2001). Government agencies are continually seeking to harness the power of their IS/IT to provide more

and higher quality services and products. What some government agencies have come to understand is that the business and IS/IT must work as one, and that an enterprise architecture is a practical framework for integrating business and IS/IT. Strategic alignment theory proposes that alignment is a continuous and cyclic process that can be catalysed by the identication of key performance indicators, enterprise modelling, administrative governance processes, and other alignment execution mechanisms (Henderson and Venkatraman, 1989, 1993; Venkatraman et al., 1993). An organisations enterprise architecture may also be an enabler of alignment, and can be dened as a descriptive representation of the basic arrangement and connectivity of parts of an enterprise (such as data, information, systems, technologies, designs, business processes) (adapted from the ISO 15704 standard; International Organization for Standardization, 2000). The aim of this paper is to show how an enterprise architecture can be used to enable positive alignment outcomes. The paper proceeds by reviewing concepts and studies related to integration and alignment theory. A case study of the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), where business strategy and IS/IT is successfully aligned, is used to demonstrate how an enterprise architecture can positively contribute to organisational alignment. This study has important practical signicance, and contributes to the improved understanding of the formal mechanisms and social aspects of alignment. The importance of organisational integration, alignment and coordination Dating back to the 1940s, organisational theory highlighted the importance of higher-order integration, alignment and coordination as necessary controlling mechanisms, particularly where the organisations undertake complex and technically challenging tasks (Fayol, 1949; Lawrence and Lorsch, 1967; Anderson, 1988). This control is also critical in the delivery and achievement of the organisations strategic goals and objectives. In order to secure this integration or alignment, organisation-wide communication and analytical decision-making have also been identied in the literature as core enabling mechanisms (Hicks and Gullet, 1975; Katz and Kahn, 1978; Luthans, 1985; Gortner et al., 1987; Anderson, 1988). Hence, any artefact of the organisation (e.g. strategic plan, business unit plan, architecture) that can deliver these types of mechanisms may ultimately prove valuable in the establishment of corporate integration and alignment. In focusing more on the alignment construct, it can be argued that organisations have pursued the high alignment condition as a primary means of concentrating IS/IT on the delivery of business outcomes. The foundations of the alignment concept can be traced back to strategic business and IS/IT planning. For example, in the 1970s and 1980s, strategic resource planning was seen as a critical element of management for achieving desired organisational business performance (Ansoff, 1979; Porter, 1980; Miller, 1986; Drucker, 1986). Some management experts also proposed that strategic planning could be split into social and intellectual dimensions (Horovitz, 1984). The intellectual dimension refers to the particular formal methodologies and techniques used in compiling the strategy or strategic plan, while the social dimension refers to the choice of staff, social involvement, communication, and decision making in the planning process. In an attempt to introduce the IS/IT dimension, others also proposed that organisations seeking optimum business performance might align their business strategy with

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current and future information systems through a consolidated information systems strategy (Earl, 1989). This alignment could be achieved through social processes and mechanisms. Strategic planning and alignment theory continued to evolve through the 1980s and 1990s. However, alignment meant different things to different people. For example, Reich and Benbasat (1996) observed that previous researchers had examined the alignment of IT plans with business plans (e.g. Lederer and Mendelow, 1989), business strategies (e.g. Pyburn, 1983) or business objectives (e.g. Zviran, 1990). In clarifying the construct, Reich and Benbasat (1996) dened alignment as: the degree to which the IT mission, objectives, and plans support and are supported by the business mission, objectives, and plans (that is, strategic t). Alignment was also considered a resultant state or outcome (effect) of the organisational processes (cause) that enabled the alignment. Reich and Benbasat (1996, 2000) studied three companies in the Canadian insurance industry. The intellectual dimension of alignment was the state in which IT and business objectives (strategies) are consistent, congruent and valid, while the social dimension was the state in which business and IT executives in the organisation understand and commit to each others missions, objectives and plans. Reich and Benbasat (1996) stressed that both dimensions are required for well-aligned business performance. Reich and Benbasat (1996) also concentrated on providing a greater understanding of the social dimension, specically the level of mutual understanding of the business and IT mission, objectives and plans. They concluded that the understanding of current objectives (short-term alignment) and a shared vision for the utilisation of IT (long term alignment) were promising measures of alignment. In more recent times, alignment studies have concentrated on examining perceived corporate management performance outcomes (Chan et al., 1997; Croteau et al., 2001). In other studies, Chan et al. (1997) and Sabherwal and Chan (2001) surveyed executives in 900 pharmaceutical and automotive parts manufacturing, banking and insurance companies and examined their business strategy, information systems strategy, business performance, and information systems performance. Chan et al. (1997) reported a positive correlation between a high level of t between information systems plans and business strategies and plans, and perceived business performance. Sabherwal and Chan (2001) found that the alignment between business and information systems strategies was associated with a companys business success, and that business managers should closely monitor IT investments. Other studies have examined various rms strategy implementation. Croteau et al. (2001) surveyed CEOs from 945 manufacturing and insurance companies and examined business performance, information systems infrastructure, business infrastructure, and various alignment indicators (e.g. distributed computing power, empowerment). The study found a positive correlation between a high level of t between information systems infrastructure and business infrastructure, and perceived business performance. In summary, organisational studies suggest that alignment and perceived business performance is closely related. Enterprise architecture, business strategy and information systems alignment In the public sector, the Australian Auditor General has stated that the alignment of the strategy, people, technology and knowledge is achieved through complete

management and governance processes (e.g. corporate and business plans, audit committees, performance assessment and monitoring; Barrett, 2003b). The Auditor General also proposed that alignment is grounded in corporate governance mechanisms and organisational management processes (Barrett, 2003a). In addition to formal mechanisms, any planning or controlling functions of management will have a social dimension where people can meet, interact and exchange views (Horovitz, 1984). Given this diversity of views on alignment mechanisms, it seems likely that any organisation may use one or more mechanisms. Hence, one of the mechanisms might be an enterprise architecture. Enterprise architectures can enable alignment in important ways: . Business and information systems are drawn together under a common organisational framework. The business and IS/IT domains are integrated and visible under a common framework. The architecture serves a graphic communication role allowing people to see how the various parts of the organisation t together. . The current and future states of the business and the IS/IT are dened and described in detail. The gap analysis between the as is and to be states provides a basis for strategic, operational and resource planning. New business structures and IS/IT can be built to support the business outcomes and outputs. Some examples of the architectural frameworks that draw the business and IS/IT domains together are described below. Bringing business and information systems together Enterprise architecture has been an area of interest for IT practitioners and professionals since the late 1980s when Zachman (1987) proposed a framework for information systems architecture. Zachman (1996) later developed the information systems architecture framework into the Zachman Framework for Enterprise Architecture. While Zachman initially concentrated on technical information systems, it was recognised that a contextual basis for the organisation must be included. Accordingly, people, time and motivation contexts were blended into the framework. This was arguably the earliest architectural approach that aligned business and IS/IT (Sowa and Zachman, 1992). Since the early 1990s, enterprise architecture has assumed a prominent position in IS/IT. Several architecture frameworks have been developed to cater for the business and IS/IT needs of organisations. Among these are the Meta Group Enterprise Architecture Framework (Westbrock, 1999), and the Open Group Architecture Framework (The Open Group, 2001). For comparison, these frameworks have been segmented into their component architectures (see Table I). The two architecture frameworks display a series of functional architectures under the business and technical segments. The business segment enfolds the business processes, organisational structures, and business models, goals, and objectives. This allows the complete business to be described. Unsurprisingly, the technical segment embraces the traditional IS/IT components of the business including the applications, data, technologies, technical standards and systems, and IT infrastructure. Given its physical manifestation, the technical system

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domain is usually the easiest to dene and describe. This also helps to explain why enterprise architecture assumed a technical posture in its earlier forms. However, the important point is that under each framework business and IS/IT are together. It appears that the framework developers not only recognise the technical capacity of architecture, but also the ability to fully describe the business. Even if the Enterprise Architecture did little else for the organisation, it could be argued that it enables the integration and alignment of business strategy and IS/IT. The research framework The research framework was developed using several published alignment models and concepts (see Figure 1). The framework is an adaptation of the Reich and Benbasat (1996) alignment model, including the addition of critical and dynamic feedback
Meta Group Enterprise Architecture Framework Business architecture Operational architecture Information architecture Technical architecture Systems portfolio The Open Group Architecture Framework Business architecture Data architecture Applications architecture Technology architecture

Segment Business Table I. Architecture framework segments Technical

Figure 1. Research framework

channels, and augments the strategy execution perspective of the Henderson and Venkatraman (1993) strategic alignment model. The research framework ows vertically from top to bottom with interaction layers and feedback channels between components. The contextual conditions (such as organisational size, agency history or information systems history) interact to shape the context of the organisational environment and alignment. The alignment process enfolds the social (such as management support) and intellectual (such as the enterprise architecture) alignment mechanism interactions that results in a dynamic and continuous state of alignment represented by the nal element of the model. The research framework acknowledges that alignment is a dynamic and continuous process, where some level of alignment could already exist prior to the introduction of the enterprise architecture mechanism. Alignment mechanisms, such as strategic plans or business models, are considered as appropriate vehicles for operationalising the strategy execution view (Henderson and Venkatraman, 1989, 1993). The research assumes that private and public organisations conduct their business using similar processes, including undertaking nancial transactions, delivering goods and services, competing and outsourcing business functions, and reporting business performance to stakeholders. The research themes The research framework adopted for the study, and the presentation of this case, enabled the development of four major themes of inquiry, where the enterprise architecture was posited as an alignment mechanism. The rst theme posed the question Does the enterprise architecture framework, either internally developed or adopted from a commercial source, inuence the enabling of alignment?. In the case of the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), due to strict resource limitations, the enterprise architecture was developed internally by their technical services division and tailored to the needs of the organisation. The second theme posed the question Does the structure of an enterprise architecture inuence the degree of alignment achieved?. This segment of the study involved examining the structures, components and characteristics of the ABS architecture and observing whether alignment was inuenced by the architectural completeness. The ISO 15704 architecture requirements standard was modied to support analysis of he ABS structures and components. The third theme posed the question Does the use of an enterprise architecture combine with other social dimensions of alignment in processes that enable alignment outcomes?. This part of the study specically investigated the combination of management support, business planning styles, and business plan communications with the enterprise architecture mechanism in processes enabling alignment. The nal theme posed the question Does the use of an enterprise architecture combine with other intellectual alignment mechanisms in processes that enable alignment?. This portion of the study examined the combined relationships and interactive processes of formal alignment mechanisms in enabling alignment. In a holistic sense, the four research themes provide an aggregated view of alignment and the relative contribution of the enterprise architecture as a formal alignment mechanism. Case study: the Australian Bureau of Statistics Having seen how an enterprise architecture can enable alignment, we now look at the practical use of enterprise architecture in the ABS. The ABS successfully implemented

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an enterprise architecture as part of their management arrangements, and show the importance of drawing the business strategy and IS/IT together for successful public sector operations. The ABS is also signicant for another reason. Few in-depth case studies of how enterprise architecture is successfully used in organisational settings have been published in traditional IS/IT literature. Other Australian government agencies that have been studied displayed less successful use of architecture, including inefcient architecture implementation, multi-system integration deciencies, and misaligned information structures (Martin, 2005). Approach to research The case study presented in this paper is part of a doctoral study that investigated the use of enterprise architectures in four Australian government agencies (i.e. the ABS, the Centrelink social services agency, the Department of Defence, and the Queensland Department of Main Roads). The four organisations were drawn from the Commonwealth Architecture Forum and the Queensland Government Forum for Enterprise Architecture Collaboration, which are special interest groups established to further enterprise architecture goals and initiatives at the federal and state government levels. The decision to present the ABS case was based on the nding that it was an exemplar well aligned organisation that has successfully developed 60 per cent of its analytical business software, retains the services of a loyal workforce, and has survived the rigours of government IT outsourcing initiatives and independent government reviews. The ABS is respected by other federal agencies as a best-practice organisation (Martin, 2005). A multiple qualitative research methods approach was adopted for the study (Burgelman, 1983; cited by Eisenhardt, 1989; Burgelman, 1994). This approach allowed information to be triangulated across multiple sources. The ABS provided archival and publicly available documents (i.e. parliamentary and agency papers) in the areas of governance, information systems, agency performance, enterprise architecture and business plans, for content review and key word searches. Also, ABS executives and managers (i.e. the ABS CIO, four agency directors from IT, business strategy, quality assurance, and corporate governance areas, one agency assistant IT director, and three programmers/analysts) offered comments and views during nine semi-structured interviews and eight follow-up discussions of up to one and a half hours in duration. The theme-based questions are shown in the Appendix. The interview comments were recorded, two pass coded, and stored on a purpose-built database management system for use in the case analysis. The codes were designed to classify commentaries by research theme and summary notations within each theme (see Table II). Examples of these coded comments are entered as evidence in this paper. In addition, information from public presentations and announcements by ABS managers and executives were collected and entered as evidence. The ABS provided system demonstrations of its Input Data Warehouse, Automatic Workow Architect and the Corporate Lotus Notes Database environment. The aggregation of the collected and analysed data has facilitated the development of a rich body of evidence that supports the augmentation of the research framework. However, it should be highlighted that during the course of the study, ABS staff members were invited to provide critical commentaries on the basis of anonymity. Staff

members and executives at all the agencies were not averse to providing critical comments on architectural practice, the social aspects of organisational alignment, or the potential limitations of using an enterprise architecture for alignment (Martin, 2005). The ABS organisation The ABS has a heritage that dates back to 1905, and is Australias ofcial statistical organisation, having a stated mission of: Assisting and encouraging informed
Code T1-CM-MT T1-CM-ZA T1-IM-AM T1-IM-MM T2-CO-AC T2-CO-AP T2-CO-EC T2-CO-GL T2-CO-RP T2-CU-BFa T2-CU-CMa T2-CU-CPa T2-CU-DDa T2-CU-GMa T2-CU-ISa T2-CU-LLa T2-CU-PTa T2-CU-RAa T2-CU-RVa T2-CU-SYa T2-CU-TCa T2-CU-VSa T3-MS-HI T3-MS-MO T3-MS-LO T3-PS-NO T3-PS-YS T3-PC-NO T3-PC-YS T4-AL-SP T4-AL-NU T4-AL-NS Code denition Theme 1 Commercial Architecture Method Meta Group and C4ISR architecture framework Theme 1 Commercial Architecture Method Zachman architecture framework Theme 1 Internally Developed Architecture Method ABS architecture framework Theme 1 Internally Developed Architecture Method MRD architecture framework Theme 2 Architecture Completeness Architecture components Theme 2 Architecture Completeness Applicability and coverage of enterprise entity types Theme 2 Architecture Completeness Enterprise concepts Theme 2 Architecture Completeness Architectural glossary Theme 2 Architecture Completeness Architectural representation (depiction) Theme 2 Current Characteristic Business focused (driven) architecture Theme 2 Current Characteristic Capability management enabling architecture Theme 2 Current Characteristic Corporate philosophy (symbolic) architecture Theme 2 Current Characteristic Document management deciencies in architecture Theme 2 Current Characteristic Governance mechanism in architecture Theme 2 Current Characteristic Information structuring architecture Theme 2 Current Characteristic Long architecture implementation lifecycle Theme 2 Current Characteristic Reference point (for new systems) architecture Theme 2 Current Characteristic Reusable (component) architecture Theme 2 Current Characteristic IS/IT project review mechanism in architecture Theme 2 Current Characteristic Systems integration architecture Theme 2 Current Characteristic Technology control architecture Theme 2 Current Characteristic System visualisation architecture Theme Theme Theme Theme Theme Theme Theme 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Management Support High Management Support Moderate Management Support Low Business Planning Style NO - Not present Business Planning Style YES - Present Business Planning Communications NO - Not present Business Planning Communications YES - Present

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Theme 4 Existence of Organisational Alignment Supported Theme 4 Existence of Organisational Alignment Neutral (No valence in either direction) Theme 4 Existence of Organisational Alignment Not supported

Note: aCodes were replicated for non-current, or emerging, characteristics that were in development

Table II. ABS interview commentary data codes

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decision-making, research and discussion within governments and the community, by leading a high quality, objective and responsive national statistical service (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2005a). The ABS is a quality information organisation that collects, processes and disseminates accurate and timely economic and community information. The ABS is an information products and services organisation that offers statistical publications in the two major areas of economic (e.g. trade, business, national accounts, manufacturing, agriculture) and population (e.g. census, demography, labour, social conditions, crime) statistics. It is a small and relatively stable government organisation with three functional support groups (i.e. statistical methodology, information management, and corporate services) (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2005b). The ABS has been recognised as a world leader in statistics delivery since the early 1990s. In the 1991 and 1993 Economist Good Statistics surveys, 20 chief statisticians from various countries, and international institutions like the International Monetary Fund, rated the ABS as the number two statistical agency in the world behind Statistics Canada (The Economist, 1991, 1993). The ABS business operations rated well ahead of statistics agencies in Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries (e.g. the UK, the USA, Sweden, Italy). Also, in conducting independent benchmarking of the ABS IS/IT areas (including software and IT development) against international government and non-government organisations, Gartner Group stated that the ABS technology operations rated well above average in most areas, and above average in all areas (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002a, p. 52). The enterprise architecture mechanism is part of the ABS agency infrastructure, and has assisted the ABS to understand their future business, and identify and manage the IS/IT required to support that future state (ie, maintain alignment). The ABS CIO has publicly stated that in order to build the next generation of information systems, the ABS needs to understand the next generation of its business (Palmer, 2003). Building the ABS enterprise architecture The ABS commenced development of an in-house enterprise architecture in 1999, which was completed as version 1.0 in September 2001, and updated to version 2.0 in March 2003 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003b). The enterprise architecture was developed by a small, multi-disciplinary team established by the ABS executive (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002a, p. 29). The aims of the ABS architecture were directly targeted at developing and maintaining alignment: . to ensure that the IT environment is aligned with the ABS business imperatives (its mission, objectives, and processes); and . to help us build an IT environment that can be easily changed and extended, so as to retain its alignment with changing business imperatives. The ABS enterprise architecture is reviewed periodically (every 6-12 months) by the CIO and Technical Services Division, changing to meet the alignment needs of the ABS and its operating environment, while closing business capability gaps. The architecture update process is typically triggered by shifts in business products, changes in service delivery patterns, and the associated investment activities. The business drivers (e.g. new products, services, client needs) that stimulate the development of new and enhanced IS/IT for product and service delivery are a primary

input to the architecture change process and method. The internally created ABS enterprise architecture method (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003a, p. 13) is used to develop, evolve and maintain the architecture (see Figure 2). The ABS enterprise architecture provides benets in allowing the organisation to build future business capabilities into the identied systemic gaps. A good example of this building for the future is the development of the ABS Input Data Warehouse (IDW). The ABS IDW is a new electronic facility that supports statistical processing and publication, and replaces a number of separate (and inefcient) data collection and management facilities. The ABS enterprise architecture has several components grouped into three major structures: (1) general; (2) business; and (3) technical (see Table III). The internally produced ABS enterprise architecture mechanism demonstrates that business processes, business management, and governance can be co-designed, integrated and aligned with the IS/IT. The ABS purposely and concurrently developed business and technical components of the architecture to ensure that the business and IT people were there together (e.g. the ABS business process taxonomy is owned and maintained by the business units and describes the survey business processes and supporting IS/IT). The ownership of the enterprise architecture rests with the staff of the ABS. The ABS Director Enterprise Architecture stated that the architecture was created as a corporate artifact to be taken away and used by all staff at the ABS (Bartley, 2002).

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Figure 2. ABS enterprise architecture method

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Structure General Business

Component ABS Enterprise Architecture Principles and Objectives the key principles and objectives that are used in producing the enterprise architecture Maintaining and Using the ABS Enterprise Architecture the activities involved in maintaining and using the ABS enterprise architecture Business Process Taxonomy the business processes that are integral to the ABS mission Business Process Management the description of the ABS business process management activities Information Technology Governance Framework the governance arrangements that support the development, deployment and evolution of IT ABS Website Governance the governance arrangements for the ABS Internet Portal Domain Architectures architectures that are specic to a domain of interest (e.g. applications, data management, and security) Commercial Systems and Tools the description of the preferred commercial systems and tools dened by the ABS (e.g. Oracle Financials) Technologies and Toolsets the description of the preferred technologies and technology directions dened by the ABS (e.g. Public Key Infrastructure) Components and Services Interfaces an explanation of the components and services interfaces approach being adopted by the ABS Information Technology Infrastructure the IT infrastructure including hardware, physical and technical elements (e.g. Fujitsu Mainframe computer, desktop personal computers) Extensible Markup Language (XML) a broad quasi-technical discussion of the XML schema, data object models, scalable graphics and web services ABS DeveloperWorks a description and examples of the ABS DeveloperWorks system development environment that is used for technology demonstration ABS Input Data Warehouse a description of the Input Data Warehouse

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Technical

Table III. ABS enterprise architecture structures

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003a, pp. 3-11)

Scope of the ABS enterprise architecture Organisations that are seeking to develop an enterprise architecture should carefully consider the scope of the architecture within their operating environment. In this case, the scope of the ABS enterprise architecture was analysed by comparing the organisations architectural state with the requirements contained in the ISO 15704 standard (Industrial Automation Systems Requirements for Enterprise-Reference Architecture and Methodologies) that was modied to suit service agencies (Martin, 2005) (see Table IV). The comparative analysis showed that the ABS enterprise architects had created a substantial and complete architecture that met the business and IS/IT needs of the organisation. As examples, the ABS Enterprise Architecture represented the design, operational and business process functions within the agency, including the development of the application development environment and business process taxonomy architecture components. The architecture descriptions included the matching of business and IS/IT processes (e.g. Derivation Collection business process integrated with the forecasting and analysis IT processors, Business Survey business process integrated with the imputation IT processors) (see Table V for more examples).

Requirement Applicability and coverage of enterprise entity types

Sub-category Enterprise design

ABS architecture description The ABS architecture possessed a range of design artefacts (e.g. major business processes such as business, census and household surveys; organisational and workforce structures; and corporate information systems), and underlying organisational design processes (e.g. business analysis, re-engineering, prototyping, synthesis) The ABS architecture possessed a range of operational descriptors (e.g. data and information collections; publishing operations, clearing house work; and IT services delivery)

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Enterprise operation

Enterprise concepts

Human orientation The ABS architecture (corporate directory and plans) details the roles and responsibilities of the executive management team and staff (e.g. Chief Statistician, Statistics Clearing House staff) Process orientation The ABS architecture describes the high-level business processes (e.g. Census, Business surveys, Household surveys), and operational processes (e.g. data extraction, transformation, and loading) in detail Technology The ABS architecture describes the ABS technologies and orientation IS toolsets (e.g. XML, Common Object Modelling, SQL, Java Tools, MS.net) in detail Mission The ABS architecture describes the business prole, performance processes and systems that are critical for mission performance (e.g. client groups, surveys/information dissemination, publication production systems) in detail Framework for Not applicable sub-category. The ABS architecture was not Enterprise models based on a content or viewpoint model, such as a CIM-OSA cube, or ARIS house. See sub-architectures category Life cycle The ABS architecture describes the lifecycle phases and history of the system and technology (e.g. the 1980s mainframe computer due for retirement in 2005) Sub-architectures The ABS architecture included ve major sub-architectures, such as the applications, security, data management and IT infrastructure sub-architectures Information systems development methodologies (ISDM) Modelling languages or descriptive constructs Enterprise models Enterprise tools The ABS developed and implemented its own ISDM, project management framework, and software development methodology under the auspices of various agency business quality projects The ABS deployed UML (for some software applications), XML and Lotus Workow Architect to model and describe agency outputs, operations and processes Not applicable sub-category. The ABS architecture was not based on a content or viewpoint model The ABS has dened and mandated its toolsets for integration projects, including XML, SOAP, UML, IBM Websphere, and MS.Net (continued)

Architectural components

Table IV. ABS enterprise architecture description (adapted from ISO 15704)

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Sub-category

ABS architecture description

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Architectural representation Architectural glossary

Enterprise modules The ABS has mandated the use of software components, service interfaces, application families, and product line architectures Operational system The ABS has developed a detailed description of its descriptions operational hardware and software systems Graphical depictions Glossary of terms The ABS architecture includes rich graphical depictions of the concepts and schemata (e.g. the IT infrastructure architecture is depicted as a rain forest ecosystem) The ABS architecture includes a denition of every major term and construct in its glossary of terms

Table IV.

Similarly, the ABS also developed technology, IS/IT development method, and system lifecycle management components within the technology domain of the architecture. The ABS architecture demonstrates the positive enablement of alignment through the dynamic creation and maintenance of business and IS/IT architecture components and structures that support each another. Architecture practitioners should actively consider the business and IS/IT domains and look to the value that can be created through positive business-IT working relationships, and inputs from business unit colleagues and staff. ABS enterprise architecture characteristics We assert that the structures and components of the ABS enterprise architecture possess characteristics that assist the alignment process, while also communicating guidance to the ABS workforce. These characteristics are discussed below. ABS business focus. The ABS took a positive step in developing an enterprise architecture that reects its business drivers, needs, processes and infrastructure. These business components are a critical and integrated part of the holistic architecture (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003a, pp. 3-11). For example, the ABS has integrated business drivers and needs into the process of investment analysis to improve systems effectiveness in meeting business needs (i.e. ensuring that the organisation is taken into account in the IS/IT investment process). A senior ABS IT manager highlighted the value of this business-targeted approach:
We could not afford Meta or Gartner Group consultants to assist us with developing an Enterprise Architecture. We simply dont have the resources to spend on this type of project. In any case, we do not need a vendor method to legitimise our architectural work. Our architecture stands on its own merits. Theres a lot of us in there really (Bartley, 2002).

IS/IT governance. The enterprise architecture also provides the ABS with a vehicle for structured decisions and information systems development through embedded management and governance arrangements. The governance framework is an integral part of the architecture and is comprised of two bodies (see Figure 3). The Information Resources Management Committee is chaired by a deputy chief executive ofcer equivalent, and serves as the highest IS/IT governance body in the ABS, meeting twice a year to review and agree IS/IT strategies, provide corporate

Major business process Business survey class

Business sub-process Provider management

Information systems/information technology

Enterprise architectures

Lotus Notes DB, survey facility, interim despatch and collection control system (IDACC), SAS DB, input processing systems (IPS), INSPECT process and report software, optical character reader (OCR), imputed marker reader (IMR), optical marker reader (OMR), BLAISE computer-assisted interview software Input quality assurance IPS, SAS DB, Lotus Notes DB Derivation SAS DB, Lotus Notes DB Imputation, estimation, Generalised survey imputation processor aggregation (GENIMP), generalised survey estimation facility (GENEST), SAS Macro-edit, analysis SAS OLAP tool, SAS assist tool, generalised survey Winsorisation component (GENWINS) Administrative Data capture Natural software system, PL1 system, SAS by-product collection class DB, EAI XML, Centura SQL Windows development tool (CENTURA), computer assisted coding system (CAC) Input quality assurance Natural software system, PL1 system, SAS DB, CENTURA, Clipper DB Derivation SAS DB, Lotus Notes DB Aggregation Generalised survey imputation processor (GENIMP), generalised survey estimation facility (GENEST), SAS DB Macro-edit, analysis SAS OLAP tool, SAS assist tool Derivation collection class Data collect, capture, load Lotus 123, MS Excel, Lotus Notes DB, forecasting-analysis-modeling environment (FAME) Estimates compilation Forecasting-analysis-modeling environment (FAME), MODIS online visualisation and analysis system (MOVAS) Macro-edit Forecasting-analysis-modeling environment (FAME), Lotus 123, MS Excel Index survey class Data capture CENTURA, XML, Lotus Notes DB, Constellar Hub collection system, Laptop computers Input quality assurance CENTURA, Lotus Notes DB Input index compilation CENTURA Index-edit, analysis CENTURA, SQL OLAP Household survey class Data capture OMR scanner, BLAISE, HS ofce management system Input quality assurance IPS, BLAISE, Procedural Language for Edit, Amend and Tabulation system (PLEAT), SAS DB Derivation IPS, PLEAT, SAS DB Weighting and tabulation HS facility Edit, analysis SAS DB Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2003a, pp. 3-11)

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Table V. ABS business and IS/IT alignment

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Figure 3. ABS IT governance framework

oversight of IT resource usage, and review and endorse business cases for large IS/IT initiatives. The ABS also operates a CIO-chaired IT Investment Review Board (IRB) that meets through the year (as required) acting as the governance body for smaller IT projects. At the operational level, the ABS establishes Architecture Panels (comprised from business unit and IS/IT staff) as project steering groups. Business and information integration. As noted earlier, the enterprise architecture provides technological facilities for the integration of the ABS business with its corporate information stores (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003a, pp. 3-11). Specically, the ABS Information Warehouse (input and output sides) enables the business units to consolidate, structure, and process the information. The information warehouse is a useful alignment tool that allows the corporate business entities, activities and information stores to be merged for business delivery. Since its introduction, the input side of the warehouse facility has signicantly improved integration and alignment through business process convergence (i.e. using common information processing procedures) and data stores consolidation (i.e. using common information storage infrastructure). Reusable architecture. Building new large and complex IS/IT has little appeal for the ABS. The ABS prefers the snap locking of pre-built software components through service interfaces. The ABS enterprise architecture mandates that systems developers use component models, service interface models and service-oriented development of applications (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003a, p. 19). A senior software manager stated:

The Developer will snap the services together using XML to bridge the gaps between the modules (reusable building blocks). We are seeking to have staff assembling and integrating components of current systems and systems libraries not building new ones. Building should be our last resort!

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It is explicitly stated in the enterprise architecture that the ABS is pursuing an: Assemble, integrate, rather than build strategy (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003a, p. 19), and that the ABS system components are: . packaged functions that form the Building Blocks of ABS system development; and . are able to expose object interfaces for applications reuse, and are packaged to support application reuse (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003a, p. 18). This approach allows the ABS to reuse technical systems, business processes, tasks and activities, thereby reinforcing the business-IT alignment condition. In summary, the identied characteristics are connected to architectural structures and components (e.g. business process taxonomy, governance framework) that guide staff members in their daily work activities and tasks. In a more complete sense, the ABS enterprise architecture has been embraced as a corporate philosophy, suggested by a senior manager at the ABS as: a way to live your life and a means of doing something useful for the ABS. Social aspects of alignment As we noted earlier, some studies suggest that the social aspects of alignment can be very important in developing and maintaining corporate alignment. Prior studies on the social dimension of alignment have concentrated on causal factors, such as management support (Raghunathan and Raghunathan, 1990), corporate planning styles (Pyburn, 1983), and the communication of business plans to stakeholder groups (Calhoun and Lederer, 1990). As part of the case study, the management support for business strategy execution and IS/IT initiatives, the ABS business planning style, and the communication of ABS business plans and strategies to stakeholders have been examined. Management support for business strategy execution and information systems initiatives, and staff support for management, is strong and consistent across the ABS. Executives were generally observed to show a strong interest and support for the delivery of the business in formal and informal settings. The ABS management support behaviours are visibly consistent with its corporate business plan (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2005a). A manager of ABS corporate support at the ABS stated his views of the support he receives from the chief executive and the executive team:
The Australian Statistician is a very good leader and supports a learning environment. He has often stated that if we arent making mistakes, then we arent doing anything. The [ABS] executives are open and available for discussion. The ABS Executive [team] supports a culture of continuous improvement in delivering our business outcomes (Thomson, 2002).

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ABS staff members worked together in developing business and IS/IT plans (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2005a). The planning cycle allows staff from all levels and parts of the ABS to express a diverse range of views on technical and business issues. This staff and stakeholder engagement enables the development and acceptance of the strategic directions, work plans, and associated IS/IT. An example of

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the collaborative business planning approach is outlined in content drawn from the Forward Work Program 2005-2008:
. . . in order to maintain relevance it [the ABS] seeks to react positively and responsibly to the demonstrated [stated] needs of its users. Proposals from managers [and staff] from program components are considered by senior management [executives], generally following consultation with major users (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2005b).

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Close examination of the ABS shows that the organisation uses several communication channels to disseminate business documents, and share knowledge and understanding across the ABS agency. ABS business plans are openly available to staff and other organisational stakeholders through multiple electronic, hard copy and physical channels. A review of ABS information sharing practices found the following:
A signicant factor leading to the rapid uptake and acceptance of these (information sharing) services was the decision taken by senior management in late 1993 to require repositories to be open to all staff, except where condentiality was absolutely necessary. A direct consequence of this decision is, that for more than ten years, ABS staff and management have been able to communicate, consult, provide input and cooperate on all matters that affect their workplace and employment relationship (Australian Public Service Commission, 2003).

Also, a senior ABS IT (knowledge management) executive publicly commented that these shared documents are available on over 120 corporate Notes databases (which are resident within the IS/IT infrastructure of the architecture) for all ABS staff to access, use, and manage organisational knowledge:
The ABS possesses a workforce that understands the importance of sharing information. This is typied by the 120 shared databases where corporate communications are passed freely among staff (Chatwin, 2002).

In addition, the ABS invites external parties to comment, criticise or provide feedback on any aspect of its business through its 55 active formal and informal working groups, committees and advisory bodies (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2005b). This part of the study clearly demonstrated that alignment is very much about the ways in which people support one another, work together to plan the future, and communicate the business. It is agreed that not even the best strategic plans, business models, or enterprise architectures will enable the intended alignment outcomes without the right supportive and cooperative social interactions being present (Reich and Benbasat, 1996). Other ABS alignment mechanisms We noted earlier in the alignment theory (Henderson and Venkatraman, 1989, 1993; Venkatraman et al., 1993), that a range of mechanisms, such as strategic planning and governance arrangements, work together as enablers of corporate alignment. The ABS is clear and explicit in its use of formal governance and alignment mechanisms. A senior ABS executive responsible for corporate and business planning, advised that alignment mechanisms deployed by the ABS (other than the enterprise architecture) included the senior executive and strategic management groups, strategic planning, and administrative governance procedures and processes (e.g. audit and reviews, legislative annual reporting, external reporting). As part of the routine executive management processes and IT governance framework, the enterprise architecture and

the new and evolving IS/IT are planned and reviewed, forming an integral part of the strategic planning and decision-making regime. These closely connected alignment and governance mechanisms are enunciated in the Forward Work Program document (section titled Governance and Planning at the ABS) and cross-conrmed the executive commentary (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002b, 2005b). As an example, the Australian Statistics Advisory Council (ASAC) is the independent advisory body that provides corporate assurance for the ABS work program, including direction on the strategic work priorities, forward work program, and IS/IT projects and improvements within the architecture. The ASAC is responsible for the alignment and strategic direction of resources to the ABS business, including direct executive orders and inputs to the enterprise architecture, and its component IS/IT work. In a further example, the external reporting framework is also an important information outlet and feedback channel. As a community-based organisation, the ABS is continually seeking constructive user group feedback on its business delivery. This facilitates business and technical opportunities to make changes and better align the organisation with stakeholder interests. A good example of this realignment stems from the reported 300 per cent increase in use of the ABS Internet Portal for publication purchase between 2000 and 2004 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2004). It comes as little surprise that this electronic business trend is on the increase, and that the government has directed further development of architecturally compliant online facilities in line with the reported business growth and expanding client needs.

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Alignment mechanisms working together The ABS case demonstrates that alignment mechanisms (both social and intellectual) work in combination rather than as single entities. The mechanisms can combine with each other in a set of connected and co-operative relationships that enable the alignment condition. The ABS enablers of alignment are a set of co-operative mechanisms (see Table VI). Alignment is very much a continuous and ubiquitous process that involves several mechanisms. While Henderson and Venkatraman (1989, 1993) stated this in theory, the ABS case practically demonstrates that not all alignment mechanisms and activities can be perfectly synchronised. Alignment mechanisms tend to work in different time
Administrative governance procedures and processes Intellectual mechanisms Audit and review External and legislation mandated annual reporting Enterprise Architecture (business and IS/IT domains) Non-executive and executive groups Corporate advisory councils Senior management forum Strategic planning High levels of management support Collective and collaborative business planning style Open business planning communications

Social mechanisms

Table VI. ABS alignment mechanisms

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frames and cycles, transiting between alignment, realignment and so on, as business circumstances changes. It should also be recognised that the alignment process is complex and pervasive. As an example, the high-level alignment mechanisms identied at the ABS are not the only enablers of alignment. Other low level mechanisms, such as staff training in new business information systems, play a vital role in developing and maintaining alignment. Independent views on the blending of alignment mechanisms lend support to our empirical observations in public organisations (Barrett, 2003a, b; Venkatraman et al., 1993). ABS alignment: the results In attempting to make an assessment of the alignment condition at the ABS, we turned to the denition of alignment and conducted some supporting analysis. First, ABS corporate documents were identied and elements of the business strategy extracted. Having extracted the various portions of the strategy, we then looked for key IS/IT initiatives and information systems that supported the strategy. We identied four business objectives, 21 business strategies, and 37 business line activities (a total of 62 strategy components) that support, and are supported by, ABS IS/IT (Martin, 2005). As a further measure of alignment, and noting that the architecture is clearly aimed at enabling alignment, we analysed and presented the linkages between the major ABS business processes (and sub-processes) and the corporate IS/IT components depicted in the Enterprise Architecture documentation (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003a). The results show 70 linkages between the business activities and tasks and corporate IS/IT (see Table V). These documented linkages depict a close alignment between agency business strategy and supporting IS/IT at the ABS, and are consistent with the heritage of strong business and technical performance that has been independently informed and publicly recorded since 1991 (The Economist, 1991). Enterprise architecture limitations and further research Having made a case for the role of enterprise architecture in enabling alignment, we would not suggest that architecture is a panacea for alignment problems in government. To do this would oversimplify what is a complex set of alignment processes. Indeed, observations of other organisations that use Enterprise Architecture, such as the Australian Department of Defence and the Centrelink social services agency, suggest that the use of architecture is limited in some respects. For instance, an organisation like Defence, which has a decentralised structure, may take substantially longer to implement an architecture. Defence suggested that it is difcult to get all 15 programs within the organisation, each with different roles to play and services to deliver, to apply adequate resources and work concurrently on the architecture activities, stating that it will take ten years or more to implement its architecture (Clifford, 2001). In contrast, the ABS architectural effort appears to have beneted from the implementation being carried out in a small and relatively stable information services organisation. Neither does using an enterprise architecture result in the absence of system integration problems or issues. Some agencies that are long term users of architectures, such as Centrelink (the combination of the former Department of Social Security and Commonwealth Employment Service) advise that system integration problems can arise from time to time (Cornish, 2002). We suggest that an architecture can help to

better manage systems problems and issues, but should not be seen as a means of avoiding them completely. While there are some limitations in using architecture, there does appear to be some valuable paths for further research. For example, there are a number of different architecture frameworks and methods available to organisations. Future research could examine where other frameworks have had success in enabling alignment (or not) in different types of organisations. Using enterprise architectures for alignment A Meta Group survey of Enterprise Architects in June 2002 found that 21 per cent of participants indicated their company primarily invested in enterprise architecture to improve Business and IT alignment (Meta Group, 2002). The survey also revealed that these practitioners placed a primary emphasis on the reduction of IT costs (38 per cent) and on increasing business agility (21 per cent). Based on these survey results, it could be argued that alignment is one of the top three issues confronting organisations. The ABS case illustrates that it is possible to combine business and IS/IT using an internally developed enterprise architecture. The architecture empowers the ABS to directly target organisational alignment, and build corporate information systems into business capability gaps. The ABS case explicates the ongoing value of developing and managing the business enterprise through the creation and evolution of business and IS/IT architecture components and structures. The out-turn characteristics of the architecture can also enable the business entity to focus clearly on the work outputs and outcomes, effectively manage the corporate IS/IT, integrate the business and its systems and technology, and create reusable and efcient IS/IT. However, the research shows that a formal enterprise architecture does not singularly enable alignment. The ABS case highlights that from a social perspective, management and staff must support each other, work together in planning the business strategy and work program, and actively communicate if business and IS/IT is to succeed in delivering the business outcomes. The ABS is also quite explicit in its enunciation of internal and external governance and alignment mechanisms, such as the senior executive and strategic management groups, strategic planning, and administrative governance procedures and processes (e.g. audit and reviews, legislative annual reporting, external reporting). These formal alignment mechanisms co-exist and integrate with the other social and intellectual mechanisms in delivering the positive alignment results. We noted that alignment is a complex and continuous process involving several connected and cooperative mechanisms, and that the ABS applied valuable resources in developing its enterprise architecture that was aimed at aligning the business and IS/IT. This public sector organisation shows that, when applied in the right organisational setting and implemented with care and attention to detail, the enterprise architecture can bring business and IS/IT closer together, while allowing organisations to shape their future and build better business delivery systems.
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Drucker, P.F. (1986), Frontiers of Management, Truman Talley, New York, NY. Earl, M.J. (1989), Management Strategies for Information Technology, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. (The) Economist (1991), The Good Statistics Guide, The Economist, Vol. 320 No. 7723, 9 July, p. 88. (The) Economist (1993), The Good Statistics Guide, The Economist, Vol. 328 No. 7828, 9 November. Eisenhardt, K. (1989), Building theories from case study research, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 14, pp. 532-50. Fayol, H. (1949), General and Industrial Management (trans. by Storrs, C.), Pitman, London (rst published 1919). Gortner, H.F., Mahler, J. and Nicholson, J.B. (1987), Organisation Theory, Dorsey Press, Reading, MA. Henderson, J.C. and Venkatraman, N. (1989), Strategic alignment: a process model for integrating information technology and business strategies, Sloan working paper, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. Henderson, J.C. and Venkatraman, N. (1993), Strategic alignment: leveraging information technology for transforming organisations, IBM Systems Journal, Vol. 32 No. 1, pp. 4-16. Hicks, G.H. and Gullet, C.R. (1975), Organisations: Theory and Behavior, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Horovitz, J. (1984), New perspectives on strategic management, Journal of Business Strategy, Winter, pp. 19-33. International Organization for Standardization (2000), ISO 15704-2000: Industrial Automation Systems Requirements for Enterprise Reference Architectures and Methodologies, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva. Katz, D. and Kahn, R. (1978), The Social Psychology of Organisations, Wiley, New York, NY. Lawrence, P.R. and Lorsch, J.W. (1967), Differentiation and integration in complex organizations, Administrative Science Quarterly, June, pp. 1-47. Lederer, A. and Mendelow, A. (1989), The coordination of information systems plans with business plans, Journal of Management Information Systems, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 5-19. Luthans, F. (1985), Organisational Behaviour, McGraw-Hill, Singapore. Martin, N. (2005), Business strategy and information systems alignment: a study of the use of enterprise architectures in Australian Government, unpublished PhD thesis, The Australian National University, Canberra. Meta Group (2002), Architecture maturity audits focus efforts to maximise IT value, Meta Group News Analysis, 5 July. Miller, D. (1986), Congurations of strategy and structure towards a synthesis, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 7, pp. 233-49. (The) Open Group (2001), The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF), Version 7.0, The Open Group, Reading. Palmer, J. (2003), Enterprise architecture at the ABS, paper presented at Australian Government Information Management Ofce Seminar Program Enterprise Architecture: Integrating Business and Technology across the APS, Canberra, 21 March. Porter, M.E. (1980), Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analysing Industry and Competitors, The Free Press, New York, NY.

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Appendix. Study questions guide Indicative questions that were used in the semi-structured and unstructured case interviews are outlined as follows: Section 1. Enterprise architecture . Do you use enterprise architecture in your organisation? If so, can you outline the method used to build the architecture? What resources are used to implement the enterprise architecture? . What structures (e.g. business, applications, infrastructure) are inherent in the architecture? . Can you please describe the artifacts (e.g. systems, specic models, processes, plans, services) that comprise the architecture? . In your experience, what parts of the architecture work well and what parts work not so well? Why?

Section 2. Architecture completeness . Please describe your IS/IT/IM environment and the various components (eg, stafng, governance, hardware, software, capabilities, technologies, toolsets, languages, modeling languages). . Can you describe some of the development/design activities, business processes and procedures used to develop your organisation and guide its operations? . Do you use any specic systems development and/or project management methods for developing information systems or executing projects? . Does the systems development method consider the lifecycle aspects of the system? . Are data dictionaries or electronic glossaries available for use within your organisation? . Is it possible to describe or graphically depict the organisational structure? Section 3. Social dimensions of alignment . Does the management team support you and the work you do? . What type of management support do you get for the business strategy execution, information systems infrastructure proposals and enterprise architecture? . What management support mechanisms are in place? . Does your organisation have a strategic plan? If so, how is the plan compiled? . Does your organisation have a corporate business plan? If so, how is the plan compiled? . Are you aware of your organisations business/corporate/enterprise strategies and objectives? . How would you characterise the business planning style (eg, top-down, bottom-up, collegiate, decentralised) in your organisation? . What business planning communications are in place for business strategy and information systems planning activities within the agency? Do you communicate with external stakeholders or parties? If so, how? Section 4. Alignment methods and alignment . How do you achieve alignment? Do things like strategic planning, business modeling, and non-executive/executive reviews help alignment? How? . What other organisational mechanisms help alignment? . Do you think enterprise architecture helps alignment? How? . Would you consider that your organisational information systems help you deliver your business strategies? If yes, to what extent do they assist you? . Would you consider that your organisational information systems help you address external business drivers? If yes, to what extent do they assist you? . Do you meet your annual outputs, in terms of performance, reliability and service level agreement targets, using the organisational information systems? . Would you say that the business outputs would be negatively impacted if there was less (or a poorer) t between information systems infrastructure and business strategy? Please provide reasons for your answer?

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About the authors Shirley Gregor, BSc GDComp MAppSc PhD FACS AO, heads the Electronic Commerce Research Group and is Head of the School of Accounting and Business Information Systems in the College of Business and Economics at the Australian National University. Professor Gregor has led several large projects in the e-commerce area funded by the private sector and government. Professor Gregor was inaugural President of the Australasian Association of Information Systems and is Vice-President of the Australian Council of Professors and Heads of Information Systems. Professor Gregor was made an Ofcer of the Order of Australia in the Queens Birthday Honours list in June 2005 for services as an educator and researcher in the eld of information systems and in the development of applications for electronic commerce in the agribusiness sector. Dennis Hart, BSc (Hons) BAppSc DipArts PhD, is a Senior Lecturer in the College of Business and Economics at the Australian National University and has research interests in the areas of ownership issues in information systems development and information management; Semiotics and information systems. Dr Hart was a former senior ofcer in the Royal Australian Navy before commencing a career as an academic. Nigel Martin, BE (Hons I), ME, GradDipBusAdmin, MBA, MEStudies, PhD, CPEng, MIEAust, ANZAM, is a Research Associate at the Australian National University. His principal research interests are in the areas of Enterprise Architecture, Requirements Engineering, IT Governance, ICT Strategy and Innovation, Systems Design and Electronic Government. Nigel Martin is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: nigel.martin@defence.gov.au

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