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School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering

v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 29



Learning Guide
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


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Concrete Structures 2 30
Learning Guide
You are now beginning the course. Please turn to Topic 1 and
work your way through the sessions. Remember to use the chart
in the Course Outline if you are unsure about the next activity or
section of work to complete.
Note:
These learning materials are based on the Australian Standards,
published by Standards Australia International Inc. You can
access these through the RMIT Library at Standards Australia
Online.
Before you start this part of the course you are expected to have
a basic understanding of the concepts of structural design and
the limit state design philosophy. Detailed notes on design of
concrete structures using AS3600 is given as part of the study
guide.
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


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Topic 1: Introduction to Prestressed Concrete
Beams
Reinforced concrete has been a most popular structural material
for the last few decades. As explained earlier, concrete is strong
in compression and weak in tension. Due to low tensile strength,
flexural cracks develop at early stages of loading. In order to
reduce the formation of cracks, a concentric or an eccentric force
can be imposed in the longitudinal direction of the structural
element. This imposing longitudinal force is called a
prestressing force.
This is a compressive force that prestresses the sections along the
span of the structural member in advance of the application of
gravity and horizontal loads.
The prestressing force reduces cracking in the concrete members
as this section is considerably stiffer than the equivalent
reinforced section. Prestressing induces internal forces, which
are of opposite sign to the external loads. Therefore, they
significantly reduce deflection.
Prestressed members can be smaller in depth than their
reinforced concrete members for the same span and loads. The
depth of a prestressed member is usually about 70% of the depth
of equivalent reinforced concrete member. Although there are
savings in using concrete and reinforcements, specialised
prestressing materials and their arrangement add to the cost of
prestressed structural members. Formwork is more expensive,
as the geometry of prestressed sections is complex.
Though there are more initial costs involved, if a large number
of precast units are constructed, the difference between them
and reinforced concrete sections is not very large. Long-term
indirect savings like less maintenance cost, better quality and
lightweight structures are achieved. In general, when the span
of a reinforced concrete member exceeds 20 m, it is worthwhile
to consider the design option of a prestressed concrete member
to avoid the risk of excessive cracking and deflection.
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High-strength steel and high-strength concrete provide
economical and structurally efficient solutions to the design of
prestressed concrete members. High-strength steel is required
for the design of these members as large initial strains are
suitable for prestressing concrete. Therefore, the use of high-
strength steel is a necessity for the construction and design of
prestressed members.
Lear ni ng Out comes
Upon successful completion of this Topic you will be able to:
- describe the materials used for prestressed concrete
- explain the effects of prestress on beam behaviour
- determine the transverse forces caused by the tendons
- determine the stresses induced by prestress
- determine the stresses induced by applied loads
- determine the combined stresses induced by prestress
and applied loads.
Backgr ound Ski l l s and Knowl edge
Before you start this Topic you are expected to be able to:
- list the materials used in partial and fully prestressed
concrete members
- calculate the different types of loads on structures
- design simple reinforced concrete members without
prestressing force
- draw stress diagrams of members under combined
loading.
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Sessi on 1.1: Met hods of Pr est r essi ng
A prestressing force is usually imposed to a concrete member by
highly tensioned steel like wire, string or bar. Hydraulic jacks
are used as a mechanical system for tensioning the steel.
The tensioning operation can be before or after the concrete is
cast. If the members are tensioned before the concrete is cast,
they are called pre-tensioned members. When the members are
tensioned after the concrete is cast, they are called post-
tensioned members.
In this session you will learn the procedure for pre-tensioning
and post-tensioning concrete members. The prestressing tendons
are initially tensioned between fixed supports and anchored.
Then the concrete is cast. When the concrete has reached its
required strength, the wires are cut or released from the fixed
supports. The steel attempts to contract and as a result, the
concrete is compressed.
In post-tensioning, the concrete is cast around hollow ducts,
which are fixed to any required profile. The steel tendons are
unstressed in the ducts during the concrete pour. When the
concrete has reached its required strength, the tendons are
tensioned.
For illustration purposes, look at Figures 1.5 and 1.8 of your
textbook.
Lear ni ng Out come
Upon successful completion of this session, you will be able to
list the materials used in partial and fully prestressed concrete
members.
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Concrete Structures 2 34

Act i vi t y 1A
Met hods of Pr est r essi ng
Read:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e St ruct ures,
sect ions 1.3 1.4 (pp.4 13), 3.1, 3.3.1 - 3.3.4, 6.1,
6.2.1 6.2.2
St udy:
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 1: Concret e St ruct ures
2.ppt (22.571 M)
6



Sessi on 1.2: Cal cul at i on of St r esses
In this session, you will learn to compute the stresses in a
prestressed concrete member due to applied loads and induced
forces. Imposing a prestressing force, which satisfies the
particular conditions of geometry, and loading of a given
member is determined from the principles of mechanics and of
stress strain relationships.
The stress components on a prestressed concrete section caused
by the prestress, self-weight and applied external loads are
usually calculated by simple beam theory and assuming
material behaviour as elastic. In practice, concrete does not
behave like a true linearly elastic material. However, elastic
computations are useful, if tensile stresses occur at service loads.
Therefore, cracking is likely to occur if compressive stresses are
excessive, and large time-dependent shortening is expected.
The stress calculations on a cross section caused by all the
applied loads plus prestress can be calculated separately and
summed to obtain the combined stress distribution at any
particular load stage.
You can consider first the stresses caused by prestress and
ignore all the other loads. Finally, all the stresses are added
together to get the combined stresses.

6
all powerpoint presentations may be replaced by locally developed presentations
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Concrete Structures 2 35
Lear ni ng Out comes
Upon successful completion of this session, you will be able to:
- determine the transverse forces caused by the tendons
- determine the stresses induced by prestress
- determine the stresses induced by applied loads
- determine the combined stresses induced by prestress
and applied loads.
- determine the decompression moment
- determine the cracking moment.

Act i vi t y 1B
Cal cul at i on of St r esses
Read and Revi ew:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e St ruct ures,
sect ions 6.1, 6.2
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 1: Concret e St ruct ures
2.ppt (22.571 M)
St udy Exampl e:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e St ruct ures,
6.1
Devel op Sol ut i ons:
- Problems 1 and 2 provided separat ely
When you have completed the problems turn to the back of this
Learning Guide to find solutions.

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Summar y and Out come Checkl i st
In this Topic you learnt that prestressed concrete has been a
popular structural material for the last few decades. You learnt
that, in order to reduce the formation of cracks, a concentric or
an eccentric force is imposed in the longitudinal direction of the
structural element. This imposing longitudinal force is called a
prestressing force.
You also learnt to compute the stresses in a prestressed concrete
member due to applied loads and induced forces. You learnt
how to impose a prestressing force which satisfies the particular
conditions of geometry and loading of a given member
determined from the principles of mechanics and of stress strain
relationships.
Tick the box for each statement with which you agree:
I can describe the materials used for prestressed concrete.
I can explain the effects of prestress on beam behaviour.
I can determine transverse forces caused by the tendons.
I can determine the stresses induced by prestress.
I can determine the stresses induced by applied loads.
I can determine the combined stresses induced by prestress
and applied loads.

Assessment
This Topic will be assessed in the Final Examination and as is
relevant to your work in the Major Design Project.
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Topic 2: Grillage Analysis of Bridges Structures
In this Topic, you will gain knowledge about analysis and
design of concrete bridge structures. In this activity you will be
directed to various internet sites to introduce yourself to various
types of bridges and their mechanisms. You will learn to use the
grillage method of analysis to determine design actions on the
bridge structure in particular the design actions acting on the
bridge deck and supporting partially prestressed concrete
girders. In the Activity you will be asked to determine the loads,
calculate the bending moments, shear forces and twisting
moments. You will also learn to apply the vehicle load on
bridges by using the grillage method of analysis.
The Major Design Project of prestressed concrete girders for a
bridge of given specification will also be introduced in this topic
The Project is to be completed over the duration of the total
course and you will apply knowledge gained from Topics 1 to 8.
Your deliverables will be to:
- establish the critical design loads and load combinations
for the bridge
- model the bridge deck and supporting girders using the
Grillage method
- determine design actions for Ultimate Strength Design
and Serviceability Design of the bridge deck and girders.
- design and detail pre stressed concrete girders to satisfy
the AS3600 and AS5100.2 requirements considering:
o strength at transfer and stress limits at full service
loads
o losses of pre stress
o deflections at service loads
o flexural strength at ultimate design loads
o shear strength at ultimate strength design loads.
At the end of this Topic you will be able to complete the first 3
bullet points given above.
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Concrete Structures 2 38
Lear ni ng Out comes
Upon successful completion of this Topic you will be able to:
- identify and describe different types of bridge structure
- explain the grillage method of analysis of bridge
structures
- idealise a bridge structure into a number of longitudinal
and transverse beam elements in a single horizontal
plane, rigidly interconnected at nodes
- explain the global structural actions of a girder bridge
- model the bridge structure for global analysis
- explain the effects and concept of interaction between
longitudinal and transverse bending
- determine the web line for slab supports
- determine the vertical deflection of each web line
- model the deflection effects by creating torsionally stiff
beam elements
- determine the loads under the serviceability condition for
ultimate strength design.

Backgr ound Ski l l s and Knowl edge
Before you start this Topic you are expected to be able to:
- draw SFDs and BMDs from the given shear forces and
bending moments
- analyse the beam elements by the stiffness method of
analysis
- analyse the plane frame by the stiffness method of
analysis
- evaluate the dead and live loads on bridge structures
- use the Bridge Code of Practice for vehicle loads.

School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


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Concrete Structures 2 39
Sessi on 2.1: Types of Br i dge St r uct ur es
Historically, the two most important materials used in bridge
construction were stone and timber. These two materials were
common until the nineteenth century. The first reinforced
concrete bridge was built in 1875 in France. And the first
prestressed concrete bridge was built in 1949 in Belgium.
Lear ni ng Out come
Upon successful completion of this session you will be able to
identify and describe different types of bridge structure

In modern days, concrete bridges are generally constructed with
partially prestressed girders supporting a deck slab. Full
prestressing of girders is often impractical and uneconomical.
Research has proved that a combination of non-prestressed and
prestressed reinforcement is better than full prestressing.
Increased labour costs had led to simplification and
rationalisation in bridge construction technology. Arch bridges
and other complicated bridge forms are built in exceptional
cases. Precast girders help in rapid and economical construction
of short-span bridges.
Advancements in false work technology proved to be
economical for long cast-in-place bridges. For long span bridges,
cantilever bridges are preferred over other types of bridges. The
first cantilever bridge using precast segments was constructed in
early 1960.
In England and Australia, segmental bridges were constructed
by erecting precast segments onto false work and by
prestressing together. This method was used for a 600 m-long
flyover in London, in 1961.
The Gateway Bridge in Brisbane and its duplicate, now renamed
the Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges, on completion of construction in
1986, the 260 m main span of the bridge was a world record for a
prestressed concrete free cantilever bridge. It held this record for
over 15 years. The box girder is still the largest prestressed
concrete, single box in the world, measuring 15 m deep at the
pier, with a box width of 12 m and an overall deck width of the 6
lanes of 22 m .
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However, research has now proved that for this much range of
span, cable-stayed bridges are more economical and elegant. The
Barrios de Luna Bridge in Spain is currently the longest
spanning concrete cable-stayed bridge with a main span of 440
m. This bridge was opened to traffic in 1984.
The main objectives of bridge design are safety, serviceability,
economy and elegance. Safety and serviceability are achieved
through the engineers analytical and design skills, whereas
economy and elegance depend upon research, experience and
the creativity of engineers. Design of bridge structures must
satisfy the bridge design code of the country in which they are
constructed.
In general, concrete bridges are divided into two main parts,
namely substructure and superstructure. The substructure cost
is about 30% and superstructure cost 70% of the bridges
construction cost. The substructure consists of foundation, piers
and abutments. Superstructure costs are divided mainly into
construction mechanism, formwork and the cost of materials.
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Act i vi t y 2A
Types of Br i dge St r uct ur es
St udy:
- websit e: Wikipedia: Types of bridges
7

- websit e: Nova, Superbridge
8

- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 2: Grillage Analysis of
Girder Bridges.ppt (650 k)
When st udying t hese websit es and ot hers t ake part icular
not e of:
- definit ions of t he various t ypes of bridges
- explanat ions of t heir behaviour under loads
- descript ions of t he t ypes of support s used for bridge
st ruct ures
- descript ions of t he component s of a bridge st ruct ure
and t heir funct ion.
Devel op Sol ut i ons:
- ident ify various t ypes of bridge st ruct ures
- explain t he behaviour of each t ype of bridge under load
- describe t he t ypes of support s used for bridge
st ruct ures
- describe t he component s of bridge st ruct ure and t heir
funct ion.

7
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge
8
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bridge/

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Sessi on 2.2: The Gr i l l age Met hod and Br i dge
Desi gn Loads
In a grillage analysis the structure is idealised into a number of
longitudinal and transverse beam elements in a horizontal
plane. Beam elements are rigidly connected at nodes. Transverse
beams may be orthogonal or skewed with respect to the
longitudinal beams. Therefore all types of decks (such as skew,
curved or irregular) can be analysed.
Lear ni ng Out comes
Upon successful completion of this session you will be able to:
- explain the grillage method of analysis of bridge
structures
- idealise a bridge structure into a number of longitudinal
and transverse beam elements in a single horizontal
plane, rigidly interconnected at nodes
- explain the global structural actions of a girder bridge
- model the bridge structure for global analysis
- explain the effects and concept of interaction between
longitudinal and transverse bending
- determine the web line for slab supports
- determine the vertical deflection of each web line
- model the deflection effects by creating torsionally stiff
beam elements
- determine the loads under the serviceability condition for
ultimate strength design.
In a grillage analysis vertical loads are applied at nodes only.
Rotations about two horizontal axes, the vertical displacement at
each node and the forces (such as bending moment and shear
force in beams connected to each node) are determined by
matrix analysis.
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The main longitudinal beams are assigned the flexural
properties of the full section of each girder including the deck
slab. In multi-span girder bridges it is common to consider the
slab to be divided into boxes and for the full width of the
cantilever to be included in the outer box. This method of
idealisation will not provide exact results, but the error is
negligible.
In the grillage method of analysis the division of the slab into
longitudinal elements is not strictly necessary. But the division
does help in load distribution. Hence the deck slab can be
modelled as transverse elements of rectangular cross-section.
The longitudinal edge elements are added to represent the edge
beam. These edge beams do not have considerable effect on
performance of the bridge structure, but are often helpful in
application of load on the cantilever portion.
In this method transverse grillage elements can be orthogonal or
skewed beams or simply represent a width of slab equal to node
spacing when transverse beams are provided the elements
should represent the stiffness of the effective transverse member.
Torsional rigidity of a member can also be counted in grillage
analysis.

Act i vi t y 2B
Usi ng Space Gass
Space Gass:
- I f you are unfamiliar wit h Space Gass, t urn t o t he back
of t his Learning Package and read Using Space Gass for
t he First Time.
- Use t he guide and t he soft ware t o become familiar wit h
modelling and analysing st ruct ures.

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Br i dge Desi gn Loads
The design of concrete bridge components is governed by the
code of practice of a country. The traffic decks and the loads they
contain for the design of a bridge superstructure are chosen so
that the design is made for the worst possible load case.
Loads and design combinations for the bridge design depend
upon traffic volume, flood levels, location and aesthetic
requirements. In general, economics of a bridge govern the
design.
The bridge span also plays an important role in determining the
cost of bridges. The span of a bridge depends upon site
constraints and the type of crossing. If span length variation is
allowed, the economical choice will depend on the relative cost
of the superstructure and substructure.
The initial cost of the bridge also depends upon materials, time
to design and construct, methods of construction and
fabrication, earthwork and modes of transport used for the
bridge.
There are some other factors which influence the design of
bridges like life-cycle costing, risk, aesthetics and type of bridge.
The common type of concrete bridges have prestressed
concreted girders and reinforced concrete as deck slab.
In this Topic the design loads are calculated in accordance with
The Australian Standard for Bridge design Code AS 5100 Part 2. The
Australian Standard AS5100.2 is used as a guideline and considers
loads and load effects divided into permanent effects (PE),
thermal effects and transient effects. The classification of loads is
given in Clause 22.1 of AS5100.
For the purpose of this topic and the assignment the permanent
effects of structural dead load and any superimposed dead load,
and the transient effects of vehicular traffic loads, will only be
considered. The dead loads and corresponding load factors are
given in Clause 5 of AS5100.2. Road Traffic loads and load
factors are given in Clause 6 of AS5100.2.
The design life of a bridge is normally assumed 100 years. The
bridge has to satisfy ultimate limit states for ultimate strength
and serviceability
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To obtain design loads for Serviceability and Ultimate Limit
states, the nominal dead loads are multiplied by load factors and
the Road traffic loads are multiplied by load factors and
dynamic allowances given in the code. If more than one lane in
loaded an accompanying load factor is applied to the traffic load
as given in the code.
Usi ng Space Gass f or Gr i l l age Anal ysi s
The first step in using Space Gass is to locate its icon on the
desktop of your computer, and to click on it.



When you open the software you will have to click on two items
that relate to the appropriate use of your student version of
Space Gass, and its limitations with respect to the full operating
version. The following window will appear

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When you are about to start a new analysis using Space Gass
you need to select File, New.


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Before you start any work you should check that the units are
appropriate to the problem you are working with. You do this
by going to Structure, Units:


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and making any necessary changes in the Units window:

Next, you need to input some headings (Structure, Headings):


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Here are the headings set for this problem via the Headings
Input window:

To create the model for grillage analysis the Structures Wizard is
used to simulate the bridge deck with one of softwares inbuilt
structural system. This is then customised for our particular
problem.


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When you click on the selected structure you will be presented
with the detail window in this case the 2D Grillage. The details
for our particular problem have been entered.


This item is appropriate for our problem (2D
grillage)
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Note that the geometry parameters that you are required to
specify are defined in the image at the top left. Note also that the
Properties items are defined by the options available at the
bottom right. When you have completed the details
specifications and clicked on OK, a graph of this item will be
inserted into the work area of the main Space Gass window:


You now need to do a series of checks for Node Restraints,
Material Properties (especially taking note of Youngs Modulus)
and Section Properties
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Enter the section properties for the rectangular slab section and
the I shaped prestressed girder here.
The Section properties can also be determined by computer. In
order to do this you need to use the shape builder function of
the software as shown in the next page.




Before analysis can be completed the Loads must be applied to
the nodes (Node Loads) and members (Member Concentrated
Loads). In this Analysis all the loads are applied as node loads.
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You need to load the Load Case Titles:


You can also define load combinations (Combination Load
Cases).



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Now we need to activate Analysis of the problem that we have
just defined both Linear Static Analysis and Non-linear Static
Analysis. (Linear Static Analysis only is shown below, but the
process is exactly the same for Non-linear Static Analysis. You
might need to perform Buckling Analysis also, but this feature is
disabled in your student version of the software.)






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When the Analysis components you have selected are completed
and you click on OK for each of them, you can check Bending
Moment Diagrams, Shear Force Diagrams etc. You can also
print out the input and output files, that the maximum of
deflections, shear forces and bending moments can then be
identified.




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Maximum Ultimate
Bending Moment
Maximum Ultimate
Shear force
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Act i vi t y 2C
The Gr i l l age Met hod of Anal ysi s Appl i ed t o Br i dges
Revi ew:
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 2: Grillage Analysis of
Girder Bridges.ppt (650 k)
Maj or Desi gn Pr oj ect :
- Det ermine t he maximum design act ions on t he bridge
deck and prest ressed concret e bridge beams given in
t he proj ect t o be provided by your t ut or.
Not es:
- You should cont inue t o work on t he maj or design
proj ect t hroughout t he remainder of t he course.
- You can refer t o t he Assessment schedule for furt her
det ails on submission et c.
- This proj ect is t o be at t empt ed in groups of t hree.

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Summar y and Out come Checkl i st
In this Topic you learnt how to use the grillage method of
analysis for partially prestressed concrete bridges. You
discovered how to determine the loads, calculate the bending
moments, shear forces and twisting moments. You also learnt
how to apply the vehicle load on bridges by using the grillage
method of analysis.
Tick the box for each statement with which you agree:
I can identify and describe the different types of bridge
structure.
I can explain the grillage method of analysis of bridge
structures.
I can idealise a bridge structure into a number of
longitudinal and transverse beam elements in a single
horizontal plane, rigidly interconnected at nodes.
I can explain the global structural actions of a girder
bridge.
I can model the bridge structure for global analysis.
I can explain the effects and concept of interaction between
longitudinal and transverse bending.
I can determine the web line for slab supports.
I can determine the vertical deflection of each web line.
I can model the deflection effects by creating torsionally
stiff beam elements.
I can determine the loads under the serviceability condition
for ultimate strength design.

Assessment
This Topic will be assessed in the mid semester test and Final
Examination and is relevant to your work in the Major Design
Project.
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Topic 3: The Equivalent Load Concept and the
Load Balancing Method in
Prestressed Concrete Design
In Topic 1 you learnt to compute the stresses in a prestressed
concrete member due to applied loads and induced forces.
Imposing a prestressing force, which satisfies the particular
conditions of geometry and loading of a given member is
determined from the principles of mechanics and of stress strain
relationships. An alternative procedure, called the equivalent
load method, can be used to evaluate the effects of prestress.
This method provides the basis for a design technique called
load balancing which can be used in the preliminary design of
the prestressed concrete structures
Lear ni ng Out comes
When you have successfully completed this Topic you will be
able to:
- determine all the forces exerted on the concrete member
by the prestressing tendon using the equivalent load
method
- calculate stresses in a prestressed concrete beam due to a
combination of prestress force, self-weight, permanent
load and live load by using the equivalent load method
- determine the prestressing force to balance a system of
externally applied design loads
- determine an appropriate jacking prestress force for a
flexural member and satisfy serviceability conditions at
transfer.
Backgr ound Ski l l s and Knowl edge
Before you start this Topic you are expected to be able to:
- explain the effects of prestress on beam behaviour
- determine the transverse forces caused by the tendons
- determine the stresses induced by prestress
- determine the stresses induced by applied loads
- determine the combined stresses induced by prestress
and applied loads.
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Concrete Structures 2 62
Sessi on 3.1: Equi val ent Load Concept
In this session, you will learn to calculate the stresses in a
prestressed concrete member due to applied loads and induced
forces using the equivalent load concept. In the equivalent load
method all the forces exerted on the concrete member by the
prestressing tendon are determined and used to determine the
effects of prestress on the beam. These forces are termed
equivalent loads and occur at the anchorages and wherever the
cable changes direction. Equivalent loads in common cases such
as forces at anchorage, draped cables, and cables with curved
profile are determined in the Activity 3A.
Lear ni ng Out comes
When you have successfully completed this session you will be
able to, by using the equivalent load method:
- determine all the forces exerted on the concrete member
by the prestressing
- calculate stresses in a prestressed concrete beam due to a
combination of prestress force, self-weight, permanent
load and live load.

Act i vi t y 3A
Equi val ent Load Concept
Read:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e St ruct ures,
sect ion 6.3
St udy:
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 3: Equivalent Load
Concept in Prest ressed Concret e.ppt (149 k)
St udy Exampl e:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e St ruct ures,
6.2
Devel op Sol ut i on:
- Problem 3 provided separat ely.
When you have completed the problem turn to the back of this
Learning Guide to find solutions.
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Sessi on 3.2: Load Bal anci ng Met hod
In this session, you will learn the concept of load balancing,
which is a simple development from the equivalent load method
of analysis discussed in the previous section. One of the most
important uses of prestress in the design of concrete structures is
to improve the structural behaviour under service load
conditions. Determining the equivalent upward load due to
prestress can be useful to determine the required prestress force
to balance a given set of applied loads. In load balancing the
internal equivalent loads are equal and opposite to a system of
externally applied design loads. The external load system is then
said to be balanced by the prestress.
By choosing an appropriate design load to balance, the designer
can determine the cable force and cable profile to be used in a
flexural member. The balanced load may be the self-weight of
the structure, self-weight plus the permanent load or even the
total permanent load plus a proportion of the live load. At the
balanced load condition there is no cracking and no deflection
hence the serviceability requirements for design are almost
automatically satisfied. After the prestressing details have been
determined by load balancing, serviceability conditions at
transfer and under full working load need to be checked and
satisfied.
Up to this point we have simply used prestressing force, P as
constant throughout length of beam. In reality, loss of prestress
force in tendon occurs immediately after tendons are stressed
and continue to occur throughout the life of prestressed
member. In Topic 5 you will be shown how to calculate loss of
prestress at different stages, namely; immediate loss occurs
immediately after transfer (includes friction loss) and deferred
loss - time-dependent takes place gradually over time.
Load balancing calculations are based on effective prestress,
e
P
after all losses have occurred. Calculations of conditions
immediately after transfer are based on initial prestress force,
i
P .
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v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 64
Lear ni ng Out comes
When you have successfully completed this session you will be
able to:
- determine the prestressing force to balance a system of
externally applied design loads
- determine an appropriate jacking prestress force for a
flexural member and satisfy serviceability conditions at
transfer.

Act i vi t y 3B
Det er mi ne Pr est r essi ng Det ai l s
Read:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e
St ruct ures, sect ion 6.4
Revi ew:
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 3: Equivalent Load
Concept in Prest ressed Concret e.ppt (149 k)
St udy Exampl e:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e
St ruct ures, 6.3
Devel op Sol ut i on:
- Problem 4 provided separat ely.
When you have completed the problem turn to the back of this
Learning Guide to find solutions.

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v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 65
Summar y and Out come Checkl i st
In this Topic you learnt to compute the stresses in a prestressed
concrete member due to applied loads and induced forces using
the equivalent load method. You were introduced to the load
balancing concept, which is a simple development from the
equivalent load method of analysis, to provide means for
determining the appropriate prestress details for serviceability
design situations.
Tick the box for each statement with which you agree:
I can find all the forces exerted on the concrete member by
the prestressing tendon (equivalent load method).
I can find prestressing details (load balancing method).
Assessment
This Topic will be assessed in the mid-semester test and Final
Examination and as is relevant to your work in the Major Design
Project.
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 66

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v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 67
Topic 4: Post Cracking Behaviour of
Prestressed Concrete Beams in
Flexure
In all our previous calculations on prestressed concrete beams
weve used the gross cross sectional area and gross second
moment of area of the section. In doing that we assume that the
cross section is uncracked (i.e. tension at any point in the section
doesnt exceed cracking stress of the concrete). In normal
designs, we allow prestressed concrete beams to be cracked at
service loads, although not as severely as in reinforced concrete.
Beams which are designed to crack at service loads are known as
partially prestressed beams. Most prestressed beams are designed
as partially prestressed beams.
In this Topic you will learn how to evaluate the post-cracking
behaviour of prestressed concrete sections. This situation occurs
when the tensile stresses produced by the external moment at a
particular section overcomes the compression caused by the
prestressing force. As the prestressed section starts to crack the
resisting or cracking moment of the section decreases with time
due to creep and shrinkage. It is important to note that if the
applied moment is greater than the cracking moment, cracking
will occur. The post cracking behaviour of cracked sections can
be calculated by using simple elastic analysis which is based on
the following assumptions:
- plane sections remain plane and strain distribution is
linear over the depth of the section
- a perfect bond exists between the concrete and steel
including prestressing
- analysis is based on short-term behaviour.
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Concrete Structures 2 68
Backgr ound Ski l l s and Knowl edge
Before you start this Topic you are expected to be able to:
- explain the effects of prestress on beam behaviour
- determine the transverse forces caused by the tendons
- determine the stresses induced by prestress
- determine the stresses induced by applied loads
- determine the combined stresses induced by prestress
and applied loads.
Lear ni ng Out comes
When you have successfully completed this Topic you will be
able to:
- apply the above assumptions in the analysis of
prestressed sections
- determine the concrete and steel strains
- determine the concrete and steel forces of the cracked
cross-section
- apply force and moment equilibrium equations
- calculate the depth of the neutral axis, dn
- calculate the moment corresponding to the sectional
strains and stresses.
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v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 69

Act i vi t y 4A
Post Cr acki ng Behavi our of Pr est r essed Concr et e
Beams i n Fl exur e
Read:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e St ruct ures,
sect ion 6.5
St udy:
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 4: Post Cracking
Behaviour of Prest ressed Concret e Beams.ppt (111 k)
St udy Exampl e:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e St ruct ures,
6.4
Devel op Sol ut i on:
- Problem 5 provided separat ely
When you have completed the problem turn to the back of this
Learning Guide to find solutions




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v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 70
Summar y and Out come Checkl i st
In this Topic you learnt to calculate the post cracking behaviour
of cracked sections by using simple elastic analysis.
Tick the box for each statement with which you agree:
I can determine the concrete and steel strains.
I can calculate the concrete and steel forces of the cracked
cross-section.
I can apply force and moment equilibrium equations to
calculate the depth of the neutral axis, dn and the
corresponding sectional moment of the cracked cross-
section.
Assessment
This Topic will be assessed in the mid-semester test and Final
Examination and as is relevant to your work in the Major Design
Project.
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 71
Topic 5: Types of Losses in Prestressed
Concrete
It is a well-known fact that the initial prestressing force applied
to the concrete undergoes some immediate and time dependent
losses. Time dependent losses undergo a progressive process of
reduction over a period of significant time. Therefore, it is
important to determine the level of prestressing force at each
loading stage, from the stage of transfer to the full service loads.
The reduction in the prestressing force can be in two stages:
1. Transfer Stage
This is an immediate elastic loss during the construction
including elastic shortening of the concrete, anchorage
losses and frictional losses.
2. Service Load Stage
This is a time-dependent loss, such as creep, shrinkage and
those due to temperature effects and steel relaxation.
These losses are represented in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: The relationship between immediate and time-dependent losses, copyright RMIT
University
An accurate calculation of these losses is not feasible. Different
countries codes give different empirical recommendations to
estimate these losses. A very high degree of accuracy is not
desired in determination of losses. Consequently, a lump-sum
estimate of losses is more realistic and practical.
In this Topic, you will learn to calculate the prestress losses.

School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 72
Lear ni ng Out comes
Upon successful completion of this Topic you will be able to:
- define and differentiate the types of losses in prestressed
concrete structural elements
- determine elastic deformation losses in pre-tensioned and
post-tensioned members
- determine friction losses along the tendon
- determine anchorage losses
- determine creep and shrinkage losses of a prestressed
concrete member
- determine relaxation of steel of a prestressed concrete
member.
Backgr ound Ski l l s and Knowl edge
Before you start this Topic you are expected to be able to:
- calculate the stresses caused by the prestressing force
without prestress losses in pre-tensioned members
- determine the stresses in a prestressed concrete member
at transfer stage
- determine the stresses in a prestressed concrete member
under full service load conditions
- evaluate the effects of a prestressing force on a concrete
member.

As explained earlier, there are two types of losses. Immediate
losses after transfer, such as elastic deformation, friction losses
and anchorage losses which are calculated separately for pre-
tensioned and post-tensioned members. Different codes of
practice from various countries have given different empirical
methods to determine these losses for pre-tensioned and post-
tensioned members.
The other types of losses in prestressed concrete members are
time-dependent losses. These losses include shrinkage, creep
and relaxation of steel. Creep and shrinkage losses are after
transfer in both pre-tensioned and post-tensioned members,
whereas relaxation of steel in pre-tensioned members can be
before and after transfer. In the case of post-tensioned members,
this loss is after transfer of the prestressing force.
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Concrete Structures 2 73

Act i vi t y 5A
Types of Losses i n Pr est r essed Concr et e ( 1)
Read:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e St ruct ures,
sect ion 10.1, 10.2.1 10.2.3, 10.3.1 10.3.3
St udy:
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 5: Losses of
Prest ress.ppt (408 k)

Loss of Pr est r ess Exampl e
(based on Warner worked example 10.1)
Losses are to be determined for a simply supported post-
tensioned beam which spans 25 m and has the cross-section
shown in Figure 5.2. The beam carries no permanent load other
than its weight.
Prestressing steel is contained in two cables each consisting of 18
super grade three wire low relaxation strands of 12.7 mm
diameter. For each cable, the area is 1802 mm
2
. The cables have
parabolic profiles with eccentricities of zero at each end and 396
mm at midspan. The concrete strength
'
45
c
f MPa = . Stressing
takes place when the concrete is at age 14 days with a strength of
356 MPa. The beam is near a coastal area.
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 74

Figure 5.2: Loss of prestress example, copyright RMIT


University (Geoff Marchiori)

( )
4
2
2
10 4
'
1100
3604 two cables
8000
570, 000
3.48 10
29, 600
45
pi
p
s
g
g
c
c
MPa
A mm
A mm
A mm
I mm
G MPa
f MPa
o =
=
=
=
=
=
=


Eccentricity cable @ mid span 396 mm =
Stressing takes place @ 14 days 35
cp
l MPa o = .
Beam exposed near costal area
Immediate losses
Elastic Loss
The concrete compressive stress at the steel level at mid-span,
due to the stressing of one cable is:
2
10
where (one cable) 1100 1802
1100 1802 1100 1802 396
570, 000 3.48 10
3.478 8.93
12.4
i i
ci i pi p
g g
P Pe
P A
I A
e
MPa
o o = + = =
| |
|
\ .

= +

= +
=

The loss of prestress in the first cable when the second cable is
stressed is:
190, 000
12.4 80
29, 600
p
p ci
c
E
MPa
E
o o A = = =
The first cable could thus be stressed to 1180 MPa to allow for
concrete elastic compression.

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Concrete Structures 2 75
Friction loss Tendon
It is assumed that jacking is carried out at one end only (from Cl
3.4.2.4 AS3600 2009).
0.016 /
(for sheathing with tendons of internal diameter 50 )
0.20 (zinc-coated flat metal ducts)
p
rad m
mm
|

=
s
=
At
mid-span
9

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) tot
tot
0.2 0.063 0.016 12.5
4 675 279
4
0.063
25, 000
0.95
p pa
u L
pa pj pj pj
h
rad
L
e e
o |
o
o o o o
+
+

= = =
= = =

At dead end
10

( )
tot
0.2 0.126 0.016 25
2 0.063 0.126
0.91
pa pj pj
rad
e
o
o o o
+
= =
= =

Anchorage Slip
This is obtained from manufacturers information. For example,
for VSL multi-strand systems a draw-in loss of 6 mm is given.
However, at the critical mid-span section, this loss will be
neglected.
Deferred losses
Shrinkage loss
Design shrinkage strain
cs
c :
cs cse csd
c c c = + Cl 3.1.7.2(1) AS3600 - 2009
Autogenous shrinkage strain
cse
c :
( )
* 0.1
1.0
t
cse cse
e c c

= Cl 3.1.7.2(2)
where t is the time (in days) after setting.
Take t = 30 years expected life-span of bridge = 10,950 days

9
12.5
pa
L m =
10
25
pa
L m =
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v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 76
Final autogenous shrinkage strain
*
cse
c :
( )
( )
* ' 6
6 6
0.06 1.0 50 10
0.06 45 1.0 50 10 85 10
cse c
f c


=
= =
Cl 3.1.7.2(4)
( ) 0.1 10950 6 6
85 10 1.0 85 10
cse
e c

= =
Drying shrinkage strain
csd
c :
*
1 4 . csd csd b
k k c c = Cl 3.1.7.2(3)
( )
1
1.14 figure 3.1.7.2 AS3600 - 2009
for 10950
2
2 570000
238
2 1500 900
g
e
k
t days
A
th mm
U
=
= (
(


(
= = =
(
+


4
* 6
.
6 6
0.5 near-coastal area
900 10 (Melbourne)
1.14 0.5 900 10 513 10
csd b
csd
k
c
c


=
=
= =

The design shrinkage strain is:
( )
6 6
85 513 10 598 10
cs cse csd
c c c

= + = + =
Loss of prestress due to shrinkage:
p
p cs
E
o c
o
A = Cl.3.4.3.2 AS3600 2009
6
modification to allow for reinforcement effect
15 8000
1 15 1 1.21
570000
190000
598 10 93.9 94
1.21
s
g
p
A
A
MPa MPa
o
o
o

=

= + = + =
A = = ~

Creep loss
Creep strain in concrete 0.8
ci
cc cc
c
E
o
c |
| |
=
|
\ .

Cl 3.1.8.1 AS3600 2009
ci
o = sustained stress in concrete at level of tendons


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Concrete Structures 2 77
Assuming that only sustained load is the self-weight = 13.7 kN/m
the mid-span bending moment due to sustained load:
2
13.7 25
1070 /
8
sw
M kN m

= =
The stress in concrete at the level of prestressing steel due to
prestress and sustained service load.

Figure 5.3: The stress in concrete at the level of prestressing steel, due to prestress and
sustained service load, copyright RMIT University (Geoff Marchiori)
| |
2
at prestress level
1802 1100 2 3965
i i
g g
i
P Pe
A I
P kN
o
| |
= + |
|
\ .
= =

The resultant stress at the level of prestressing
3 3 2 6
9 9
3965 10 3965 10 396 1070 10 396
570000 34.8 10 34.8 10
24.8 12.2 12.6
ci
MPa
o
(
= +
(


= =

Design creep co-efficient:
. 2 3 4 5 cc cc b
k k k k | | = Cl 3.1.8.3
.
2
3
4
'
5
2.6 (+b 3.1.8.2)
30 238
1.143 (Figure 3.1.8.3(A))
0.9 (Figure 3.1.8.3(B))
0.5
1.0 50
2.6 1.143 0.9 0.5 1.0 1.34
cc b
h
c
cc
t years t mm
k
k
k
k f MPa
|
|
=
= =
=
=
=
= s
= =

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Concrete Structures 2 78
The creep strain:
12.6
0.8 0.8 1.34 0.00046
29600
ci
cc cc
c
E
o
c |
| |
| |
= = =
| |
\ .
\ .

Hence loss of prestress due to creep of concrete:
0.00046 190000 87.4
p cc p
E MPa o c A = = =
sum of the losses due to creep and shrinkage:
94 87.4 181
181
per cent loss 100 16.5%
1100
p
MPa o A = + =
= =

Tendon stress relaxation
For low relaxation strand take 2%
b
R =
Design relaxation of a tendon R is
4 5 6 b
R k k k R =
Cl 3.3.4.3 AS3600 2009
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1
6 6
4
5
6
log 5.4 log 5.4 10950 1.4
1100
0.7 for 0.59
1870
characteristic minimum breaking strength (Cl 3.3.1) 1870
1.0
pi
p
pb
k j
k
f
f MPa
k
o
= = =
| |
= = = |
|
\ .
= =
=

Hence:
1.4 0.7 1.0 2 1.96% 2% R = = ~
Summary of percentage losses @ mid-span section:
- Elastic: 40/1100m 4%
- Friction: 5%
- Creep and shrinkage: 16.5%
- Relaxation: 2%


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v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 79

Act i vi t y 5B
Types of Losses i n Pr est r essed Concr et e ( 2)
Revi ew
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 5: Losses of
Prest ress.ppt (408 k)
Devel op Sol ut i on:
- Problem 6 provided separat ely.
When you have completed the problem turn to the back of this
Learning Guide to find solutions.

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v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 80
Summar y and Out come Checkl i st

In this Topic you learnt that the initial prestressing force applied
to the concrete undergoes some immediate and time dependent
losses. Time dependent losses undergo a progressive process of
reduction over a period of approximately five to six years.
Therefore, it is important to determine the level of prestressing
force at each loading stage, from the stage of transfer to the full
service loads. The reduction in the prestressing force can be in
two stages the transfer stage and the service load stage.
Tick the box for each statement with which you agree:
I can define and differentiate the types of losses.
I can determine elastic deformation losses in pre-tensioned
and post-tensioned members.
I can determine friction losses along the tendon.
I can determine anchorage losses.
I can determine creep and shrinkage losses of a prestressed
concrete member.
I can determine relaxation of steel of a prestressed concrete
member.
Assessment
This Topic will be assessed in the Final examination and is
relevant to your work in Major Design Project.
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 81
Topic 6: Serviceability Design of Prestressed
Concrete
Serviceability of prestressed concrete members in their
deflection and cracking behaviour is an important criterion
similar to reinforced concrete sections. Prestressed concrete
members are even more sensitive to deflection and post-cracking
behaviour requirements, as these beams are more slender than
simple reinforced concrete beams.
Lear ni ng Out comes
When you have completed this Topic you will be able to:
- list the serviceability requirements for a flexural member
- set limits on stress in concrete both at transfer and under
full service loads
- determine an appropriate prestress force for a flexural
member subjected to a given service load
- determine eccentricity force for a flexural member
- check stress limits
- calculate short-term and long-term deflection of a
prestressed concrete member under serviceability
conditions.
Backgr ound Ski l l s and Knowl edge
Before you start this Topic you are expected to be able to:
- determine the combined stresses induced by prestress
and applied loads in an uncracked prestressed concrete
member
- calculate the stresses in a crack prestressed concrete
members
- determine immediate and deferred losses in prestressed
concrete members.

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Concrete Structures 2 82
Serviceability requirements determine the level of prestress and
layout of the tendons in design of theses members. For satisfying
these requirements, a reasonably accurate estimate of the
magnitude of prestress is needed.
There are two critical stages in the design of prestressed concrete
for serviceability. The first stage is immediately after the
prestressing force is transferred to the concrete. This force is
usually designated as P
i
. The second critical stage is after the
time dependent losses have occurred and the member is under
full service loads. At this stage, the magnitude of the
prestressing force is at a minimum value and applied loads are
at a maximum value. The prestressing force at this stage is
usually designated P
e
.
At both of these stages, serviceability requirements of the
member should be satisfied. Strength requirements at each stage
are also satisfied. However, it is worthwhile to note the level of
prestress, and the amount and distribution of steel are
determined by serviceability rather than strength requirements


Act i vi t y 6A
Desi gn of a Pr est r essed Concr et e Member under
Ser vi ce Loads ( 1)
Read:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e St ruct ures,
sect ions 8.1 - 8.4, 15.1, 15.3.1 - 15.3.3, 15.4.4, 15.5
and 15.5.2.
St udy:
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 6: Design of Prest ressed
Concret e Beams for Serviceabilit y.ppt (205 k)


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v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 83
Ser vi ceabi l i t y, Def l ect i ons and Cr ack Cont r ol Exampl e
(based on Warner worked example 8.7)
The beam shown in Figure 6.1 spans 25 m and supports a live
load of 14.8 kN/m in addition to self-weight.

Figure 6.1: Serviceability, deflections and crack control worked example, copyright RMIT
University (Geoff Marchiori)
Section properties
' '
2 2
2 10 4
35 45
854 1100
3640 8000
570, 000 3.48 10
30, 000 190, 000
cp c
pe pi
p s
g g
c p
f MPa f MPa
MPa MPa
A mm A mm
A mm I mm
E MPa E MPa
o o
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =

1. Check adequacy of beam at transfer using Cl 8.1.6.2.
Initial prestress force:
1100 3640 4004
i pi p
P A kN o = = =
At transfer, beam self-weight needs to be considered.
Self-weight of beam:
24 0.57 13.68 /
sw
w kN m = =
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Concrete Structures 2 84
Self-weight of bending moment:
2 2
13.68 25
1069
8 8
sw
sw
w l
M kNm

= = =

Figure 6.2: Checking adequacy of beam at transfer, copyright RMIT University (Geoff
Marchiori)
( )
3
3 6
10 10
4004 10 396 621
4004 10 1069 10 621
570000 3.48 10 3.48 10
7.02 28.3 19.1 16.22 0.5
OK as 0.5 17.5
b
cp
cp
MPa f
f
o


= + +

= + = <
=
( )
3
3 6
10 10
4004 10 396 279
4004 10 1069 10 279
570000 3.48 10 3.48 10
7.02 12.7 8.57 2.89 0.5
OK as 0.5 17.5
t
cp
cp
MPa f
f
o


= + +

= + = <
=

Check whether the section is cracked under full service load.
( ) ( )
2 2
service
25
13.68 14.8 2225
8 8
a l
a sw
l
M w w kNm
w w
= + = =
=

Bottom fibre stress:
6
service
10
2225 10 621
7.02 28.3
3.48 10
4.38 (tension)
b b
b
g g
Pey M y P
A I I
MPa
o

= + = +

=

Tensile cracking stress of concrete:
( )
' '
0.6 0.6 45 4.02
4.34 4.02
r c
b
f f MPa
o
= = =
>

Therefore beam is cracked under service loads.
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Concrete Structures 2 85
2. Calculate deflection of beam
Since section is cracked under full service load,
cr
I is needed for
the calculation of deflections.
properties of equivalent cracked section:
n cr
d I o
To find
n
d we equate moments of area above and below neutral
axis using transformed section. Assume
n
d is in the flange.

Figure 6.3: Calculating deflection of beam,


copyright RMIT University (Geoff
Marchiori)

2
2
or
190
3640 23050
30
200
8000 53330
30
p
s
c c
PT
ST
E
E
n
E E
A mm
A mm
=
= =
= =
E moments @ N.A. ( 0
y
A =

):
( ) ( )
2
2 6
1500
23050 675 53330 815
2
750 76380 59 10 0
234
n
n n
n n
n
d
d d
d d
d mm
= +
+ =
~

Therefore assumption
n
d in flange is correct.
Determine second moment of area of cracked section
cr
I , about
neutral axis (
2
I Ay +

):
( ) ( )
3
2 2
9 4
1500 234
23050 675 234 53330 815 234
12
28.9 10
cr
I
mm

= + +
=

( )
3
cr
cf cr g cr
s
M
I I I I
M
| |
= +
|
\ .

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To determine cracking moment, first calculate stress in bottom
fibre due to prestress alone:
( ) ( )
10 '
7.02 28.3 35.3
35.3 0.6 45 3.48 10
2204
621
b
b
bp cf g
cr
Pey P
MPa
A I
f I
M kNm
y
o
o
= + = + =
+ +
= = =

( )
service service
3
9 10 9 10 4
28.5 2225
2204
28.9 10 3.48 10 28.9 10 3.46 10
2225
Effective prestress, 854 3640 3109
ef
e pe p
w kN M kNm
I mm
P A kN o
= =
| |
= + =
|
\ .
= = =
Equivalent upward load due to prestress @ service load:

( )
2 2
4
2
10
3109 0.396
8 8 15.8 /
25
5 28.5 15.8 25000
5
service 62.2
384 384 30000 3.46 10
25000
allowable limit 100 62.2 OK
250 250
p e
ef
h
W P kN m
l
wl
mm
EI
l
mm

= = = |
+ |

A = = = +

= = >


Act i vi t y 6B
Desi gn of a Pr est r essed Concr et e Member under
Ser vi ce Loads
Revi ew:
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 6: Design of Prest ressed
Concret e Beams for Serviceabilit y.ppt (205 k)
St udy Exampl e:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e St ruct ures,
8.5, 8.6 and 15.2.
Devel op Sol ut i ons:
- Problem 7 provided separat ely
When you have completed these problems turn to the back of this
Learning Guide to find solutions.

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v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 87
Summar y and Out come Checkl i st
In this Topic you learnt to calculate the post cracking behaviour
of cracked sections by using simple elastic analysis.
Tick the box for each statement with which you agree:
I can list the serviceability requirements for a flexural
member.
I can set limits on stress in concrete both at transfer and
under full service loads.
I can determine prestress force for a flexural member.
I can determine eccentricity force for a flexural member.
I can check stress limits.
I can calculate short-term and long-term deflections of a
prestressed concrete member
Assessment
This Topic will be assessed in the Final Examination and as is
relevant to your work in the Major Design Project.
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 88

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Concrete Structures 2 89
Topic 7: Ultimate Strength of Prestressed
Concrete Members in Flexure
The satisfaction of concrete and steel stress limits at service load
does not guarantee adequate strength and safety of the
structural member. It is important to consider the non-linear
behaviour of the member in the over-load range to ensure
structural safety of the member. This is possible only by
calculating the ultimate capacity of a member, which provides
the sufficient margin between the service load and the ultimate
load.
The ultimate strength of a cross-section in bending is calculated
by flexural strength theory, which involves consideration of the
strength of both the concrete and steel in tension and
compression. In this Topic, you will learn to predict the ultimate
flexural strength of a prestressed concrete member with singly
and doubly reinforced concrete sections.
The ultimate bending moment of a section is determined and
design requirements for the strength limit state must be
satisfied. In addition to the satisfaction of strength limit state, a
measure of the ductility of each section must be determined.
Ductile members undergo large deformations before failure.
Therefore, design for ductility is very important in determining
the ultimate strength of a prestressed concrete member.
The determination of the ultimate bending moment of a
prestressed concrete section uses almost similar assumptions to
those being used in simple non-prestressed reinforced concrete
sections. They are:
- strain variation along the cross-section is linear, therefore
plane sections remain plane
- concrete carries compression only. Tensile strength of the
concrete is ignored
- stresses in concrete, non-prestressed steel and prestressed
steel are obtained from actual stress-strain relationships.
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Concrete Structures 2 90
Lear ni ng Out comes
When you have successfully completed this Topic you will be
able to:
Upon successful completion of this Topic you will be able to:
- state the assumptions made in determination of ultimate
flexural strength of a prestressed concrete member
- determine the flexural behaviour of a beam member
under ultimate load conditions
- determine the strains in non-prestressed steel and in the
concrete
- select an initially appropriate location of a neutral axis
- determine the ultimate strain and stress in prestressing
steel
- verify and relocate the position of the neutral axis
- determine the ultimate moment capacity of a prestressed
reinforced concrete section.
Backgr ound Ski l l s and Knowl edge
Before you start this Topic you are expected to be able to:
- use the concept of a rectangular stress block
- determine the combined stresses induced by prestress
and applied loads at transfer
- calculate the combined stresses induced by prestress and
applied loads at service loads
- calculate the overall prestress losses including immediate
and deferred
- perform deflection checks of a prestressed concrete
member
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Concrete Structures 2 91

Act i vi t y 7A
Ul t i mat e Fl exur al St r engt h of Pr est r essed Concr et e
Beams
Read:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e St ruct ures,
sect ions 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, and 7.6
St udy:
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 7: Ult imat e St rengt h of
Prest ressed Concret e Beams.ppt (181 k)
St udy Wor ked Exampl es:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e St ruct ures,
7.11, 7.12, 7.13, 7.16 and 7.19.
Devel op Sol ut i ons:
- Problem 8 provided separat ely.
When you have completed these problems turn to the back of this
Learning Guide for solutions.


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v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 92
Summar y and Out come Checkl i st
In this Topic, you learnt how to predict the ultimate flexural
strength of a prestressed concrete member .You learnt how the
ultimate bending moment of a section is determined and how
the design requirements for the strength limit state are satisfied.
In addition to the satisfaction of strength limit state, a measure
of the ductility of each section must be determined. Ductile
members undergo large deformations before failure. Therefore,
design for ductility is very important in determining the
ultimate strength of a prestressed concrete member.
Tick the box for each statement with which you agree:
I can state the prestressed concrete member assumptions
necessary to determine ultimate strength.
I can determine the flexural behaviour of a beam member
under ultimate load conditions.
I can determine the strains in a non-prestressed steel and in
the concrete.
I can determine the ultimate strain and stress in
prestressing steel
I can determine the ultimate moment capacity Mu of a
prestressed reinforced concrete section.
Assessment
This Topic will be assessed in the Final Examination and as is
relevant to your work in the Major Design Project.
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 93
Topic 8: Shear Strength of Prestressed
Concrete Beams
This Topic covers the procedure for the design of prestressed
concrete sections to resist shear forces resulting from applied
loads. As concrete has lower strength in tension and higher
strength in compression, shear design is very important in all
types of concrete structures.
Lear ni ng Out comes
Upon successful completion of this Topic you will be able to:
- state the concept of shear in beams
- determine the shear strength of a prestressed concrete
beam
- analyse and design for flexure-shear cracking
- analyse and design for web-shear cracking
- satisfy the design requirements to avoid shear failure in
beams.
Backgr ound Ski l l s and Knowl edge
Before you start this Topic you are expected to be able to:
- determine the shear stresses in a beam without
reinforcement
- calculate the principal stresses in a beam section without
reinforcement
- apply Mohrs Circle of Stresses in a simple homogenous
single material beam section
- design shear reinforcement in a concrete beam without
prestressing steel as per current code of practice

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Concrete Structures 2 94
The behaviour of prestressed concrete beams in shear failure is
different from flexural behaviour. The shear failure occurs
suddenly and the diagonal cracks that cause failure are wider
than the flexural cracks. Both shear and torsional forces produce
shear stresses in prestressed concrete members. This shear stress
can result in principal tensile stresses at the critical section and
consequently exceed the tensile strength of the concrete. In
general, the shearing stresses in beams are not caused by direct
shear or pure torsion, but by a combination of applied loads and
moments. This will cause diagonal tension or flexural shear
stresses in the member.
There are some special applications like corbels or brackets or
balcony cantilever slabs where direct shear or pure torsion is
applied. As explained above, in common structures, shear
stresses cause diagonal tension in the concrete and, ultimately,
inclined cracking. Traditional reinforcement in the form of
hoops or stirrups or ties is used to carry tensile forces in the
webs of prestressed concrete beams to resist diagonal cracks.
A local shear failure at columns or under concentrated loads can
occur in slabs and footings. The punching shear failure is very
common in flat slabs and flat plates. In this Topic, you will learn
to provide adequate reinforcement to resist shear and torsional
forces.
It is a well-established fact that the longitudinal compression
induced by prestress delays the formation of diagonal cracks.
Mohrs Circle of Stresses can be used to examine the effects of
prestress on the formation and direction of inclined cracks.
Therefore, introduction of prestress increases the shear strength
of reinforced concrete beams. Normally, prestressed sections
often have thin webs, and their thicknesses are governed by
shear strength considerations.



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Concrete Structures 2 95

Act i vi t y 8A
Desi gni ng Pr est r essed Concr et e Beams f or Shear ( 1)
Read:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e St ruct ures,
sect ions 12.4, 12.5 and 12.6
St udy:
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 8: Shear St rengt h of
Concret e Prest ressed Beams.ppt (166 k)


Shear Desi gn Exampl e
(based on Warner worked example 12.2)
A post-tensioned beam with the section shown spans 30 m
between simple supports and carries a live load of 17 kN/m. The
beam is prestressed by a parabolic cable with an eccentricity at
midspan of 524 mm and zero eccentricity at the ends. The cable
comprises of 35 strands of 12.7 mm diameter with
2
3500
p
A mm = , in a 112 mm diameter duct. Owing to friction the
prestress force varies in an approximately linear manner from
3880 kN at ends to 3650 kN at midspan. Assume
'
40
c
f MPa =
and 400
sy
f MPa = . Calculate the shear reinforcement for the
beam.
2
9 4
2 3
self weight
*
488400
83.76 10
0.4884 25 / 12.2 /
40.8 /
take effective depth, 1140
g
g
A mm
I mm
w m kN m kN m
w kN m
d m
=
=
= =
=
=

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Figure 8.1: Shear design example, copyright RMIT University (Geoff Marchiori)

The bending moment and shear force at distance x from the left
support are:
*
*
2
30
40.8 612
2
30
+'ve 40.8 40.8
2
612 40.8
+'ve 612 40.8
2
612 20.4
L
R kN
V x
x kN
x
M x x
x x kNm
= =
| |
| =
|
\ .
=
. =
=

Figure 8.2, Bending moment and shear
force, copyright RMIT University (Geoff
Marchiori)

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Concrete Structures 2 97
Design at critical section near support.
Location from the support (Cl 8.2.4) of the critical section for
design:
Error! Objects cannot be created from editing field codes.
112
1220 24 1140
2
o
d mm = =
At the critical section, 1.14 d m = the cable force is 3863 kN; i.e.
prestress force variation due to friction loss:

@ 0 3880
15 3656
x P kN
x P kN
= =
= =

Figure 8.3, Prestress force variation due to


friction loss, copyright RMIT University
(Geoff Marchiori)
Linear variation:
3880 3656 3880
3863
15 1.14
x
x kN
m m

= =
Eccentricity of cable at x = 1.14 m:


Figure 8.4: Eccentricity of cable, copyright RMIT University (Geoff Marchiori)
2 2
1140 1140
4 4 524 77
30000 30000
77
x x
y h m
L L
e mm
| | | |
| | | |
= = =
| |
| |
| |
\ . \ .
\ . \ .
=

The inclination of the cable is:
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


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Concrete Structures 2 98
4 524 1140
4 1 2 1 2 0.065
30000 30000
h x
rad
L L
u
| | | |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .


The vertical component of the cable force:
sin 3863 0.065 251
v
P P kN u = = =


Figure 8.5: Vertical component of cable force, copyright RMIT University (Geoff Marchiori)

The effective web width:
( )
0.5
v w d
b b d =

Cl 8.2.6
sum of the diameters of the grouted ducts
200 0.5 112 144
d
v
d
b mm
=
= =


At this section:
( )
*
2
*
612 40.8 1.14 566
612 1.14 20.4 1.14 671
V kN
M kNm
= =
= =

Shear carried by concrete:
Web-shear cracking precedes flexural-shear cracking the shear
carried by the concrete,
t
V , is therefore that shear for which the
principal tension at some point in the web reaches critical value
'
0.33
c
f . Near the support the moment is small and the
principal tension at the centroidal axis is greater than at the web-
flange junction.
At the centroid ( 0 y = ), the horizontal normal stress is:
3
3863 10
7.91
488400
P
MPa
A
o

= = =

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The vertical normal stress is assumed to be zero (to calculate
principal stresses
o
is then taken as +ve if tensile and negative if
compressive).
The sheer stress is:
t
w
V Q
I b
t

=


where Q is the first moment of area above (or below) the
centroid.

Figure 8.6: Shear stress, copyright RMIT University (Geoff Marchiori)
( )
( ) ( )
6 3
230
760 230 552
2
560 1
75 552 230 25 2
2 2
552 230
200 552 230
2
92.99 10
Q
mm
( | |
=
| (
\ .
(
+
(

( | |
+
| (
\ .
=

then
( )
6
6
9
92.99 10
7.71 10
83.76 10 144
t
t
V
V MPa t


= =


The principal stress, o , at the centroid is:
( )
( ) ( )
2
2
1
2
2
6
0.5 0.5
791 0.5 7.71 10 7.91 0.5
t
v
V
o o t = + +
= + +

The critical value of tension is
'
0.33 0.33 40 2.11
c
f MPa = = , so
set
1
2.11 MPa o =
( ) ( )
2
2
6
2.11 7.91 0.5 7.71 10 7.91 0.5
596
t
t
V
V kN

= + +
=

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Concrete Structures 2 100
Adding the vertical component of the cable force:
( )
*
566
598 251 847
0.5 0.5 0.7 847 296
uc t v
uc
V V P kN
V kN V |
= + = + =
= = <

therefore it is necessary to design shear reinforcement.
Calculate
min u
V Cl 8.2.9
'
min
3
3
0
0.10 0.6
847 10 0.10 40 144 1140
847 10 0.63 144 1140 950 0.6
u uc c v o uc v o
uc v
V V f b d V b d
kN v b d
= + > +
= +
= + = > +

Is
,min sv
A sufficient?
Since:

*
min
0.5
296 566 665
uc u
V V V | | < <
< <

provide minimum shear reinforcement only.
Shear reinforcement Cl 8.2.8:
'
min
2 min
2 min
0.06
0.35
0.06 40 144 0.35 144
0.137 0.126 /
400 400
0.137 /
c v
sv v
sy sy
sv
sv
f b
A b
s f f
A
mm mm
s
A
mm mm
s


= >

= > = >
=
With
Y12 stirrups
2
220 1606
sv
A mm s mm = =
The maximum spacing is 500 mm
Therefore provide Y12 500 cts
Design near quarter span (x = 7 m)
For beams with uniformly distributed loads the region near the
quarter-span point is often critical for flexure-shear cracking at x
= 7 m
Cable force = 3773 kN
2
7000 7000
4 524 375
30000 30000
e mm
| |
| |
= =
|
|
|
\ .
\ .

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Concrete Structures 2 101
Cable slope:
4 524 7000
1 2 0.0373
30000 30000
rad o
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .

Bottom reinforcement 3Y20 bars
( )
2
930
st
A mm =
Design forces:
( )
*
2
*
612 40.8 7 326
612 7 20.4 7 3284
V kN
M kNm
= =
= =

Note that, since at this section the cable is located in the flange
and not in the web, 200
v w
b b mm = =
Shear carried by concrete:
3 9
3
9
6
*
*
; i.e.
3773 10 375 668 83.76 10
3773 10
83.76 10 668
2384 10 2384
2384
237
3284
326
3773 0.0373 141
g g
b
dec dec bp
g g b b
dec
dec
dec
dec
v
I I
P e y P
M M
A I y y
M
M Nmm kNm
M
V kN
M
V
P kN
o
(

= + =
(
(

(
= +
(


= =
= = =
| | | |
|
|
\ .
\ .
= =

1
1
1 2 3
1.1 1.6 Cl 8.2.7.1
1000
1140
1.1 1.6 0.506 1.1
1000
take 1.1, 1.0
40
o
cv
d
f MPa
|
|
| | |
| |
=
|
\ .
| |
= = <
|
\ .
= = =
=

( )
1
3
1 2 3
1
3
1
3
3 3
*
Cl 8.2.7.2
930 3500
1.1 1 1 200 1140 40
200 1140
237 10 141 10 231 237 141
609
0.5 0.5 0.7 609 213 326
st p
uc v o cv o v
v o
uc
uc
A A
V b d f V P
b d
V
kN
V kN V kN
| | |
|
+ | |
= + +
|
\ .
+ | |
=
|

\ .
+ + = + +
=
= = <

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Concrete Structures 2 102
Therefore it is necessary to design shear reinforcement.
Calculate
,min u
V CI 8.2.9
'
,min
3
0.10 0.6
0.10 40 200 1140 0.6 200 1140
0.63 200 1140
609 10 0.63 200 1140 753
u uc c v o uc v o
uc uc
uc
V V f b d V b d
V V
V
kN
= + > +
= + > +
= +
= + =

Is
,min sv
A sufficient?
( )
*
,min
0.7 753 527 326
u
V kN V kN | = = >
Therefore we require only the minimum reinforcement.
Shear reinforcement:
The stirrup requirements are as for the previously considered
section. Provide Y12 500 spacings.
Other sections can be completed using spreadsheet.

Act i vi t y 8A
Desi gni ng Pr est r essed Concr et e Beams f or Shear ( 2)
Revi ew:
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 8: Shear St rengt h of
Concret e Prest ressed Beams.ppt (166 k)
Devel op Sol ut i ons:
- Problem 9 provided separat ely.
When you have completed these problems turn to the back of this
Learning Guide for solutions.
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 103


Summar y and Out come Checkl i st
In this Topic you learnt how to provide adequate reinforcement
to resist shear and torsional forces in prestressed concrete
beams.
Tick the box for each statement with which you agree:
I can state the concept of shear in beams.
I can determine the shear strength of a prestressed concrete
beam.
I can analyse and design for flexure shear cracks.
I can analyse and design for web shear cracks.
I can satisfy the design requirements to avoid shear failure
in beams.
Assessment
This Topic will be assessed in the Final Examination and as is
relevant to your work in the Major Design Project.
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 104

School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 105
Topic 9: Analysis and Design of Flat Slabs
In commercial and multistorey buildings the supported floor
systems are usually constructed of reinforced concrete that has
been cast in place. Two-way slabs and plates are those panels in
which the dimensional ratio of length to width is less than two.
In general, frame systems comprise conventional slab-beam-
column combinations for a concrete structure. Flat plates or slabs
are those floors which a supported directly on columns without
beams.
Flat plates or slabs are supported directly over the columns,
therefore the slabs span in two directions and provide two-way
action to the columns. As there are no beams, the bottom surface
of the floor is flat. Flat slabs have some advantages over the
conventional beam-slab floor system. The main advantage of a
flat slab floor is a smaller height for the overall building. Also,
the flat slab formwork is simpler and aesthetically elegant. In
general, flat slabs have drop panels and flat plates are without
drop panels. The flat slabs deflect along the lines joining
adjacent columns, and the interior of the panel deflects further
relative to these columns.
In practice, two commonly used methods of analysis are the
direct design or simplified approach method and the equivalent
frame method. Both the direct design and the equivalent frame
method are based on the concept of the equivalent frame, except
that the direct design method has limited applications. The
direct design method is suitable for gravity load only, where the
frame method can cope with horizontal loading as well. In this
Topic the simplified approach method will be discussed.
The learning outcomes of this topic will introduce you to
analysis and design of reinforced concrete structures which are
non-standard and will facilitate understanding of sophisticated
analysis methods developed to cater for these.


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Concrete Structures 2 106
Lear ni ng Out comes
Upon successful completion of this Topic you will be able to:
- state the assumptions and applications based on a
simplified or direct design method for two-way flat slabs
- divide a floor in both directions as design strips
- calculate the total moments in the design strip at the
supports and at mid-span
- estimate how these moments are distributed across the
width of the design strip
- repeat the calculations of the design strip moments and
their distribution across the width in the other direction
- determine the dimensions of the design strip
- calculate the total static moment
- calculate total end moments and span moments
- determine design moment factors for an end span
- determine the proportion of design moments assigned to
the column strip
- state applications based on the idealised frame method or
determine the design moments in interior and edge strips
in both x and y directions
- design and layout the reinforcement.
Backgr ound Ski l l s and Knowl edge
Before you start this Topic you are expected to be able to:
- explain basic concepts of reinforced concrete
- describe flexural behaviour of reinforced concrete beams
- calculate loads, shear forces and bending moments for
common reinforced concrete structural elements of
rectangular section
- evaluate ultimate moment capacity for a reinforced
member
- explain the concept of limit state design for reinforced
concrete structures
- evaluate dead, live and wind loads on a given structure.
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Concrete Structures 2 107
Sessi on 9.1: Si mpl i f i ed Met hod of Anal ysi s
In this session you will learn to design the flat slab or flat plate
floor system with the direct design, or simplified method of
analysis. The applications of this method are limited as this
method is more approximate and has the following limitations:
- The successive spans must be fairly uniform in each
direction - they should not differ by more than one third
of the longer span.
- A minimum of three continuous spans is necessary in
each direction.
- All loads shall be due to gravity only, and uniformly
distributed over the entire panel. The live load should not
exceed three quarters of the dead load.
It is worth noting that you will find the majority of normal floor
systems satisfy these conditions
Lear ni ng Out comes
Upon successful completion of this session, you will be able to:
- determine whether the slab geometry and loading
permits the use of the simplified method
- select slab depth to satisfy shear and deflection
requirements. If the slab thickness chosen is not adequate,
then revise the dimensions or strengthen the slab-column
or both
- divide the structure into equivalent design frames bound
by centre lines of panels on each side of a line of columns
- compute the total statical moment
- select the distribution factors of the negative and positive
moments to the exterior and interior columns and spans
- distribute the equivalent frame moments to the column
and middle strips
- determine whether the trial slab depth is adequate for
shear
- design the flexural reinforcement
- select the size and spacing of the reinforcement to satisfy
the crack control requirements.
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Act i vi t y 9A
Si mpl i f i ed Met hod of Anal ysi s Fl at Sl abs ( 1)
Read:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e St ruct ures,
sect ions 17.1-17.4 and 18.1-18.3
St udy:
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 9: I nt roduct ion t o Flat
Slab Analysis and Design.ppt (1.419 M)


Anal ysi s of Fl at Sl abs Exampl e ( Si mpl i f i ed Met hod)
(based on Warner worked example 19.3)
A two way flat slab supporting a retail shopping mall has a
repetitive floor plan with 400 mm square columns placed in a
rectangular grid of 6.5 m 6 m. Live load is 5 kPa. Drop panels
are 2.2 m 2 m. Projection of the drop panel below the slab is 75
mm. Slab thickness is 250 mm. Concrete specific weight = 24
kN/m
3
.
The slab comprises three continuous spans in each direction (x
and y).
For both an internal design strip and an edge design strip,
calculate the total moments in both the x and y directions.
Divide the floor system into column strips and middle strips for
both the internal design strip and the edge design strip.
Determine the moment distribution across the width of the
design strips in both the x and y directions.
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v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 109

Figure 9.1, Two way flat slab, copyright RMIT University (Rebecca Gravina)

Geometry check:
Ratio longer span /shorter span < 2; i.e. 6.5/6 = 1.08 < 2.
There are more than 2 spans in one direction.
Live load is less than three quarters of dead load.
Hence simplified method is acceptable.
Design load
( ) ( )
2
1.2 1.5 1.2 24 0.25 1.5 5 14.7 / Fd G Q kN m = + = + =
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 110
X direction

Figure 9.2, Design load x direction, copyright RMIT University (Geoff Marchiori)

Interior design strip
Total static moment
2
8
t o
o
Fd L L
M

= Cl 6.10.4.2
2
14.7 / Fd kN m =
t
L = width of design strip = 6.0 m
L= span of slab in x-direction from centre to centre of columns =
6.5 m
For this slab with drop panels
sup
400
75 275
2
a mm = + =
( )
sup
minus 7 times the sum of the values of
at each end of the span
6500 - 2 0.7 275 6115
o
L L
d
mm
=
= =

Therefore:
( )
2
14.7 6 6.115
412
8
o
M kNm

= =


School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 111
Edge design strip
Total static moment
2
8
t o
o
Fd L L
M

=
( )
2
2
14.7 /
3.0 0.2 3.2
6.115
14.7 3.2 6.115
220
8
t
o
o
Fd kN m
L m
L m
M kNm
=
= + =
=

= =

Distribution design strip bending moments
End Span design moment Table 6.10.4.3 (A) of AS3600
moment at exterior support 0.25
midspan moment 0.50
moment at interior support 0.75
o
o
o
ve M
ve M
ve M
=
+ =
=

Interior span design moment Table 6.10.4.3 (B) of AS3600
moment at support 0.65
midspan moment 0.35
o
o
ve M
ve M
=
+ =

Bending moment distribution factors between column and
middle strips (Table 6.9.5.3 of AS3600)
moment at interior support 0.6 to 1.0,
say 0.75 to column strip, 0.25 to middle strip
moment at an exterior support 0.75 to 1.0,
say 0.75 to column strip, 0.25 to middle strip
ve
ve
v
=
=
+ moment in all spans 0.5 to 1.0,
say 0.6 to column strip, 0.4 to middle strip
e =

Interior design strip 412
o
M kNm =








School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


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Concrete Structures 2 112
End Span
support moment, column strip 0.25 0.75 77
interior support moment, column strip 0.75 0.75 232
moment midspan, column strip 0.5 0.6 124
o
o
o
ve M kNm
ve M kNm
ve M kNm
= =
= =
+ = =
exterior support moment, half middle strip
0.25 0.25
13
2
interior support moment, half middle strip
0.75 0.25
39
2
moment midspan, half middle strip
0.5 0.4
41
2
o
o
o
ve
M
kNm
ve
M
kNm
ve
M
kNm


= =


= =
+

= =

Interior span
support moment, column strip 0.65 0.75
211
midspan moment, column strip 0.35 0.6
87
o
o
ve M
kNm
ve M
kNm
=
=
+ =
=
0.65 0.25
support moment, half middle strip
2
34
0.35 0.4
midspan moment, half middle strip
2
29
o
o
M
ve
kNm
M
ve
kNm

=
=

+ =
=

Edge Design Strip 220
o
M kNm =
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Concrete Structures 2 113
End Span
exterior support moment, column strip
0.25 0.75 41
interior support moment, column strip
0.75 0.75 124
interior span moment, column strip
0.5 0.6 66
o
o
o
ve
M kNm
ve
M kNm
ve
M kNm

= =

= =
+
= =
exterior support moment, middle strip
0.25 0.25 14
interior support moment, middle strip
0.75 0.25 41
moment midspan, middle strip
0.5 0.4 44
o
o
o
ve
M kNm
ve
M kNm
ve
M kNm

= =

= =
+
= =

Interior Span
support moment, column strip 0.65 0.75 107
midspan moment, column strip 0.35 0.6 46
o
o
ve M kNm
ve M kNm
= =
+ = =
support moment, middle strip 0.65 0.25 36
midspan moment, middle strip 0.35 0.4 30
o
o
ve M kNm
ve M kNm
= =
+ = =

Y direction


Figure 9.3, Design load y direction, copyright RMIT University (Geoff Marchiori)

School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 114
Interior design strip
Total static moment
0
M
( ) ( )
( )
2
6.5 6.0
6000 2 0.7 275 5615
14.7 6.5 5.615
377
8
t
o
o
L m L m
L m
M kNm
= =
= =

= =

Edge design strip
Total static moment
0
M
( )
2
6.5
0.2 3.45
2
5.615
14.7 3.45 5.615
200
8
t
o
o
L m
L m
M kNm
= + =
=

= =




Act i vi t y 9B
Si mpl i f i ed Met hod of Anal ysi s Fl at Sl abs ( 2)
Revi ew:
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 9: I nt roduct ion t o Flat
Slab Analysis and Design.ppt (1.419 M)
Devel op Sol ut i ons:
- Problem 10 provided separat ely
When you have completed these problems turn to the back of this
Learning Guide to find solutions.


School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 115
Sessi on 9.2: Desi gn of Fl at Sl abs f or Fl exur e
and Def l ect i on Cont r ol
An essential criteria in the design of slabs is adequate control of
deflections at service loads. A minimum thickness of slab needs
to be selected at the preliminary design stage and later minor
adjustments are made during the final design stage to ensure
calculated deflections are within allowable limits.
Lear ni ng Out comes
Upon successful completion of this session, you will be able to:
- determine whether the trial slab depth is adequate for
satisfy deflection requirements
- design the flexural reinforcement
- select the size and spacing of the reinforcement to satisfy
the crack control requirements
Design codes provide rules for allowable span to depth ratios.
Deflection in slabs can be due to long-term creep and shrinkage
of the concrete. The code procedure must be followed to comply
with deflection requirements.
Once an appropriate thickness of slab has been selected, the
design moments and shears of a flat slab are obtained using
either the simplified method given in codes or an idealised
frame method. In this topic as previously mentioned we will be
using the simplified method.
The reinforcement required to resists these moments is obtained
be evaluating the tensile reinforcement area A
st
or tensile
reinforcement ratio , to satisfy that the design moment M* is
less than or equal to the ultimate moment capacity of the section,
M
u
.
The tensile reinforcement ratio should be not less than
minimum requirements. Minimum centre to centre spacing of
bars must also comply with detailing requirements given in
codes for adequate control of flexure cracks at service loads.

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v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 116

Act i vi t y 9B
Desi gn of Fl at Sl abs f or Fl exur e and Def l ect i on
Cont r ol ( 1)
Read:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e St ruct ures,
sect ions 19.1,19.4
Revi ew:
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 9: I nt roduct ion t o Flat
Slab Analysis and Design.ppt (1.419 M)
St udy Wor ked Exampl es:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e St ruct ures,
example 19.3
Devel op Sol ut i ons:
- Problem 11 below t his Act ivit y Box.
When you have completed these problems turn to the back of this
Learning guide to find solutions.


School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 117
Desi gn of Fl at Sl ab f or Fl exure Exampl e and def l ect i on cont r ol
(based on Warner worked example 19.3)
A two way flat slab supporting a retail shopping mall has a
repetitive floor plan with 400 mm square columns placed in a
rectangular grid of 6.5 m x 6 m. Live load is 5 kPa. Drop panels
are 2.2 m x 2m. Projection of the drop panel below the slab is 75
mm. Slab thickness is 250 mm.
'
32 , 500
c sy
f MPa f MPa = =
Determine the flexural reinforcement required in the slab using
the simplified method given in AS3600.
check minimum slab thickness
( )
1
3
3 4
/ 1000
ef c
ef
d
def
L E
L k k
F
(
A
(
=
(


Assume:
- overall slab thickness = D = 250 mm
-
diameter main bars
effective depth cover
2
d D = =
- diameter main steel bars 16 mm =
Therefore:

16
250 20 222
2
d mm = =
effective span = lesser of or
ef n
L L D L = +
Take longer span L = 6.5 m
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 118
( ) ( )
3
4
1.5
'
1
clear span = 6500 400 6100
6350 6100 250 6350
1.05 drop panels
2.1
2400 0.043 32 28600 Cl 3.1.2
32
500
1
/
250
1.0
n
ef n
c
c
sy
ef
def cs s cs
L mm
L mm L D mm
k
k
E MPa
f MPa
f MPa
L
F k g k q
= =
= + = + =
=
=
= =
=
=
A =
= + + +

( ) ( ) ( )
2
0.7 - short term
0.4 - long term
dead load = 0.25 24 6
live load 5
2.0
1 2 6 0.7 2 0.4 5 18 7.5 25.5 /
S
L
cs
def
g kPa
q kPa
k
F kPa kN m

=
=
= =
= =
=
= + + + = + =

check:
1
3
1
1000 28600
6350
250
1.05 2.1
222 25.5
28.6 36.4 OK
(

(
s
(
(

s



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Concrete Structures 2 119
Reinforcement design
At each location, the various strips of slab are designed as
rectangular shallow beams.
The moments in the x-direction are larger than those in the y-
direction. Hence bars in the xdirection will be place closer to
the slab surface.
We will use N16 main bars.
Effective depth at x-bars 250 20 8 222
s
d mm = =
Effective depth at y-bars 250 20 16 8 206
s
d mm = =
Note at the first interior columns, the reinforcement is designed
for the greater of the moments shown, that is, between end span
and interior span.
Each middle strip is designed to resist the sum of the moments
assigned to its two adjoining halves.
Minimum reinforcement ratio (Cl 9.1.1) for slabs supported
on columns:
' 2
.
min
0.24
ct f
st
sy
f
A D
p
bd d f
| |
= =
|
\ .

Take b = 1000 mm, x-direction 222
s
d mm = :
' '
.
2
min
2
,min
250
0.6 3.39
500
250 3.39
0.24 0.0021
222 500
0.0021 1000 222 466.2 /
ct f c
sy
st
st
D mm
f f MPa
f MPa
A
p
bd
A mm m
=
= =
=
| |
= = =
|
\ .
= =

To determine spacing over 1000 mm width:
2
Area 1N16 bar 201
1000
Spacing 201 431
466.2
mm
mm
=
= =

School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 120
Check minimum spacing (CI 9.4.1)
Minimum spacing is the lesser of:
2.0 or 300
2.0 227 or 300
s
D mm
mm

Therefore adopt 300 mm minimum spacing:
2
,min
Minimum reinforcement N16 - 300 cts
1000
201 670 /
300
st
A mm m
=
= =

Minimum moment:
.min
6
0.85
0.8 500 670 0.85 222 10 51 /
u sy st
M f A d
kNm m
| |

=
= =

For all moments less than 51 kNm/m (width) provide minimum
reinforcement.
Reinforcement in x - direction (d = 222 mm)
Edge design strip
Column strip width = 1.7 m


Figure 9.5, Edge design strip, copyright RMIT University (Geoff Marchiori)

Provide minimum reinforcement N16 300 cts
*
*
*
*
,min
41
@ -ve moment exterior support - endspan 24 /
1.7
+ve moment endspan 66
46
+ve moment interior span 27 /
1.7
since 51 /
u
kNm
M kNm m
m
M kN
kNm
M kNm m
m
M M kNm m
= =
=
= =
< =

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v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 121
However provide more than minimum reinforcement:
*
@ -ve moment interior support (adopt the larger value)
124
73 /
1.7
kNm
M kNm m
m
= =

Proportion tensile reinforcement required:
* 6
2
0.85 7.3 10 0.8 500 0.85 222
967 /
u sy st st
st
M M f A d A
A mm m
= = = =
=

Spacing required:
(1N16 bar)
1000
201 207 200
967
st
b
s A
A
mm
=
= = ~

Therefore provide N16 200 cts at negative moment interior
support.
1 1
middle strip edge design middle strip interior design
2 2
total width 1.5 1.5 3.0 m m m
+
= + =




Figure 9.6, Spacing required, copyright RMIT University (Geoff Marchiori)

School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 122
Since all
*
M in middle strip are less than
,min u
M provide
minimum reinforcement in ve M and +ve M regions, N16 -
300cts
Interior design strip
Column strip width = 3 m



Figure 9.7, Interior design strip, copyright RMIT University (Geoff Marchiori)

Provide minimum reinforcement N16 300 cts in regions where
*
,min
(51 / )
u
M M kNm m s .
Only need to provide more than minimum reinforcement at
interior support, -ve moment.
*
6
2
77 / 0.85
77 10 0.8 500 0.85 222
1020 /
u sy st
st
st
M kNm m M f A d
A
A mm m
= = =
=
=

Spacing required:
(1N16 bar)
1000
201 197 175 (round down to nearest 25 )
1020
b
st
b
s A
A
mm mm
=
= = ~

Therefore provide N16 175 cts at -ve moment interior support.
( middle strip interior design)/(width = 1.5 m)
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 123

Figure 9.8: Spacing required, copyright RMIT University (Geoff Marchiori)

Since all
*
M in middle strip are less than
,min u
M provide
minimum reinforcement in +ve and ve moment regions; i.e.
N16 300 cts
Reinforcement in y direction, d = 206 mm
Minimum reinforcement = N16 300 cts
2
,min
670 /
st
A mm m =
Minimum moment
,min
0.85
0.8 500 670 0.85 206 47 /
u sy st
M f A d
kNm m
=
= =

For all moments less than 47 kNm/m provide minimum
reinforcement.
Continue to follow procedure as given for x-direction in
previous pages.

Act i vi t y 9D
Desi gn of Fl at Sl abs f or Fl exur e and Def l ect i on
Cont r ol ( 2)
Revi ew:
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 9: I nt roduct ion t o Flat
Slab Analysis and Design.ppt (1.419 M)
Devel op Sol ut i ons:
- Problem 11 provided separat ely
When you have completed these problems turn to the back of this
Learning guide to find solutions.
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 124

Sessi on 9.3: Desi gn of Fl at Sl abs f or Shear
Normally slabs are not likely to fail in shear. But the region of a
flat plate or flat slab under a column is subjected to a
combination of severe bending moment and shear forces. The
slab is just like a thin, wide beam. Flat slabs could fail in a beam-
type flexural shear or punching shear.
In this session you will learn to design flat slabs for shear failure.
Lear ni ng Out comes
Upon successful completion of this session, you will be able to:
- determine ultimate shear strength
- calculate design shear force
- calculate the total unbalanced moment transmitted
directly through flexure
- calculate the design bending moment
- design numbers and spacing of reinforcements to resist
shear
- determine short-term and long-term loads
- determine slab depth requirements for deflection in
column-beam strips
- determine slab depth requirements for deflection in the
middle beam strip
- revise the slab or drop panel depth if required

Two types of shear can be induced in flat slabs.
- Punching shear results from force transfer from column to
slab. The critical section for punching shear is d/2 outside
the column periphery.
- Torsional shear results from the transfer of bending
moments between the slab and column.
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 125
Shear Desi gn ar ound Col umn Exampl e
(based on Warner worked example 19.4)
Design the region around an interior column and an exterior in
the flat slab floor system of lecture example Week 10 flexure.

Figure 9.10, Two way flat slab design for shear, copyright RMIT University (Rebecca
Gravina)

G dead load = 6 kPa
Q live load = 5 kPa
Design load:
2
1.2 1.5 1.2 6 1.5 5 14.7 /
d
F G Q kN m = + = + =
Determine
*
V
*
6.5 6 14.7 573 V kN = =
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 126
Determine
*
v
M Cl 6.10.4.4
*
* '
unbalanced bending moment at interior support within
width of the design strip
v
v
M
M M M
=
=
F
From week 9 lecture example:
interior support, end span, design strip
'
interior support, interior span, design strip
0.75 412 309
0.65 412 268
M kNm
M kNm
= =
= =

* '
309 268 41
v
M M M kNm = = =
AS3600 requires that
*
v
M at an interior support should not be
less than the value given in:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2
* '
* 2 2
*
0.06 1.2 0.75 1.2
0.06 1.2 6 0.75 5 6 6.115 1.2 6 6 6.115
50.48
v t o t o
v
v
M g q L L gL L
M
M kNm
(
> +
(

(
> +

>

Check whether
*
V and
*
v
M can be resisted by the concrete (Cl
9.2.4).
*
*
*
since is not zero
1.0
8
v
uo
u
v
om
M
V
V
uM
V ad
=
(
+
(


From figure 9.2.1 (B)
( )
,min
column width 2
2
take as the average of and
292 276
i.e. 284
2
o
om
om
d
a b
d dx dy
d mm
= = +
+
= =

Note slab thickness in vicinity of columns = 250 + 75 = 325 mm
Therefore a = b = 400 + 284 = 684 mm
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 127
From figure 9.2.1(A):

Figure 9.11: Critical shear perimeter,
copyright RMIT University (Geoff
Marchiori)



U = length of critical shear
perimeter
= (684 + 684) x 2
= 2736 mm

uo
V = ultimate shear strength of a slab with no moment transfer;
i.e.
*
0
v
M = ) Cl 9.2.3 (assume there is no shear head)
( )
' '
'
0.3 as 0
2
where 0.17 1 0.34
32
400
1 Cl 9.2.1.4
400
2
0.17 1 32 0.34 32 2.89 1.92
1
adopt 1.92
uo om cv c om cv c
cv c c
c
cv
cv
V ud f ud f
f f f
h
f MPa
h
f
f MPa

o o
|
|
= + = =
| |
= + s
|
\ .
=
= =
| |
= + s = s
|
\ .
=

( )
0
3
0
* 6
* 3
0
3
*
2736 284 1.92 1492
1492 10
2736 50.5 10
1.0 1.0
18 18 573 10 684 284
1492 10
1297
1 0.15
check: 0.7 573 908
u om cv
u
u
v
A m
u
V ud f kN
V
V
uM
V d
kN
V V OK
= = =

= =
( ( | |
+ +
( ( |

\ .

= =
+
s s

School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 128
Design around an edge column
Determine
*
V

*
6
6.5 14.7
2
287
V
kN
=
=

Figure 9.12: Design around an edge column,


copyright RMIT University (Geoff
Marchiori)
Determine
*
v
M
*
13 77 13
103
v
M
kN
= + +
=

Check whether
*
V and
*
v
M can be resisted by the concrete Cl
9.2.4

284
284
400 542
2
400 284 684
2 2 542 684 1768
1.92
1
om
cv
h
d mm
a mm
b mm
u a b mm
f MPa
|
=
= + =
= + =
= + = + =
=
=

Figure 9.13, Checking


whether
*
V and
*
v
M
can be resisted by the
concrete, copyright
RMIT University
(Geoff Marchiori)
School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 129
3
6 *
3 *
*
* *
1768 284 1.92 964
964 10
638
1768 103 10
1 1
8 287 10 542 284 8
447 (103)
and can be resisted by concrete alone
uo om cv
uo
u
v
om
u
v v
V ud f kN
V
V kN
uM
V ad
V kN V
V M

= = =

= = =
( ( | | | |
+ +
( ( | |

\ . \ .
= >




Act i vi t y 9E
Desi gn of Fl at Sl abs f or Shear ( 2)
Revi ew:
- Powerpoint present at ion: Week 9: I nt roduct ion t o Flat
Slab Analysis and Design.ppt (1.419 M)
St udy Wor ked Exampl es:
- Warner, Rangan, Hall and Faulkes; Concret e St ruct ures,
example 19.3 - 19.7
Devel op Sol ut i ons:
- Problem 12 provided separat ely
When you have completed these problems turn to the back of this
Learning guide to find solutions.



School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering


v2 December 2011
Concrete Structures 2 130
Summar y and Out come Checkl i st
In this Topic you learned about both the simplified approach or
direct design method and the idealised frame method for
designing flat slabs
Tick the box for each statement with which you agree:
I can state the assumptions and applications based on a
simplified or direct design method for two-way flat slabs
I can divide a floor in both directions as design strips.
I can calculate the total moments in the design strip at the
supports and at mid-span.
I can estimate how these moments are distributed across
the width of the design strip.
I can repeat the calculations of the design strip moments
and their distribution across the width in the other
direction.
I can determine the dimensions of the design strip.
I can calculate the total static moment.
I can calculate total end moments and span moments.
I can determine design moment factors for an end span.
I can determine the proportion of design moments
assigned to the column strip.
I can design and layout the reinforcement.
I can design flat slabs for shear
Assessment
This Topic will be assessed in the Final Examination

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