CHAPTER

6
OBJECTIVES

Basic Principles of Radiation Physics

After reading this chapter, you should be able to: Explain the concept of electrostatics. Discuss the concept of electrodynamics. Review the concept of magnetism. Compare electromagnetism with magnetism. Describe the electromagnetic spectrum. Discuss the nature of x-radiation. Explain the production of x-radiation. List the properties of x-radiation. Discuss the efficiency of x-radiation.

OVERVIEW
This chapter examines the principles of radiation physics. Electrostatics and electrodynamics are explained, magnetism and electromagnetism discussed, the electromagnetic spectrum is described, x-radiationits composition, nature, sources, production, and propertiesis examined, and the efficiency of the production of x-radiation is reviewed.

ELECTROSTATICS
electrostatics: study of resting or static electrical charges contact: physical contact between a charged object and an uncharged one in order to electrify the uncharged object friction: removing electrons by physically rubbing one object and transferring the charges to another induction: type of electrification in which charges are coerced to transfer adjacent charged bodies

The area of physics known as electrostatics is the study of the physics of resting or stationary electric charges. Static electricity is created by three methods: contact, friction, and induction. First, contact between an object charged with electricity and an uncharged object causes electrification of the second object. The first object has a surplus of electric charges that move to the second object when the two come into close proximity. Figure 61 illustrates the process of electrification. Second, friction is the simplest method of electrification. Rubbing an object removes electrons from it and transfers them to another. This produces an excess of electrons on the second object. The second object is said to be electrically charged. Third, induction is a type of electrification in which a charged body transfers the opposite electric charge to a metal body which has been placed near it. The metal body, therefore, is induced or encouraged to accept the charge from the original charged body. Five laws govern electrostatics or the way in which objects become electrified. 1. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other. Unlike charges must be in close proximity to each other if electrostatic methods are to operate correctly. If unlike charges are placed next to each other, a transfer of charge will occur. 2. Electrostatic force between two charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between

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Electrification

+ + +

+ + + + + +

+ + +
Movement of charge

++++

++ ++

++++

Separation of charge

+ + + + + +

+ + + + + +
Figure 61 Electrification

them. This means the force of attraction between charged bodies is increased when the number of charges is increased. Further, when the distance between charges is increased, the forces between the charges decreases. 3. Electric charges occur only on the outside surface of objects. Objects that are electrically charged have these charges only on the outside, leaving the inside of the object uncharged. 4. The concentration of charges on a surface is greatest where the curvature is greatest. The highest concentration of charges occurs where the curve has the most acute angle of curvature. Figure 62 illustrates the concentration of charges. 5. Only negative charges can move in a solid object. Positive charges do not move in solid objects.

ELECTRODYNAMICS
electrodynamics: study of electrical charges in motion

Electrodynamics is the study of electric charges in motion. An electrical current consists of a flow of electrons. Electricity can flow under the following conditions: 1. In a vacuum when electrons are induced through a space between two metal objects. 2. If two opposing charged electrodes are placed in a gas, then positive ions will drift toward the negative electrode.

Figure 62 The law of concentration of charge: because each negative charge is repelled by all other negative charges, the charges tend to concentrate at points of greatest curvature.

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sources of electricity: there are two types of sources: the first type converts chemical energy to electrical energy; the second type converts mechanical energy to electrical energy magnetism: ability of certain types of materials to attract nickel, cobalt, or iron

3. If the two oppositely charged electrodes are placed in an ionic solution, the electrons will flow in opposite directions. 4. When electricity flows in a metal conductor, the current consists of electrons only. Figure 63 shows electron drift through a conductor. Sources of electricity are grouped into two categories. The first category consists of batteries or cells that convert chemical energy into electrical energy. The second category consists of dynamos or generators that convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.

MAGNETISM
Magnetism is defined as the ability of certain types of materials to attract nickel, cobalt, or iron. Any type of material that attracts these items is called a magnet. Magnets are classed into three primary types. 1. Natural magnets are those that exist in the earth. The earth itself is a magnet with north and south magnetic poles. Lodestone is also a natural magnet that consists of iron oxide. 2. Artificial permanent magnets are those that have been created as magnets artificially, but are permanently magnetized. These are usually composed of steel and have two magnetic poles which are oppositely charged. 3. Electromagnets are those that have been created by an electric current and are only temporarily charged.

Laws of Magnetism
laws of magnetism: series of laws that govern the behavior of magnets

Laws of magnetism govern the behavior of magnets. There are three fundamental laws of magnetism. 1. Magnets have two poles which are oppositely charged and which are termed north and south. 2. Like magnetic poles repel each other; unlike magnetic poles attract each other. Opposite poles have a force that pulls them together, whereas unlike poles have a force that pushes them apart. 3. The force of attraction of poles varies directly by the strength of the poles and inversely with the square of the distance between them. This means that doubling the space between poles reduces the force by one fourth. Doubling the strength of one pole doubles the strength of the force between the poles. Figure 64 demonstrates the concept of magnetism.

Magnetic Fields
magnetic fields: fields of force that surround magnets lines of force or magnetic flux: invisible lines of force that exist in magnetic fields

Magnetic fields are the forces that surround a magnet. These forces influence the levels of attraction. The fields exist in invisible lines called lines of force or magnetic flux. The strength of a magnet is determined by the number of lines of force present and the closeness of their spacing.

Figure 63 Electron drift along a conductor

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A.

B. Magnetized

C. Nonmagnetized

Figure 64 The concept of magnetism: (A) the spinning of an individual electron is the spin magnetic moment and the magnetic field created by the spin is the orbital magnetic moment (heavy arrows). Groups of atoms with most of the magnetic moment force in a single direction form a magnetic dipole or domain. (B) When the magnetic dipoles or domains are in a predominant direction, a magnet is formed with an external magnetic field. (C) When the magnetic dipoles or domains are not in a predominant direction, the object is not magnetized.

ELECTROMAGNETISM
electromagnetism: the relationship between electricity and magnetism

Electromagnetism is the relationship between magnetism and electricity. This relationship forms the foundation for the production of x-radiation. One primary fact of electromagnetism is that an electric field exists around every wire through which a current is flowing. When the electric current is discontinued, the magnetic field collapses. Figure 65 shows how a magnetic field is created. Electromagnets are created by winding a coil of wire and passing an electric current through it. This creates a magnetic field around the wire. Practical applications of electromagnets in radiography include remote control switches and relays in radiographic equipment.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
electromagnetic spectrum: description of the electromagnetic radiations according to their levels of energy

The electromagnetic spectrum describes the distribution of electromagnetic radiation according to energy levels. Because electromagnetic radiation is governed by both electricity and magnetism, electromagnetic radiation moves in waves as influenced by these forces. The electric and magnetic forces move perpendicularly to each other and their direction. All electromagnetic radiation travels in this form and at the same constant speed. The factors that separate the types of

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Figure 65 Electromagnetism: (A) a compass placed near a wire conductor will indicate the direction of the earths magnetic field when no current is flowing in the wire. (B) Because flowing current creates a magnetic field around the wire conductor that is stronger than the earths field, the compass will indicate the direction of the current-induced field while the switch is closed.

electromagnetic radiation are the wavelength and the frequency of the waves. X-radiation has a high frequency and a short wavelength, which means that x-radiation travels very fast. Figure 66 shows the electromagnetic spectrum.

X-RADIATION
nature of x-radiation: x-radiation is composed of electric and magnetic fields

The nature of x-radiation is a composition of electric and magnetic fields. These fields move perpendicular to each other. They also move perpendicular to the direction in which they are traveling. This movement creates waves which vibrate electrons. All electromagnetic radiation moves in a wave-like motion. Electromagnetic radiations are distinguished by the frequency and size of the waves. The speed of the waves remains constant at the speed of light. If the wavelength is decreased, the frequency is decreased accordingly to keep the speed constant. On the electromagnetic spectrum, visible light is given as the center of the spectrum. Gamma, x, and cosmic rays are at the high end of this spectrum, whereas infrared, microwave, and radio waves are at the low end. Each type has a distinct wavelength and frequency which makes it unique.

1015 Gamma Rays 1020 Wavelength, Meters X Rays Ultraviolet Light 1015 Visible Light Infrared Light Millimeter Waves 1010 Microwave (Television, Radar, and so on) Short-Wave Radio 105 100 105 1010

Figure 66 Electromagnetic spectrum

Frequency, Hz

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Sources and Production

X-radiation is created when there is a sudden deceleration of a stream of electrons. The primary source of x-radiation is the X-ray tube. There are certain conditions that must exist before x-radiation can be produced in the tube. Figure 67 shows a radiographic tube in cross section. The conditions to be met before x-radiation can be produced in a tube are: 1. There must be a source of production of high-speed electrons. In the tube, this source is high voltage that is transferred from a negative area (cathode) to a positive area (anode). The speed of these electrons approaches half the speed of light. 2. There must be a source of electrons. In the X-ray tube, this source is a filament made of tungsten that is heated. The process of heating serves to liberate electrons from the tungsten material. These electrons form an electron cloud around the tungsten until the voltage is applied to accelerate them. 3. The electrons that have been liberated and accelerated are then focused. There is a cup-shaped device in the X-ray tube that focuses the stream of electrons, which allows for sharper and clearer radiographic images. 4. The electrons are decelerated in a target area. As the electrons travel, kinetic energy is changed to other forms. The electrons strike a target material, and x-radiation and heat are produced. Only 1 percent of the energy created by this deceleration results in the production of x-radiation.

Properties
After discovering x-radiation, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen was faced with the daunting task of describing his discovery. As a consummate scientist, Roentgen submitted his discovery by means of the scientific method. The result was a list of characteristics of radiation which are important to understand because they describe the structure and function of x-radiation. This list contains the following characteristics: X rays are highly penetrating and invisible. This property is due largely to their frequency and wavelength. X rays are electrically neutral. Since these rays are neutral, they cannot be affected by electrical or magnetic fields. X rays ionize gases indirectly because of their ability to remove orbital electrons or ionize surrounding areas. X rays cause certain materials to glow or fluorescence. This quality is important because it is the basis for the construction of intensifying screens. X rays cannot be focused by a lens. X rays affect photographic film by leaving an image that becomes apparent after chemical processing.
Protective housing

Anode Focusing cup Cathode assembly

Rotor

Glass envelope

Filament

Figure 67 Cross-sectional diagram of a typical diagnostic X-ray tube

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X rays travel at the speed of light in a vacuum. X rays are polyenergetic or heterogeneous. This means that x-radiation has a wide range of energies and wavelengths. X-radiation will free heat energy when it passes through a material. X rays travel in straight lines. X rays produce chemical and biological changes in materials with which they interact primarily through ionization. X-radiation produces secondary radiation when it interacts with materials.

Efficiency of X-Radiation
The efficiency of x-radiation is the percentage of the kinetic energy expended by the electrons converted to x-radiation. This efficiency is reflected in the atomic number of the target material used in the X-ray tube and the applied potential. When calculated, the total kinetic energy of the electron stream will yield 0.6% appearing as x-radiation with the remaining 99.4% liberated as heat.

SUMMARY
Atoms are not stationary. They are in constant motion. This motion can be affected by the influence of magnets. When magnetism is applied, the motion of atoms is either increased or decreased. This results in a variety of energies called the electromagnetic spectrum. These energies can be naturally occurring as in the case of visible light or they can be man-made. Man-made energies include x, beta, and gamma radiations. In diagnostic medical imaging, the efficiency of production of x-radiation is of the utmost importance.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Multiple Choice Questions
1. In the production of x-radiation, 99.4% will result in: a. kinetic energy. b. x-radiation. c. heat. d. none of the above. 2. The properties of x-radiation: a. cannot be focused by a lens. b. affects photographic film. c. is highly penetrating. d. all of the above. 3. The electromagnetic spectrum includes: a. visible light. b. radio waves. c. microwaves. d. all of the above. 4. X-radiation is produced by: a. speeding up electrons. b. slowing down electrons. c. decelerating electrons. d. none of the above. 5. __________ is the study of electrical charges at rest. a. Magnetism b. Electrostatics c. Electrodynamics d. Electromagnetism 6. Magnets have a field of influence surrounding them. This field is called: a. lines of force. b. magnet flux. c. both a and b. d. neither a nor b. 7. ___________ deals with the relationship between electricity and magnetism. a. Electrodynamics b. Electrostatics c. Electromagnetism d. None of the above 8. Properties of magnets include: a. like poles repel, unlike attract. b. magnets have two oppositely charged poles. c. both a and b. d. neither a nor b. 9. Conditions for the production of x-radiation include: a. liberation of electrons from tungsten. b. acceleration of electrons by applying high voltage. c. focusing and stoppage of electrons in a given target. d. all of the above.

B. True/False Question
10. _____ One of the properties of x-radiation is that it travels in straight lines.