Riemann 1859 P

Riemanns Zeta Paper: The Product Formula
Error
H. Vic Dannon
vick@adnc.com
May, 2006
Contents
The Product Formula Error vii
I The Zeta Function 1
1 The Count of Prime Numbers 2
1.1 Gauss approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Gauss Approximation, and the Prime Number Theorem . . . . 3
2 Denition of Zeta in Rez > 1 4
2.1 For Rez > 1 , (z)

n=natural
1
n
z
=
p=prime
1
11/p
z
. . . . . . . . 4
3 Denition of Zeta in Re(z) > 0 6
3.1 (z) =
t=
_
t=0
e
t
t
z1
dt, extended to x > 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 For x > 0, (z)(z) =
t=
_
t=0
t
z1
e
t
1
dt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4 Denition of Zeta for any z 9
4.1 2 sinz(z)(z) = i
+i0
_
i0
()
z1
e
1
d, on a path that starts from
i0, encircles z = 0 clockwise, and returns to + i0. . . . 9
4.1.1 The integration path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.1.2 The rst Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.1.3 The Second Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.1.4 The Third Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.1.5 The Path-Integral Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2 Denition of Zeta for any z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
ii
Riemann Zeta Paper: The Product Formula Error iii
4.2.1 Zeta dened for any z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.2.2 Zeta is nite for all z = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.3 Zeta has zeros at z = 2n, for n = 1, 2, 3... . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5 The Zeta Functional Equation 18
5.1 2 sin z(z)(z) = (2)
z
[(i)
z1
+ i
z1
]
n
n
z1
. . . . . . . . . 18
5.2 Functional Equation: If (z)
z/2
(z/2)(z), then (z) =
(1 z), for any z. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6 Riemanns "Very Convenient Formula" for Zeta. 23
6.1 (z) =
1
z(z1)
+
t=
_
t=1
(t)(t
(z+1)/2
+ t
z/21
)dt, where (t)
n=1
e
n
2
t
for t > 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.2 Motivation for Riemanns Zeta Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.3 Riemanns Zeta Formula Proof. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7 Whittakers Formula for Zeta in x > 0. 30
7.1 For x > 0, (z) = lim
N
t=
_
t=0
(
N
n=1
e
n
2
t
)t
z/21
dt. . . . . . . . . . 30
8 The function (z) 31
8.1 (z)
1
2
z(z 1)(z). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
8.2 Formulas for (z) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
8.2.1 (z) =
1
2
z(1 z)
t=
_
t=1
(t)t
3/4
cos
_
1
2
[i(
1
2
z)] log t
_
dt 32
8.2.2 (z) = 4
t=
_
t=1
(t
3/2
(t))
t
1/4
cos
_
1
2
[i(
1
2
z)] log t
_
dt . . 33
9 Taylor series for the function (
1
2
+ iw) in w 35
9.1 Formulas for (
1
2
+ iw) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
9.2 (
1
2
+ iw) =
n=0
A
n
(w
2
)
n
that converges very rapidly . . . . . . 37
10 The zeros of (z). 38
10.1 All the zeros of (z) are in 0 < x < 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
iv Gauge Institute Journal May 2006 H. Vic Dannon
11 The Number of Zeros of (z) 41
11.1 If R is large enough, log |(z)| is bounded in |w| = |z 1/2|
2R, by Rlog R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
11.2 Hadamard Estimate: If R is large enough, then n(R)=the
number of zeros of (z) in |w| = |z 1/2| R is bounded by
2Rlog R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
11.3 Riemann Estimate: The number of zeros of (z), in 0 < y < Y,
and 0 < x < 1, is bounded by
Y
2
log
Y
2

Y
2
. . . . . . . . . . . 43
12 The Hypothesis 45
12.1 The Hypothesis: All the zeros of (z) are on x = 1/2. . . . . . 45
13 The Product Formula 47
13.1 Weierstrass Factorization Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
13.2 (z) = e
h(z)
n=1
(1
z
n
)(1
z
1n
) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
13.3 (z) = (0)
n=1
(1
z
n
)(1
z
1n
) in 0 < x < 1 . . . . . . . . 51
II The Number of Primes < t 54
14 (t) and F(t) 55
15 Zeta and F(t) 57
15.1
log (z)
z
=
t=
_
t=1
1
t
z+1
_
F(t) +
1
2
F(t
1/2
) +
1
3
F(t
1/3
) + ...
_
dt . . . . . 57
16 f(t) and Zeta 60
16.1 f(t) =
1
2i
y=
_
y=
log (z)
z
t
z
dz =
1
2
y=
_
y=
log (z)
z
t
z
dy, for xed x,
and for any z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
17 f(t) and (z) 64
17.1 f(t) =
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
, where =
log(z1)
z
+
log (z/2+1)
z

log (0)
z

1
z
log
_
1+
z
2
z
2
+1/4
_
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Riemann Zeta Paper: The Product Formula Error v
18 The
log (0)
z
term 67
18.1
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
=
1
2i
y=
_
y=
1
z
t
z
dz = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
18.2
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
log (0)
z
_
= log (0) = log 2 . . . . . . . . . . 69
19 Terms with log
_
1
z
_
70
19.1 d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
2
z + 1
_
=
n=1
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1 +
z
2n
_
. . . . . . . . . 70
19.2
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
=
u=t
_
u=
u
1
log u
du + const if < 0,
or =
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du + const if > 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
19.3
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
=
u=t
_
u=
u
1
log u
du, if < 0 . . . . . 75
19.3.1 The left side integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
19.3.2 The right side Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
19.4
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
=
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du, if > 0. . . . . . 77
19.4.1 The left side Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
19.4.2 The right side integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
19.5 If > 0, then
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du = Li(t
) i, for upper half plane

path, and = Li(t
) + i, for lower half plane path . . . . . . . 82

19.6 If > 0,
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
= Li(t
) i, for
upper half plane path, and = Li(t
) +i, for lower half plane

path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
20 The
log(z1)
z
term 86
20.1
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
log(z1)
z
_
= Li(t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
20.1.1 The First Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
20.1.2 The Second Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
vi Gauge Institute Journal May 2006 H. Vic Dannon
21 The
1
z
log
_
1+
z
2
z
2
+1/4
_
term 89
21.1 The assumption of the Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
21.2 Implicit Claim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
21.3
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1+
z
2
z
2
+1/4
_
_
equals
_
Li(t
1/2+i
) + Li(t
1/2i
)
if the zeros of are on x = 1/2 and sequenced by size . . . . . 91

21.4 The Hypothesis Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
22 The
1
z
log
_
1
2
z + 1
_
term 94
22.1
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
2
z + 1
_
=
u=
_
u=t
1
ulog u
1
u
2
1
du . . . . . . 94
23 The Count and Density of the Primes 97
23.1 If the s(= zeros of ) are positive and sequenced by size,
f(t) = Li(t)log 2
_
Li(t
1/2+i
) + Li(t
1/2i
)
+
u=
_
u=t
1
ulog u
1
u
2
1
du 97
23.2 Count of the Primes is F(t) = f(t)
1
2
f(t
1/2
)
1
3
f(t
1/3
)
1
5
f(t
1/5
) +
1
6
f(t
1/6
) + ...
(1)
m
f(t
1/m
) + ... where m = 1, 2, 3, ...
has no prime factors squared, and is the number of prime
factors of m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
23.3
1
log t
2
t
1/2
log t
cos(log t) is the approximate density of f(t) . 99

23.4 The Approximate Count of the Primes by non-oscillatory, un-
bounded terms is Li(t)
1
2
Li(t
1/2
)
1
3
Li(t
1/3
)
1
5
Li(t
1/5
) +
1
6
Li(t
1/6
)
1
7
Li(t
1/7
) + ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
23.5 The Error in the Approximate Count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
23.6 Fluctuations of the Density of f(t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
23.7 Fluctuations of f(t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
References 106
The Product Formula Error
Riemanns 1859 Zeta paper denes the Zeta function and uses its properties
to approximate the count of prime numbers up to a number t, and the den-
sity of the primes at the number t.
To that end, Riemann denes the auxiliary function
(z) (z 1)
z/2
(z/2 + 1)(z)
that has the same zeros as (z) in 0 < x < 1.
We show that it has the factorization
(z) = (0)
n=1
_
1
z
1/2 i
n
__
1
z
1/2 + i
n
_
= (0)
n=1
_
1 +
z
2
z
2
n
+ 1/4
_
where the 1/2
n
are the zeros of (z).
We further show that if the zeros are all on the line x = 1/2, this factorization
for (z) produces the term
n=1
_
Li(t
1/2+in
) + Li(t
1/2in
)
in the formula for the count of the primes, where Li(t) is the Logarithmic
integral.
Riemann obtained the erroneous product formula
(z) = |
z=1/2
n=1
_
1 +
(z 1/2)
2
2
n
_
vii
viii Gauge Institute Journal May 2006 H. Vic Dannon
that does not produce the Logarithmic integral series term.
Already in 1860, Genocchi pointed out that the formula should use
|
z=0
.
But that only diverted attention from the error in the factor in the product,
and the main problem seemed to be that a derivation was missing.
In 1893, Hadamard supplied the derivation and obtained
(z) = (0)
_
1
z
_
,
where the s are the zeros of (z).
Hadamard formula does not exhibit the connection to the
n
s, and so far
as I can tell, the connection to the Logarithmic integral series in the formula
for the count of the primes, was never made.
Indeed, to make that connection, one has to follow through the whole pa-
per. Thus, producing the correct derivations and results of the Zeta paper
amounts to execution of the book that is outlined in the Zeta paper.
I use common notations and terms such as
z = x + iy, not s = + i.
z w(z), not s t(s).
(z), not (s 1).
"zeros of " not "roots of the equation (z) = 0."
Otherwise, Riemanns notations are kept unchanged.
My quote of Riemann is based on the two translations in [1], and [2].
Part I
The Zeta Function
1
Chapter 1
The Count of Prime Numbers
1.1 Gauss approximation
Riemanns aim was
...to report on a study of the frequency with which
prime numbers occur.
A topic that seems worthy of such reporting, because
of the interest shown in it by Gauss and Dirichlet over
many years...
Gauss (1849) computed that
u=t
_
u=2
du
log u
approximates the
Number of Primes < t,
denoted
(t).
2
Riemann Zeta Paper: The Product Formula Error 3
His results are listed in the following Gauss table [1, p.3]
t (t)
u=t
_
u=2
du
log u
Error
500, 000 41, 556 41, 606.4 50.4
1, 000, 000 78, 501 78, 627.5 126.5
1, 500, 000 114, 112 114, 263.1 151.1
2, 000, 000 148, 883 149, 054.8 171.8
2, 500, 000 183, 016 183, 245.0 229.0
3, 000, 000 216, 745 216, 970.6 225.6
1.2 Gauss Approximation, and the Prime Num-
ber Theorem
We have
u=t
_
u=2
du
log u
= Li(t) Li(2),
where
Li(t) lim
0
_
_
_
u=1
_
u=0
du
log u
+
u=t
_
u=1+
du
log u
_
_
_
is the Logarithmic Integral.
By the Prime Number Theorem (Hadamard-1896),
(t)
Li(t)
1, as t .
The Prime Number Theorem substantiates the Gauss approxi-
mation
Chapter 2
Denition of Zeta in Rez > 1
2.1 For Rez > 1 , (z)

n=natural
1
n
z
=
p=prime
1
11/p
z
Riemann wrote:
...My starting point was the observation of Euler that
the product
p=prime
1
1 1/p
z
equals
n=natural
1
n
z
,
where p ranges over all the prime numbers, and n over
all the natural numbers.
I denote by
(z),
the function of the complex variable z, dened by these
two expressions when they converge.
4
Eulers product formula, dened for k = 2, 3, ... by
p=prime
1
1 1/p
k
=
n=natural
1
n
k
,
can be extended to complex numbers z with Rez > 1.
Thus, in Rez > 1,
(z)
n=natural
1
n
z
=
p=prime
1
1 1/p
z
.
Chapter 3
Denition of Zeta in Re(z) > 0
3.1 (z) =
t=
_
t=0
e
t
t
z1
dt, extended to x > 0.
Eulers Gamma that for x > 0 is dened by
(x)
t=
_
t=0
e
t
t
x1
dt,
coincides with the analytic function
(z) = lim
n
n!n
z
z(z + 1)...(z + n)
= lim
n
n
z
z(1 + z)(1 + z/2)...(1 + z/n)
that converges for any z except for poles that it has at z =
0, 1, 2, ...
Since the integral
t=
_
t=0
e
t
t
z1
dt
converges for x > 0, we have
6
(z) =
t=
_
t=0
e
t
t
z1
dt, for x > 0.
3.2 For x > 0, (z)(z) =
t=
_
t=0
t
z1
e
t
1
dt.
Riemann wrote:
n=natural
1
n
z
, and
p=prime
1
11/p
z
,
converge only when
Re(z) > 1.
However, it is easy to nd an expression of the function
that is always valid.
By applying the equation
t=
_
t=0
e
nt
t
z1
dt =
1
n
z
(z),
rst of all we get
(z)(z) =
t=
_
t=0
t
z1
e
t
1
dt,
for x > 1.
By Section 3.1, for x > 0, Eulers Gamma function is
(z) =
u=
_
u=0
e
u
u
z1
du.
8 Gauge Institute Journal May 2006 H. Vic Dannon
By the change of variable u = nt,
(z)
1
n
z
=
t=
_
t=0
e
nt
t
z1
dt
Therefore, for x > 0,
(z)
N
n=1
1
n
z
=
t=
_
t=0
(
N
n=1
e
nt
)t
z1
dt.
Letting N , we obtain, now limited to x > 1,
(z)
n=1
1/n
z
= lim
N
t=
_
t=0
(
N
n=1
e
nt
)t
z1
dt.
Uniform convergence allows summation under the integral sign,
and we have for x > 1,
(z)
n=1
1/n
z
=
t=
_
t=0
t
z1
e
t
1
dt.
That is, for x > 1,
(z) =
1
(z)
t=
_
t=0
t
z1
e
t
1
dt.
However, the right hand side is well dened for x > 0. Thus,
1
(z)
t=
_
t=0
t
z1
e
t
1
dt.
denes Zeta in Re(z) > 0.
Chapter 4
Denition of Zeta for any z
4.1 2 sin z(z)(z) = i
+i0
_
i0
()
z1
e
1
d, on a path
that starts from i0, encircles z = 0
clockwise, and returns to + i0.
Riemann wrote
...Consider the integral
+i0
_
i0
()
z1
e
1
d
along a closed path from
= i0
to
= + i0,
clockwise around a domain that contains the singular-
ity at
z = 0,
9
but none of the singularities at
z = 2in,
for n = 1, 2, 3...
To dene the multi-valued function
()
z1
= e
(z1) log()
,
we choose the branch of
log()
that is real for
< 0.
The integral equals
(e
iz
e
iz
)
t=
_
t=0
(t)
z1
e
t
1
dt,
where the integration path is along the real axis.
Thus, we obtain
2 sin z(z)(z) = i
+i0
_
i0
()
z1
e
1
d.
4.1.1 The integration path
To evaluate the integral
=+i
_
=i
()
z1
e
1
d,
we choose a path that
runs from = i to = i, along = t i.
runs from = i to = + i, encircling z = 0 along
=
2e
i
e
i
.
runs from = + i to = + i, along = t + i.
Then, the integral equals
=i
_
=i
()
z1
e
1
d+
=+i
_
=i
()
z1
e
1
d+
=+i
_
=+i
()
z1
e
1
d.
To use the same branch of log(), we should not cross the cut
along the positive x axis.
4.1.2 The rst Integral
For the rst integral, we rotate
[t i]
clockwise, multiplying it by
e
i
to obtain
[t i.]
That is,
= [t i] = [t i]e
i
.
Therefore,
()
z1
= ([t i]e
i
)
z1
= e
iz
[t i]
z1
,
and we have
=i
_
=i
()
z1
e
1
d = e
iz
t=
_
t=
(t i)
z1
e
ti
1
dt.
For 0,
(t i)
z1
e
ti
1
t
z1
e
t
1
.
Therefore, by Lebesgue Dominant Convergence, as 0,
rst integral e
iz
t=
_
t=0+
t
z1
e
t
1
dt.
4.1.3 The Second Integral
In the second integral,
|| =
2
and
=+i
_
=i
()
z1
e
1
d
=2
_
=0
x1
|exp(e
i
) 1|
d.
To apply Lebesgue Dominant Convergence, we verify by LHospital
that as 0,
2x
|exp(e
i
) 1|
2
0
Now,
exp(e
i
) 1
2
=
_
e
e
i
1
__
e
e
i
1
_
= e
2 cos
+ 1 e
cos
_
e
i sin
+ e
i sin
_
= e
2 cos
+ 1 2e
cos
cos( sin )
0, as 0.
d
d
exp(e
i
) 1
2
=
d
d
_
e
2 cos
+ 1 2e
cos
cos( sin )
_
= 2 cos e
2 cos
2e
cos
(cos cos( sin ) sin sin( sin ))
= 2 cos e
2 cos
2e
cos
(cos( + sin ))
= 2e
cos
_
e
cos
cos cos( + sin )
_
0, as 0.
d
2
d
2
exp(e
i
) 1
2
=
d
d
2e
cos
_
e
cos
cos cos( + sin )
_
= 2e
cos
cos
_
e
cos
cos cos( + sin )
_
+
+2e
cos
_
e
cos
cos cos + sin( + sin ) sin
_
= (0) + (2) as 0.
Therefore, by LHospital, for x > 1, and for 0
lim
0
2x
|exp(e
i
) 1|
2
= lim
0
D
2x
D
|exp(e
i
) 1|
2
= lim
0
D
2
2x
D
2
|exp(e
i
) 1|
2
= lim
0
2x(2x 1)
2x2
D
2
|exp(e
i
) 1|
2
=
(0)
(2)
as 0.
Hence, as 0,
x
|exp(e
i
) 1|
0
Therefore, by Lebesgue Dominant Convergence, as 0
Second Integral 0
4.1.4 The Third Integral
For the third integral we rotate
[t + i]
counter-clockwise, multiplying it by
e
i
to obtain
[t + i].
Hence,
= [t + i] = [t + i]e
i
.
()
z1
= ([t + i]e
i
)
z1
= e
iz
[t + i]
z1
,
and we have
=+i
_
=+i
()
z1
e
1
d = e
iz
t=
_
t=
(t + i)
z1
e
t+i
1
dt.
Thus, by Lebesgue Dominant Convergence, as 0,
Third Integral e
iz
t=
_
t=0+
t
z1
e
t
1
dt.
4.1.5 The Path-Integral Formula
For 0, we obtain
+i0
_
i0
()
z1
e
1
d = (e
iz
e
iz
)
t=
_
t=0
t
z1
e
t
1
dt.
= 2i sin(z)
t=
_
t=0
t
z1
e
t
1
dt.
By Section 3.2, for x > 0,
t=
_
t=0
t
z1
e
t
1
dt = (z)(z)
Hence,
+i0
_
i0
()
z1
e
1
d = 2i sin(z)(z)(z).
4.2 Denition of Zeta for any z
Riemann wrote
For any z = 1,
(z)
is a single-valued, and nite function.
4.2.1 Zeta dened for any z
We have,
(z) =
1
2i sin(z)(z)
+i0
_
i0
()
z1
e
1
d.
Substituting
(1 z)(z) =

sin(z)
,
we obtain
(z) =
(1 z)
2i
+i0
_
i0
()
z1
e
1
d.
The right side denes Zeta for any z.
4.2.2 Zeta is nite for all z = 1
(1 z) has simple poles at z = 1, 2, 3..., but only z = 1 is a
pole of
n=1
1
n
z
.
It follows that the integral
+i0
_
i0
()
z1
e
1
d
has zeros that cancel the poles at z = 2, 3..., Zeta has only one
pole at z = 1, and is nite for all z = 1.
4.3 Zeta has zeros at z = 2n, for n = 1, 2, 3...
The Bernoulli numbers
B
n
are dened by
t
e
t
1
=
n=0
1
n!
B
n
t
n
that converges in |t| < 2.
We have
(2n) =
(1)
n
n + 1
B
2n+1
,
and
B
2n+1
= 0.
Thus, Zeta has zeros at
z = 2n,
for n = 1, 2, 3...
Chapter 5
The Zeta Functional Equation
5.1 2 sin z(z)(z) = (2)
z
[(i)
z1
+i
z1
]
n
n
z1
.
Riemann wrote
If x < 0, we integrate along a clockwise-oriented path
around the complementary domain in the complex plane.
Then, the integral is innitesimal, because it is over
values that have innitely large modulus.
In the complementary domain, the integrand has sin-
gularities only at
= 2in,
for n = 1, 2, 3...
Therefore, the integral is equal to the sum of the clockwise-
oriented path- integrals around these singularities.
Since the clockwise-oriented path-integral around a sin-
gularity z = 2in is
(2i)(2in)
z1
,
18
we have
2 sin z(z)(z) = (2)
z
n
n
z1
[(i)
z1
+ i
z1
].
By Section 4.1,we have
2 sin z(z)(z) = i
+i0
_
i0
()
z1
e
1
d
We will evaluate the integral along a clockwise-oriented path
around the complementary domain.
By the Residue Theorem, the clockwise-oriented integral
_
|2in|=
()
z1
e
1
d,
equals
(2i)Res
_
()
z1
e
1
_
=2in
= 2i lim
2in
_
( 2in)
()
z1
e
1
_
.
By LHospital,
lim
2in
( 2in)
e
1
= lim
2in
1
e
= 1.
Hence, around the singularity
= 2in,
the integral equals
(2i) lim
2in
()
z1
= (2i)(2in)
z1
.
Similarly, around the singularity
= 2in,
the integral equals
(2i)(2in)
z1
.
The integral around the complementary domain is the sum of
the integrals around all the singularities and it equals
= (2i)
n=1
[(2in)
z1
+ (2in)
z1
]
= i(2)
z
[(i)
z1
+ (i)
z1
]
n=1
n
z1
.
Thus,
2 sin z(z)(z) = (2)
z
[(i)
z1
+ i
z1
]
n=1
n
z1
.
5.2 Functional Equation: If (z)
z/2
(z/2)(z),
then (z) = (1 z), for any z.
The equation
(z) = (1 z)
is solved also by
z(1 z).
Riemann wrote
By using known properties of (z) we obtain the fol-
lowing relation between (z), and (1 z)
z/2
(z/2)(z) is unchanged if 1 z replaces z.
By section 5.1,
2 sin z(z)(z) = (2)
z
[(i)
z1
+ i
z1
]
n=1
n
z1
.
Put
n=1
n
z1
=
n=1
1
n
1z
= (1 z),
and
[(i)
z1
+ i
z1
] = i(i)
z
i(i)
z
= i[e
z log(i)
e
z log i
]
= i[e
z(i/2)
e
z(i/2)
] = 2 sin
z
2
.
Then,
2 sin z(z)(z) = 2
z
z
2 sin(z/2)(1 z).
Substitute
sin(z/2) =

(z/2)(1 z/2)
,
and
sin(z)(z) =

(1 z)
.
Then,
1
(1 z)
(z) = 2
z
z
1
(z/2)(1 z/2)
(1 z).
That is,
z/2
(z/2)(z) =
(1z)/2
1/2
2
z
(1 z)
1
(1 z/2)
(1 z).
By [3, p. 3]
(z) =
1/2
2
z1
(
z
2
)(
1+z
2
).
Hence,
(1 z) =
1/2
2
z
([1 z]/2)(1 z/2).
Namely,
1/2
2
z
(1 z)
1
(1 z/2)
= ([1 z]/2).
Therefore,
z/2
(z/2)(z) =
(1z)/2
([1 z]/2)(1 z).
That is,
(z) = (1 z).
Chapter 6
Riemanns "Very Convenient
Formula" for Zeta.
6.1 (z) =
1
z(z1)
+
t=
_
t=1
(t)(t
(z+1)/2
+ t
z/21
)dt, where
(t)
n=1
e
n
2
t
for t > 0.
Riemann wrote
By using known properties of (z) we obtain the fol-
lowing relation between (z), and (1 z)
z/2
(z/2)(z) is unchanged if 1 z replaces z.
This property of Zeta let me substitute (z/2) instead
of (z), into the general term of
1/n
z
.
This substitution gives a very convenient formula for
(z).
Riemanns formula for (z) that follows from the functional
equation, was misunderstood by Titchmarsh [4] to be a proof
23
of the functional equation.
Every book except for Whittaker and Watson [5] follows Titch-
marsh error that the derivation of this formula for (z) is a
second proof of the functional equation.
Anyone who read just a few lines of Riemanns 1859 paper knows
that Riemann would never bother to give a second proof of any-
thing.
It would take more than a few lines to realize that had this been
even a remotely possible second proof of the functional equation,
Riemann would have stated that.
6.2 Motivation for Riemanns Zeta Formula
Riemann wrote
z/2
(z/2)
1
n
z
=
t=
_
t=0
e
n
2
t
t
z/21
dt.
If we set
n=1
e
n
2
t
= (t),
we get
z/2
(z/2)(z) =
t=
_
t=0
(t)t
z/21
dt.
For x > 0, consider Eulers Gamma function
(z/2) =
u=
_
u=0
e
u
u
z/21
du,
By the change of variable
u = n
2
t,
we have
z/2
(z/2)
1
n
z
=
t=
_
t=0
e
n
2
t
t
z/21
dt,
z/2
(z/2)
N
n=1
1
n
z
=
t=
_
t=0
(
N
n=1
e
n
2
t
)t
z/21
dt,
Letting N , we obtain for x > 1
z/2
(z/2)
n=1
1/n
z
= lim
N
t=
_
t=0
(
N
n=1
e
n
2
t
)t
z/21
dt.
That is, in x > 1,
lim
N
t=
_
t=0
(
N
n=1
e
n
2
t
)t
z/21
dt (z)
equals
z/2
(z/2)(z) (z).
Since (z) is dened for x > 0, (z) may equal (z) in x > 0.
6.3 Riemanns Zeta Formula Proof.
Riemann wrote
Since
2(t) + 1 = t
1/2
[2(1/t) + 1] (Jacobi, Fund., p.184),
it follows that
z/2
(z/2)(z) =
t=
_
t=1
(t)t
z/21
dt
+
t=1
_
t=0
(1/t)t
(z3)/2
dt +
1
2
t=1
_
t=0
(t
(z3)/2
t
z/21
)dt
=
1
z(z 1)
+
t=
_
t=1
(t)(t
z/21
+ t
(1+z)/2
)dt.
We have seen that in x > 1
lim
N
t=
_
t=0
(
N
n=1
e
n
2
t
)t
z/21
dt
equals
(z)
However, the integral is well-dened in x > 0, and (z) is well-
dened for any z.
So we want to extend the equality between the integral and (z)
up to the maximal possible domain.
To that end, we nd a dierent expression for the integral, that
converges for any z.
We rst use uniform convergence to take the limit under the
integral sign, and we obtain
t=
_
t=0
(
n=1
e
n
2
t
)t
z/21
dt =
t=
_
t=0
(t)t
z/21
dt,
where for t > 0,
(t)
n=1
e
n
2
t
is Jacobis elliptic function.
By [6]
(t) = (1/t)t
1/2
+
1
2
t
1/2
1
2
.
Substituting this for (t),
t=
_
t=0
(t)t
z/21
dt =
=
t=1
_
t=0
_
(1/t)t
1/2
+
1
2
_
t
1/2
1
__
t
z/21
dt +
t=
_
t=1
(t)t
z/21
dt
=
t=1
_
t=0
(1/t)t
z/23/2
dt +
1
2
t=1
_
t=0
_
t
z/23/2
t
z/21
_
dt+
t=
_
t=1
(t)t
z/21
dt
Since
1
2
t=1
_
t=0
_
t
z/23/2
t
z/21
_
dt =
1
z 1
1
z
=
1
z(z 1)
,
we have
=
1
z(z 1)
+
t=1
_
t=0
(1/t)t
z/23/2
dt+
t=
_
t=1
(t)t
z/21
dt.
By the change of variable = 1/t,
t=1
_
t=0
(1/t)t
z/23/2
dt =
=1
_
=
()
z/2+3/2
(d/
2
) =
=
_
=1
()
(z+1)/2
d.
Therefore,
=
1
z(z 1)
+
t=
_
t=1
(t)
_
t
(z+1)/2
+ t
z/21
_
dt
to be denoted by
(z).
Then, Re(z) < 0, has the eect of transforming each of
t=
_
t=1
(t)t
(z+1)/2
dt
and
t=
_
t=1
(t)t
z/21
dt
into a converging integral on 0 < t < 1
Hence,
t=
_
t=1
(t)
_
t
(z+1)/2
+ t
z/21
_
dt
is dened also for Re(z) < 0, and for any z.
If we can show that
(z) = (1 z),
then the equality between (z) and (z) in x > 1, will allow to
conclude equality for any z.
Indeed,
(1z) =
1
(1 z)(z)
+
t=
_
t=1
(t)
_
t
z/21
+ t
(z+1)/2
_
dt = (z).
Thus,
(z) =
1
z(z 1)
+
t=
_
t=1
(t)
_
t
(z+1)/2
+ t
z/21
_
dt
for any z.
Chapter 7
Whittakers Formula for Zeta
in x > 0.
7.1 For x > 0, (z) = lim
N
t=
_
t=0
(
N
n=1
e
n
2
t
)t
z/21
dt.
Appears in [5].
By 6.1, for any z,
(z) =
z/2
(z/2)(z) =
1
z(z 1)
+
t=
_
t=1
(t)
_
t
(z+1)/2
+ t
z/21
_
dt.
For x > 0,
= lim
N
t=
_
t=0
_
N
n=1
e
n
2
t
_
t
z/21
dt.
(z) = lim
N
t=
_
t=0
_
N
n=1
e
n
2
t
_
t
z/21
dt
30
Chapter 8
The function (z)
8.1 (z)
1
2
z(z 1)(z).
Riemann wrote
Set
1
2
z(z 1)
z/2
(z/2)(z) = (z).
8.2 Formulas for (z)
By 6.1, we have
(z) =
1
2
z(z 1)
_
_
1
z(z 1)
+
t=
_
t=1
(t)(t
(z+1)/2
+ t
z/21
)dt
_
_
=
1
2
z(1 z)
2
t=
_
t=1
(t)
_
t
(z+1)/2
+ t
z/21
_
dt
Riemann wrote,
31
(z) =
1
2
z(1z)
t=
_
t=1
(t)t
3/4
cos
_
1
2
[i(
1
2
z)] log t
_
dt
or
(z) = 4
t=
_
t=1
_
t
3/2
(t)
_
t
1/4
cos
_
1
2
[i(
1
2
z)] log t
_
dt
8.2.1 (z) =
1
2
z(1z)
t=
_
t=1
(t)t
3/4
cos
_
1
2
[i(
1
2
z)] log t
_
dt
(z) =
1
2
z(1 z)
2
t=
_
t=1
(t)
_
t
(z+1)/2
+ t
z/21
_
dt
=
1
2
z(1 z)
2
t=
_
t=1
(t)t
3/4
_
t
i(1/2)(i[(1/2)z])
+ t
i(1/2)(i[(1/2)z])
_
dt
=
1
2
z(1 z)
2
t=
_
t=1
(t)t
3/4
_
e
i(1/2)(i[(1/2)z]) log t
+ e
i(1/2)(i[(1/2)z]) log t
_
dt
=
1
2
z(1 z)
t=
_
t=1
(t)t
3/4
cos
_
1
2
i[(1/2) z] log t
_
dt
8.2.2 (z) = 4
t=
_
t=1
(t
3/2
(t))
t
1/4
cos
_
1
2
[i(
1
2
z)] log t
_
dt
(z) =
1
2
z(1 z)
2
t=
_
t=1
(t)
_
t
(z+1)/2
+ t
z/21
_
dt
=
1
2
z(1 z)
2
t=
_
t=1
(t)d
t
_
t
(1z)/2
(1 z)/2
+
t
z/2
z/2
_
=
1
2
_
z(1 z)
2
_
t
(1z)/2
(1 z)/2
+
t
z/2
z/2
_
(t)
_
t=
t=1
+
+
z(1 z)
2
t=
_
t=1
_
t
(1z)/2
(1 z)/2
+
t
z/2
z/2
_
d(t)
=
1
2
+
_
zt
(1z)/2
+ (1 z)t
z/2
_
(t)
t=1
+
+
t=
_
t=1
_
zt
(1z)/2
+ (1 z)t
z/2
_
(t)dt
=
1
2
+ (1) +
t=
_
t=1
_
zt
z/21
+ (1 z)t
(z1)/21
_
t
3/2
(t)dt
=
1
2
+ (1) +
t=
_
t=1
t
3/2
(t)d
t
_
2t
z/2
2t
(z1)/2
_
=
1
2
+ (1) +
_
t
3/2
(t)(2)
_
t
z/2
+ t
(z1)/2
__
t=
t=1
+
t=
_
t=1
(2)
_
t
z/2
+ t
(z1)/2
_
d
_
t
3/2
(t)
_
=
1
2
+ (1) + 4
(1)+
+2
t=
_
t=1
t
1/4
_
t
i(1/2)i[(1/2)z]
+ t
i(1/2)i[(1/2)z]
_
d
_
t
3/2
(t)
_
=
1
2
+ (1) + 4
(1)+
+2
t=
_
t=1
t
1/4
_
e
i(1/2)(i[(1/2)z]) log t
+ e
i(1/2)(i[(1/2)z]) log t
_
d
_
t
3/2
(t)
_
=
1
2
+ (1) + 4
(1)+
+4
t=
_
t=1
t
1/4
cos
_
1
2
i[(1/2) z] log t
_
d
_
t
3/2
(t)
_
To evaluate
(1), dierentiate Jacobis formula

(t) = (1/t)t
1/2
+
1
2
t
1/2
1
2
.
(t) =
(1/t)(1/t
2
)t
1/2
+ (1/t)(
1
2
t
3/2
)
1
4
t
3/2
(1) =
(1)(1) + (1)(
1
2
)
1
4
4
(1) + (1) +
1
2
= 0
Thus,
(z) = 4
t=
_
t=1
t
1/4
cos
_
1
2
i[(1/2) z] log t
_
d
_
t
3/2
(t)
_
Chapter 9
Taylor series for the function
(
1
2
+ iw) in w
We use (1/2 + iw) to get a correct product formula for .
9.1 Formulas for (
1
2
+ iw)
Riemann wrote
Set
z = 1/2 + iw,
and
1
2
z(z 1)
z/2
(z/2)(z) = (w).
Then,
(w) =
1
2
_
1
4
+ w
2
_
t=
_
t=1
(t)t
3/4
cos
_
1
2
wlog t
_
dt.
35
or also
(w) = 4
t=
_
t=1
d(t
3/2
(t))
dt
t
1/4
cos(
1
2
wlog t)dt.
Substituting
w = i(
1
2
z) = y + i(
1
2
x).
into the 8.2.1 formula
(z) =
1
2
z(1 z)
t=
_
t=1
(t)t
3/4
cos
_
1
2
[i(
1
2
z)] log t
_
dt,
we have
(
1
2
+ iw) =
1
2
_
1
4
+ w
2
_
t=
_
t=1
(t)t
3/4
cos
_
1
2
wlog t
_
dt.
Substituting w into the 8.2.2 formula
(z) = 4
t=
_
t=1
_
t
3/2
(t)
_
t
1/4
cos
_
1
2
[i(
1
2
z)] log t
_
dt,
we have
(
1
2
+ iw) = 4
t=
_
t=1
_
t
3/2
(t)
_
t
1/4
cos(
1
2
wlog t)dt.
9.2 (
1
2
+ iw) =
n=0
A
n
(w
2
)
n
that converges very
rapidly
Riemann wrote
(w) is nite for all nite values of w, and can be ex-
panded into a very rapidly convergent series in powers
of w
2
.
By the second formula,
(
1
2
+ iw) = 4
t=
_
t=1
_
t
3/2
(t)
_
t
1/4
cos(
1
2
wlog t)dt
= 4
t=
_
t=1
_
t
3/2
(t)
_
t
1/4
_
1
1
2!
(
1
2
log t)
2
w
2
+
1
4!
(
1
2
log t)
4
w
4
...
dt
= A
0
A
1
w
2
+ A
2
w
4
...
where,
A
n
= 4
1
(2n)!
t=
_
t=1
_
t
3/2
(t)
_
t
1/4
_
1
2
log t
2n
dt.
Hadamard [7] proved that the rapid convergence is equivalent
to the product formula
(z) = (0)
=zero of
_
1
z
_
Chapter 10
The zeros of (z).
The zeros of
(z)
will be denoted by
,
and
1 .
The zeros of
(1/2 + iw)
will be denoted by
.
We see that
= 1/2 + i,
and
1 = 1/2 i.
We shall use
z(1 z) = z
2
z = (z 1/2)
2
1/4 = (w
2
+ 1/4)
(1 ) =
2
+ 1/4
38
10.1 All the zeros of (z) are in 0 < x < 1.
Riemann wrote
Since for z = x + iy, with x > 1,
log (z) =
log(1 1/p
z
)
is nite,
and since the same is true for the logarithms of the
other factors of
(w),
the function
(w)
will vanish only if
1
2
< Im(w) <
1
2
.
For x > 1, the Euler product
p=prime
1
1 1/p
z
= (z)
has no vanishing factor, and is non-zero.
Namely, for x > 1,
(z) = 0.
and
(z) =
1
2
z(z 1)
z/2
(z/2)(z) = 0.
Thus, if is a zero of (z),
Re() < 1.
Since (z) = (1 z), we have
() = 0 (1 ) = 0.
That is,
if is a zero of (z), so is 1 .
Hence,
1 > Re(1 ) = 1 Re().
Therefore,
0 < Re().
Thus,
All the zeros of (z) are in 0 < x < 1.
Namely, in
1
2
< x
1
2
<
1
2
.
That is,
1
2
> x +
1
2
>
1
2
.
or
1
2
> Im(w) >
1
2
Chapter 11
The Number of Zeros of (z)
11.1 If R is large enough, log |(z)| is bounded
in |w| = |z 1/2| 2R, by Rlog R
By 9.2,
(z) = A
0
A
1
(i[z 1/2])
2
+A
2
(i[z 1/2])
4
A
3
(i[z 1/2])
6
+...
= A
0
+ A
1
(z 1/2)
2
+ A
2
(z 1/2)
4
+ A
3
(z 1/2)
6
+ ...
where
A
n
= 4
1
(2n)!
t=
_
t=1
(t
3/2
(t))
t
1/4
_
log t
2
_
2n
dt.
The A
n
> 0 because
(t
3/2
(t))
=
_
t
3/2
_

n=1
exp(n
2
t)
_
=
_
t
3/2
_
n=1
n
2
exp(n
2
t)
__
41
=
3
2
t
1/2
()
n=1
n
2
exp(n
2
t) + t
3/2
n=1
n
4
exp(n
2
t)
=
n=1
n
2
t
1/2
e
n
2
t
(n
2
t 3/2).
Therefore, in |z 1/2| 2R,
|(z)| |(2R + 1/2)| ,
and if 2R + 1/2 < 2n < 2R + 2 + 1/2,
|(z)| |(2n)| = (2n 1)
n
(n + 1)(2n)
2n
n
n!(2) n
n+1
(R + 5/4)
R+9/4
.
Hence, for large enough R,
|(z)| R
R
,
and log |(z)| in |z 1/2| 2R is bounded by Rlog R.
This enabled Hadamard to obtain his estimate for the number
of zeros of (z).
11.2 Hadamard Estimate: If R is large enough,
then n(R)=the number of zeros of (z) in
|w| = |z 1/2| R is bounded by 2Rlog R
By Jensens Theorem [1, p. 40], applied to |w| = |z 1/2| 2R
log
(1/2)
(2R)
n(2R)
(
1
1/2)...(
n(2R)
1/2)
=
1
2
=2
_
=0
log
f(Re
i
)
d.
Substitute
log
(Re
i
)
Rlog R
|
k
1/2| = |
k
|
log
(2R)
n(2R)
1
...
n(2R)
= n(R) log 2+log
R
n(R)
1
...
n(R)
+log
(2R)
n(2R)n(R)
n(R)+1
...
n(2R)
Since for k = 1...n(R),

|
k
| R,
and
|
n(R)+k
| 2R,
we have
n(R) log 2 log
(2R)
n(2R)
1
...
n(2R)
.
Therefore,
log |(1/2)| + n(R) log 2 Rlog R.
Hence, for R large enough,
n(R) 2Rlog R
Hadamard estimate is sucient for the derivation of the product
formula for (z).
11.3 Riemann Estimate: The number of ze-
ros of (z), in 0 < y < Y, and 0 < x < 1, is
bounded by
Y
2
log
Y
2

Y
2
.
Riemann wrote
Consider the counter-clockwise closed-path integral
_
counter clockwise
d log (
1
2
+ iw)
around the domain with
0 < x < 1, and 0 < y < Y.
With relative error of the order of 1/Y, the integral is
equal to
iY
_
log
Y
2
1
_
.
On the other hand, the integral equals
2i (Number of zeros of in the domain ) .
In 1914, Backlund [8] gave a proof.
Chapter 12
The Hypothesis
12.1 The Hypothesis: All the zeros of (z) are
on x = 1/2.
In terms of (w), having
x = 1/2
means
Im(w) = 0.
Riemann wrote
It is very likely that all of the zeros of (w) are real.
One would like to have a rigorous proof of this, but
after several eeting attempts to no avail, I have tem-
porarily set aside the search for this proof because it
appeared to be unnecessary for the immediate purpose
of my investigation.
The Hypothesis is required in the application of the product
formula to the count of the primes, and Riemanns erroneous
product formula did not indicate the need for the Hypothesis.
45
While the correct product formula is needed for a derivation, the
formula for the count of the primes may be arrived at empiri-
cally, and Riemann realized later that he needed the Hypothesis
for a derivation, and tried to prove it. After the publication of
the 1859 paper, Riemann wrote
...The Theorem which I merely cited that between 0,
and Y there are around
Y
2
_
log
Y
2
1
_
real zeros of the function follows from a new develop-
ment of , which I had not simplied enough to report
it...
Apparently, Riemann had no proof for the Hypothesis.
In January 2006, I reported my proof of the Hypothesis in the
San Antonio Mathematics meeting [9].
The proof was submitted to a journal.
Chapter 13
The Product Formula
13.1 Weierstrass Factorization Theorem
Riemann wrote
Since the density of the zeros of size w increases like
log
w
2
,
the series
=zero of (w)
log(1 w
2
/
2
)
converges, and grows like
|w| log |w| .
log (w)
=zero of (w)
log(1 w
2
/
2
)
is a function that is continuous, and nite for nite w.
47
For w ,
1
w
2
_
_
log (w)
=zero of (w)
log(1 w
2
/
2
)
_
_
0
Therefore,
log (w)
=zero of (w)
log(1 w
2
/
2
) = const.
Setting w = 0, gives
log (0) = const.
Since (z) is an entire function so that (0) = 0, by Weierstrass
[10, Chapter 7, 2.13]
(z) = e
h(z)
n=1
(1
z
n
)e
Q
n
(z)
,
where
the zeros of (z), the
n
s are sequenced by their size and
increase to
the polynomials Q
n
(z) guarantee the uniform convergence
of the product in the open plane
h(z) is an entire function
Since the
n
s are sequenced by size, and since 1
n
is a zero
too, the product representation is
(z) = e
h(z)
n=1
(1
z
n
)(1
z
1
n
)e
Q
n
(z)
,
where
(1
z
n
)(1
z
1
n
) = 1
z(1 z)
n
(1
n
)
= 1
w
2
+ 1/4
2
n
+ 1/4
Following Riemann outline, this should lead to
log (1/2 + iw) = log |
w=i/2
+
n
log
_
1
w
2
+ 1/4
2
n
+ 1/4
_
Since Riemann had the wrong result, we do not follow his out-
line here. We use Hadamard Theorem to obtain the product
formula.
We rst show that
n=1
_
1
z
n
__
1
z
1
n
_
converges. That is
e
Q
n
(z)
= 1.
13.2 (z) = e
h(z)
n=1
(1
z
n
)(1
z
1
n
)
The convergence of
m
_
1
z(1 z)
m
(1
m
)
_
is equivalent to the convergence of
m
1
m
(1
m
)
Since
|
m
(1
m
)| =
(
m
1/2)
2
1/4
> |
m
1/2|
2
,
it is sucient to show that
m
1
|
m
1/2|
2
=
m
1
|
2
m
|
< ,
or, that the tail is bounded. That is,
m>N
1
|
2
m
|
< .
The
m
are arranged so that
1
|
m
|
2
is decreasing.
For m large enough,
m = N, N + 1, N + 2, ...
dene positive numbers R
m
> 1 so that
log R
m
> 1
m = 4R
m
log R
m
.
Then,
log m > log R
m
.
By 11.2, the number of zeros of (z) in |w| R
m
is bounded by
2R
m
log R
m
Hence,
|
m
| > R
m
.
and we have
m>N
1
|
m
|
2

m>N
1
R
2
m
= 4
2
m>N
1
m
2
(log R
m
)
2
4
2
m>N
(log m)
2
m
2
= 4
2
m>N
1
m
3/2
(log m)
2
m
1/2
.
Since
(log m)
2
m
1/2
0, as m ,
we have
(log m)
2
m
1/2
< 1, for m > N,
and
m>N
1
|
m
|
2
< .
13.3 (z) = (0)
n=1
(1
z
n
)(1
z
1
n
) in 0 < x < 1
The Hadamard Factorization Theorem [11, p. 68] applies to a
function f(z) for which
limsup
R
1
log R
log log max
|z|=R
|f(z)| <
Then,
= the order of f(z).
Hadamard replaces Weierstrass
h(z)
with a polynomial
Q(z)
so that
deg Q(z) order of the factorized function
By 11.1, if R is large enough, log (z) in |w| 2R, is bounded
by Rlog R. Hence,
1
log R
log log max
|w|=R
|(z)|
1
log R
log (Rlog R) = 1 +
log log R
log R
Thus, by LHospital,
limsup
R
1
log R
log log max
|w|=R
|(z)| = 1.
That is,
(z) is of order = 1
Hence,
deg Q(z) 1.
and
Q(w) = A + Bw
Therefore,
(1/2 + iw) = e
A+Bw
n
_
1
w
2
+ 1/4
2
n
+ 1/4
_
,
where the product is an even function of w.
On the other hand, by 9.2,
(1/2 + iw) = A
0
A
1
w
2
+ A
2
w
4
+ ....
is an even function of w.
Consequently,
B = 0
and
(1/2 + iw) = e
A
n
_
1
w
2
+ 1/4
2
n
+ 1/4
_
,
Setting w = i/2,
(0) = e
A
and
(z) = (0)
n
_
1
z
n
__
1
z
1
n
_
Part II
The Number of Primes < t
54
Chapter 14
(t) and F(t)
Riemann wrote
...We can now determine (t), the number of primes
less than t.
Let
F(t)
be
equal to (t) if t is not a prime,
and
equal to (t) +
1
2
, if t is a prime,
so that if F(t) jumps at t,
F(t) =
1
2
[F(t + 0) + F(t 0].
We dene
55
(t) number of prime numbers p so that p < t.
Thus,
(1) = 0
(
2) = 0
(2) = 0
(e) = 1
(3) = 1
() = 2
To apply Fourier Integral Theorem, well need the auxiliary func-
tion
F(t)
_
(t) if t = prime
(t) + 1/2 if t = prime
that satises the Dirichlet condition
1
2
[F(t + 0) + F(t 0] = F(t).
Thus,
t (t) F(t)
t < 2 0 0
t = 2 0 1/2
2 < t < 3 1 1
t = 3 1 1 + 1/2
3 < t < 5 2 2
t = 5 2 2 + 1/2
Chapter 15
Zeta and F(t)
15.1
log (z)
z
=
t=
_
t=1
1
t
z+1
_
F(t) +
1
2
F(t
1/2
) +
1
3
F(t
1/3
) + ...
_
dt
Riemann wrote
If x > 1,
log (z) =
p=prime
log
_
1
1
p
z
_
=
p=prime
1
p
z
+
1
2
p=prime
1
p
2z
+
1
3
p=prime
1
p
3z
+ ...
Substitute
1
p
z
= z
t=
_
t=p
dt
t
z+1
1
p
2z
= z
t=
_
t=p
2
dt
t
z+1
57
...............
Then,
log (z)
z
=
t=
_
t=1
1
t
z+1
f(t)dt,
where
f(t) = F(t) +
1
2
F(t
1/2
) +
1
3
F(t
1/3
) + ...
Since
F(t + 0) F(t 0)
_
0, if t = prime
1, if t = prime
we have
p=prime
1
p
z
=
t=
_
t=1
1
t
z
[F(t + 0) F(t 0)] =
t=
_
t=1
1
t
z
dF(t)
p=prime
1
p
2z
=
t=
_
t=1
1
t
z
_
F(t
1/2
+ 0) F(t
1/2
0)
_
=
t=
_
t=1
1
t
z
dF(t
1/2
)
p=prime
1
p
3z
=
t=
_
t=1
1
t
z
_
F(t
1/3
+ 0) F(t
1/3
0)
_
=
t=
_
t=1
1
t
z
dF(t
1/3
)
.......
Riemann Zeta paper: The Product Formula Error 59
Therefore,
log (z) =
p=prime
1
p
z
+
1
2
p=prime
1
p
2z
+
1
3
p=prime
1
p
3z
+ ...
=
t=
_
t=1
1
t
z
dF(t) +
1
2
t=
_
t=1
1
t
z
dF(t
1/2
) +
1
3
t=
_
t=1
1
t
z
dF(t
1/3
) + ...
Integrating by parts,
t=
_
t=1
1
t
z
d
t
F(t
1/n
) =
_
1
t
z
F(t
1/n
)
_
t=
t=1
t=
_
t=1
F(t
1/n
)(z)t
z1
dt
Since F(1) = 0, and
1
t
z
|
t=
= 0 , we have
= z
t=
_
t=1
F(t
1/n
)
1
t
z+1
dt.
Consequently,
log (z) = z
t=
_
t=1
F(t)
1
t
z+1
dt +
1
2
z
t=
_
t=1
F(t
1/2
)
1
t
z+1
dt + ...
and
log (z)
z
=
t=
_
t=1
_
F(t) +
1
2
F(t
1/2
) +
1
3
F(t
1/3
) + ...
_
dt
t
z+1
.
Chapter 16
f(t) and Zeta
16.1 f(t) =
1
2i
y=
_
y=
log (z)
z
t
z
dz =
1
2
y=
_
y=
log (z)
z
t
z
dy,
for xed x, and for any z
Riemann wrote,
If for x > 1,
g(z) =
u=
_
u=0
h(u)u
z
d(log t),
then by the Fourier Theorem
h
can be written in terms of
g(z)
If
h(u) is real
60
g(x + iy) = g
1
(y) + g
2
(y)
then the equation splits into
g
1
(y) =
u=
_
u=0
h(u)u
x
cos(y log u)d(logu)
g
2
(y) = i
u=
_
u=0
h(u)u
x
sin(y log u)d(logu)
Multiply both equations by
[cos(y log t) + i sin(y log t)]dy,
and integrate from y = to y = .
Then, the right hand side of either equation is
h(t)t
x
.
Adding the equations, and multiplying by it
x
,
2ih(t) =
x+i
_
xi
g(z)t
z
dz,
where x is xed through the integration.
Thus, if h(t) has a jump at t,
then,
h(t) =
1
2
[h(t + 0) + h(t 0)].
Since f(t) has the same property, we get with complete
generality
f(t) =
1
2i
x+i
_
xi
log (z)
z
t
z
dz
For 0 u 1, we have
F(u) = 0
and
f(u) = 0
Hence,
log (z)
z
=
u=
_
u=1
1
u
z+1
f(u)du =
u=
_
u=0
f(u)u
z
d(log u).
Fourier Inversion applies to write f in terms of
log(z)
z
To that end, x x, multiply by
t
z
dz = t
x
t
iy
d(x + iy) = it
x
e
iy log t
dy,
and integrate from y = to y = .
Then,
y=
_
y=
log (z)
z
t
z
dz =
= it
x
y=
_
y=
e
iy log t
_
_
u=
_
u=0
f(u)u
x
e
iy log u
d(logu)
_
_
dy
Since
F(t) =
1
2
[F(t + 0) + F(t 0)],
we have
f(t) =
1
2
[f(t + 0) + f(t 0)]
and by Fourier integral Theorem, we can change the order of
integration.
= it
x
u=
_
u=0
f(u)u
x
_
_
y=
_
y=
e
iy(log tlog u)
dy
_
_
d(log u)
= it
x
u=
_
u=0
f(u)u
x
[2(log t log u)] d(logu)
= 2if(t).
Therefore,
f(t) =
1
2i
y=
_
y=
log (z)
z
t
z
dz =
1
2
y=
_
y=
log (z)
z
t
z
dy,
for xed x, and for any z
Chapter 17
f(t) and (z)
17.1 f(t) =
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
, where =
log(z1)
z
+
log (z/2+1)
z

log (0)
z

1
z
log
_
1+
z
2
z
2
+1/4
_
Riemann wrote
f(t) =
1
2i
x+i
_
xi
log (z)
z
t
z
dz.
For
log (z)
we may substitute
1
2
z log log(z 1) log
_
1
2
z + 1
_
+
=zero of
log
_
1+
(z 1/2)
2
2
_
+ log (0)
64
But the integrals of these terms are divergent at in-
nity. So we have to integrate the equation for f by
parts
f(t) =
1
2i
1
log t
x+i
_
xi
d
_
1
z
log (z)
dz
t
z
dz
Since
(z) =
1
2
z(z 1)
z/2
(z/2)(z),
we have
log (z) =
1
2
z log log(z 1) log
_
1
2
z + 1
_
+ log (z).
Replacing (z) by the product formula of Section 13.3
log (z)
z
=
1
2
log
log(z 1)
z

log
_
1
2
z + 1
_
z
+
+
1
z
log
_
1+
z
2
z
2
+ 1/4
_
+
log (0)
z
.
If this formula is used to obtain f(t), the rst term
1
2
log
gives
1
2
log
2i
x+i
_
xi
t
z
dz =
log
4i log t
t
x
_
t
iy
y=
y=
that diverges.
On the other hand, integrating by parts gives
f(t) =
1
2i
1
log t
lim
Y
_
log (z)
z
t
z
_
y=Y
y=Y
1
2i
1
log t
x+i
_
xi
t
z
d
z
_
log (z)
z
_
.
Now,
|log (z)| =
p=prime
log
_
1
1
p
z
_
p=prime
_
1
|p
z
|
+
1
2
1
|p
2z
|
+
1
3
1
|p
3z
|
+ ...
_
=
p=prime
_
1
p
x
+
1
2
1
p
2x
+
1
3
1
p
3x
+ ...
_
=
p=prime
log
_
1
1
p
x
_
= |log (x)|
This ensures the vanishing of the boundary terms
_
log (z)
z
t
z
_
y=Y
y=Y
2
t
x
|log (x)|
x
2
+ Y
2
0, as Y .
Therefore,
f(t) =
1
2i
1
log t
x+i
_
xi
t
z
d
z
_
log (z)
z
_
=
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
log(z1)
z
+
log
_
1
2
z+1
_
z

log (0)
z

1
z
log
_
1+
z
2
z
2
+1/4
_
_
Chapter 18
The
log (0)
z
term
18.1
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
=
1
2i
y=
_
y=
1
z
t
z
dz = 1
Integration by parts gives
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
_
=
=
1
2i
1
log t
lim
Y
_
t
z
z
_
y=Y
y=Y
+
1
2i
y=
_
y=
1
z
t
z
dz
The boundary terms vanish because
_
1
z
t
z
_
y=Y
y=Y
2
t
x
x
2
+ Y
2
0, as Y .
Therefore, we have
=
1
2i
y=
_
y=
1
z
t
z
dz
67
Substituting
dz = idy,
t
z
= t
x
e
iy log t
1
z
=
u=
_
u=1
u
z1
du,
= t
x
1
2
y=
_
y=
_
_
u=
_
u=1
u
z1
du
_
_
e
iy log t
dy
u = e
,
du = e
d,
= t
x
1
2
y=
_
y=
_
_
=
_
=0
e
z
d
_
_
e
iy log t
dy
= t
x
1
2
y=
_
y=
_
_
=
_
=0
e
x
e
iy
d
_
_
e
iy log t
dy
By Fourier Integral Theorem for
_
e
x
, > 0
0, < 0
, we change
integration order
= t
x
=
_
=0
e
x
_
_
1
2
y=
_
y=
e
iy(log t)
dy
_
_
d
= t
x
=
_
=0
e
x
( log t)d
= t
x
e
xlog t
= 1
18.2
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
log (0)
z
_
= log (0) = log 2
Riemann wrote
1
2i
1
log t
x+i
_
xi
1
z
2
(log (0))t
z
dz = log (0)
log (0) factors out of
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
log (0)
z
_
and by section 18.1, we obtain just log (0).
Since,
(0) =
0/2
(1)(0 1)(0) = (0) =
1
2
.
we have
log (0) = log
1
2
= log 2.
Chapter 19
Terms with log
_
1
z
_
19.1 d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
2
z + 1
_
=
n=1
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1 +
z
2n
_
Riemann wrote
log
_
1
2
z + 1
_
= lim
N
_
N
n=1
log
_
1 +
z
2n
_
z
2
log N
_
.
Hence,
d
_
1
z
log
_
1
2
z + 1
__
dz
=
n=1
d
_
1
z
log
_
1 +
z
2n
__
dz
For the Gamma function
_
1
2
z + 1
_
= lim
N
N
z/2
n=1
_
1 +
z
2n
_
70
log
_
1
2
z + 1
_
= lim
N
_
N
n=1
log
_
1 +
z
2n
_
1
2
z log N
_
log
_
1
2
z + 1
_
z
= lim
N
_
N
n=1
1
z
log
_
1 +
z
2n
_
1
2
log N
_
d
z
_
log
_
1
2
z + 1
_
z
_
=
n=1
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1 +
z
2n
_
_
19.2
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
=
u=t
_
u=
u
1
log u
du +
const if < 0, or =
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du + const if
> 0
Riemann wrote
For
= + i,
consider
1
2i
1
log t
x+i
_
xi
d
dz
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
t
z
dz.
Now,
d
d
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
=
1
( z)
.
If x > ,
1
2i
x+i
_
xi
1
( z)
t
z
dz =
t
=
_
_
u=t
_
u=
u
1
du, < 0
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
du, > 0
Therefore,
1
2i
1
log t
x+i
_
xi
d
dz
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
t
z
dz
=
1
2i
x+i
_
xi
1
z
log
_
1
z
_
t
z
dz
=
_
_
u=t
_
u=
u
1
log u
du + const, < 0
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du + const, > 0
Integration by parts gives
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
=
=
1
2i log t
_
lim
Y
t
z
z
log
_
1
z
__
y=Y
y=Y
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
z
log
_
1
z
_
dz
Now,
log
_
1
z
+
1
2
_
z
_
2
+
1
3
_
z
_
3
+ ...
+
1
2
2
+
1
3
3
+ ...
=
log
_
1
This ensures that the boundary terms vanish
_
t
z
z
log
_
1
z
__
y=Y
y=Y
2t
x
x
2
+ Y
2
log
_
1
x
2
+ Y
2
||
_
0, as Y .
Therefore,
=
1
2i
y=
_
y=
1
z
log
_
1
z
_
t
z
dz.
Substituting
dz = idy,
t
z
= t
x
e
iy log t
1
z
log
_
1
z
_
=
_
1
(z)
d
= t
x
1
2
y=
_
y=
__
1
( z)
d
_
e
iy log t
dy
= t
x
_
_
_
1
2
y=
_
y=
1
z
e
iy log t
dy
_
_
1
d
= t
x
_
_
_
1
2
y=
_
y=
_
_
s=
_
s=1
s
(z)1
ds
_
_
e
iy log t
dy
_
_
1
d
s = e
ds = e
d
= t
x
_
_
_
1
2
y=
_
y=
_
_
=
_
=0
e
(z)
d
_
_
e
iy log t
dy
_
_
1
d
= t
x
_
_
_
1
2
y=
_
y=
_
_
=
_
=0
e
(x)
e
i(y)
d
_
_
e
iy log t
dy
_
_
1
d
If x > , by Fourier Integral Theorem for
_
e
(x)
, > 0
0, < 0
,
we change integration order
= t
x
_
_
_
=
_
=0
e
(x)
e
i
_
_
1
2
y=
_
y=
e
iy(log t)
dy
_
_
d
_
_
1
d
= t
x
_
_
_
=
_
=0
e
(x)
e
i
( log t)d
_
_
1
d
= t
x
_
e
(x) log t
e
i log t
1
d
= t
x
e
xlog t
_
e
(+i) log t
1
d
=
_
1
d
=
_
_
_
_
u=t
_
u=
u
1
du
_
d, < 0
_
_
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
du
_
d, > 0
=
_
_
u=t
_
u=
__
u
1
d
du, < 0
u=t
_
u=0
__
u
1
d
du, > 0
=
_
_
u=t
_
u=
u
1
log u
du + const, < 0
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du + const, > 0
19.3
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
=
u=t
_
u=
u
1
log u
du, if
< 0
Riemann wrote
If < 0,
1
2i
1
log t
x+i
_
xi
d
dz
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
t
z
dz
=
u=t
_
u=
u
1
log u
du + const.
The constant of integration drops out by letting
.
19.3.1 The left side integral
As in 19.2, integration by parts gives
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
=
1
2i
y=
_
y=
1
z
log
_
1
z
_
t
z
dz.
Now,
1
2i
y=
_
y=
1
z
log
_
1
z
_
t
z
dz
t
x
2
y=
_
y=
1
z
log
_
1
dy
if we let ,
1
z
log
_
1
1
z
log 1
= 0
Therefore, by Lebesgue Dominant Convergence,
1
2i
1
log t
y=
_
y=
t
z
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
0.
19.3.2 The right side Integral
u=t
_
u=
u
1
log u
du
u=t
_
u=
u
1
log u
du
If we let ,
u
1
log u
=
|u|
1
|log u|

|u|
|log u|
= 0,
since log u = 0 in t < u < , for t > 1.
u=t
_
u=
u
1
log u
du 0.
Consequently,
const = 0,
and
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
=
u=t
_
u=
u
1
log u
du.
19.4
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
=
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du, if
> 0.
Riemann wrote
If > 0,
1
2i
1
log t
x+i
_
xi
d
dz
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
t
z
dz
=
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du + const
The integral from u = 0 to u = t will be innitesimal,
if the path of integration is in the upper half-plane, and
we let
,
or if the path of integration is in the lower half-plane,
and we let
.
Then, we evaluate
log
_
1
z
_
on the left side so that the integration constant drops
out.
We want to show that both integrals vanish if > 0, and if
, or .
19.4.1 The left side Integral
Similarly to Section 19.3.1, integration by parts leads to
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
t
x
2
y=
_
y=
1
z
log
_
1
dy
if we let , or ,
1
z
log
_
1
1
z
log 1
= 0
1
2i
1
log t
y=
_
y=
t
z
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
0.
19.4.2 The right side integral
We want to show that if we take a path in the upper half plane
and let , the right side integral vanishes.
u = e
,
du = e
d.
we have
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du =
=log t
_
=
e
d
We take a path in the upper half-plane that
runs from = to = + i, along = + i
runs from = +i to = log t +i, along = +i
runs from = log t + i to = log t, along = log t + i
Then,
=log t
_
=
e
d =
=+i
_
=
e
d+
=log t+i
_
=+i
e
d+
=log t
_
=log t+i
e
d
The First Integral
=+i
_
=
e
=
_
=0
|exp(+ i)( + i)|
|+ i|
d
=
=
_
=0
exp(( + ))
d
Since > 0, and > 0, then for ,
exp( )

exp(( + ))
= 0
Hence, by Lebesgue Dominant Convergence
=+i
_
=
e
d 0.
The Second Integral
=log t+i
_
=+i
e
=log t
_
=
|exp( + i)( + i)|
| + i|
d
=
=log t
_
=
exp( )
| + i|
d
exp( )
| + i|

exp( )
| + i|
=
exp()
| + i|
= 0.
Hence, by Lebesgue Dominant convergence,
=log t+i
_
=+i
e
d 0.
The Third Integral
=log t
_
=log t+i
e
=
_
=0
|exp(log t + i)( + i)|
|log t + i|
d
=
=
_
=0
exp( log t )
|log t + i|
d
exp( log t )
|log t + i|

exp()
|log t + i|
= 0.
Hence, by Lebesgue Dominant convergence,
=log t
_
=log t+i
e
d 0.
Thus, the right side integral vanishes.
Similarly, if we take a path in the lower half plane and let
, the right side integral vanishes.
Consequently, if > 0, then
const = 0
and
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
=
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du.
19.5 If > 0, then
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du = Li(t
) i, for
upper half plane path, and = Li(t
) + i,
for lower half plane path
Riemann wrote
If > 0, the integral
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du
takes on two values which dier by
2i
depending on whether the path of integration is in the
upper half-plane or in the lower half-plane.
The integrand is singular at u = 1 , and the path of integration
has to bypass the singularity.
Thus, an upper half-plane path will
run from u = 0 to u = 1
encircle the singularity clockwise from u = 1 to u = 1+
run from u = 1 + to u = t
Then,
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du =
u=1
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du +
=log(1+)
_
=log(1)
e
d +
u=t
_
u=1+
u
1
log u
du.
By the Residue Theorem for the clockwise semi-circle
=log(1+)
_
=log(1)
e
d = 2i
_

2
_
_
Res
e
_
=0
= i lim
0
_
_
= i
Hence,
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du =
u=1
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du +
u=t
_
u=1+
u
1
log u
du + (i)
= u
,
d = u
1
du,
log = log u
=t
_
=0
d
log
=
_
_
=(1)
_
=0
d
log
+
=t
_
=(1+)
d
log
_
_
i
Letting 0,
= Li(t
) i
Hence,
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du = Li(t
) i
Similarly, with a lower half-plane path that encircles the singu-
larity counter-clockwise,
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du = Li(t
) + i
19.6 If > 0,
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
= Li(t
)
i, for upper half plane path, and = Li(t
)+
i, for lower half plane path
By section 19.4,
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
__
=
u=t
_
u=0
u
1
log u
du
By section 19.5,
=
_
Li(t
) i, for upper half plane path

Li(t
) + i, for lower half plane path

where
Li(t
) = lim
0
_
_
=(1)
_
=0
d
log
+
=t
_
=(1+)
d
log
_
_
.
Chapter 20
The
log(z1)
z
term
20.1
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
log(z1)
z
_
= Li(t)
log(1 z) is dened with a cut along the positive real numbers.
Therefore, to obtain
z 1
in the main branch of log(1 z), we rotate
1 z
clockwise, by multiplying it by
e
i
That is,
(1 z)e
i
= z 1,
and
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
log(z 1)
z
_
=
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
log(e
i
)(1 z)
z
_
86
=
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
log(1 z)
z
_
+
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
(i)
z
_
20.1.1 The First Integral
The integral
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
log(1 z)
z
_
has a term of the form
1
z
log
_
1
z
_
where
= 1 > 0.
Therefore, by section 19.6, if we take an upper half-plane path
with clockwise oriented semicircle around the singularity of the
logarithmic integral at u = 1
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
log(1 z)
z
_
= Li(t) i
20.1.2 The Second Integral
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
i
z
_
= (i)
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
_
By section 18.1,
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
= 1.
Hence,
Second Integral = i.
Consequently,
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
log(z 1)
z
_
= (Li(t) i) + i
= Li(t).
Chapter 21
The
1
z
log
_
1+
z
2
z
2
+1/4
_
term
Riemann wrote,
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1+
_
z
1
2
_
2
2
__
=
_
Li(t
1/2+i
) + Li(t
1/2i
)
_
The summation is over all positive zeros of ( or all
zeros with positive real part), ordered by their size.
With a more precise discussion of the function ,
it is easy to show that the sum
_
Li(t
1/2+i
) + Li(t
1/2i
)
_
equals
lim
Y
1
2i
x+iY
_
xiY
d
dz
_
1
z
log
_
1+
(z 1/2)
2
2
__
t
z
dz
89
If the zeros are not sequenced by their size, the
sum may have any arbitrary real value.
21.1 The assumption of the Hypothesis
The claim that the series
_
Li(t
1/2+i
) + Li(t
1/2i
)
_
equals the integral
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1+
z
2
z
2
+ 1/4
_
_
includes the assumption of the Hypothesis that
0 = Im() = x
0
1
2
That is, the zeros are assumed to be on the line x = 1/2.
21.2 Implicit Claim
The following claim was not made by Riemann, but is implicit in
the derivation of his formula for the count of the prime numbers
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1+
z
2
z
2
+ 1/4
_
_
=
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1+
z
2
z
2
+ 1/4
__
In 1908, Landau [12] proved that the summation over the zeros,
and the integration can be interchanged.
21.3
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1+
z
2
z
2
+1/4
_
_
equals
_
Li(t
1/2+i
) + Li(t
1/2i
)
if the zeros of
are on x = 1/2 and sequenced by size
Integrating term by term by Section 21.2
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1+
z
2
z
2
+ 1/4
_
_
=
=
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1+
z
2
z
2
+ 1/4
__
=
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
_
log
_
1
z
1
2
+ i
_
+ log
_
1
z
1
2
i
___
The integral
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
1
2
+ i
__
has a term of the form
1
z
log
_
1
z
_
=
1
z
log
_
1
z
+ i
_
where
=
1
2
> 0
and
= > 0
By 19.6 on an upper half-plane path, the integral equals
Li(t
1/2+i
) i
Similarly, using a path in the lower half plane, the integral
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
z
1
2
i
__
equals
Li(t
1/2i
) + i.
Therefore,
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
_
log
_
1
z
1
2
+ i
_
+ log
_
1
z
1
2
i
___
= Li(t
1/2+i
) + Li(t
1/2i
)
Consequently,
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1+
z
2
z
2
+ 1/4
_
_
=
_
Li(t
1/2+i
) + Li(t
1/2i
)
_
21.4 The Hypothesis Source
, and are zeros of
|
n
| is increasing
combined with
Im() = 0,
have the eect that
> 0,
is not guaranteed in any way, and the equality to the series
=
_
Li(t
1/2+i
) + Li(t
1/2i
)
_
can-not be deduced.
This might have been the argument that led Riemann to make
the Hypothesis.
Chapter 22
The
1
z
log
_
1
2
z + 1
_
term
22.1
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
2
z + 1
_
=
u=
_
u=t
1
ulog u
1
u
2
1
du
For t > 1,
u=
_
u=t
1
ulog u
1
u
2
1
du =
=
u=
_
u=t
1
ulog u
1/u
2
1 1/u
2
du
=
u=
_
u=t
1
ulog u
1
u
2
_
1 +
1
u
2
+
1
u
4
+ ...
_
du
=
u=
_
u=t
1
ulog u
n=1
1
u
2n
du
94
The uniform convergence of
n=1
1
u
2n
allows term-wise integration
=
n=1
u=
_
u=t
1
ulog u
1
u
2n
du
=
n=1
u=t
_
u=
u
2n1
log u
du
The integral
u=t
_
u=
u
2n1
log u
du
has
= = 2n,
and by Section 19.3, it equals
=
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1 +
z
2n
_
_
Therefore, we have
=
n=1
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1 +
z
2n
_
_
The uniform convergence allows interchanging summation and
integration
=
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
n=1
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1 +
z
2n
_
_
By section 19.1
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
2
z + 1
_
_
=
n=1
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1 +
z
2n
_
_
.
Therefore, we conclude
=
1
2i
y=
_
y=
t
z
log t
d
z
_
1
z
log
_
1
2
z + 1
_
_
Chapter 23
The Count and Density of the
Primes
23.1 If the s(= zeros of ) are positive and
sequenced by size, f(t) = Li(t) log 2
_
Li(t
1/2+i
) + Li(t
1/2i
)
+
u=
_
u=t
1
ulog u
1
u
2
1
du
Riemann wrote
If the zeros of , , are positive and sequenced by size,
f(t) = Li(t)
_
Li(t
1/2+i
) + Li(t
1/2i
)
_
+
u=
_
u=t
1
ulog u
1
u
2
1
du + log (0)
Riemann computed
(0) = |
w=0
= |
z=1/2
.
97
In 1860, Genocchi [13] observed that the correct term is
|
z=0
=
0/2
(1)(0 1)(0) = (0) = 1/2.
Thus,
f(t) = Li(t) log 2
_
Li(t
1/2+i
) + Li(t
1/2i
)
_
+
u=
_
u=t
1
ulog u
1
u
2
1
du
23.2 Count of the Primes is F(t) = f(t)
1
2
f(t
1/2
)
1
3
f(t
1/3
)
1
5
f(t
1/5
)+
1
6
f(t
1/6
)+...
(1)
m
f(t
1/m
)+...
where m = 1, 2, 3, ... has no prime factors
squared, and is the number of prime
factors of m
Riemann wrote
We invert
f(t) =
nN
1
n
F(t
1/n
)
to obtain
F(t) =
m
(1)
m
f(t
1/m
),
where m ranges over all the natural numbers that have
no prime factors squared, and where is the number
of prime factors of m.
This inversion formula is due to Mobius.
The formula is constructed with the aid of the following table
m p
1
p
2
p
3
p
4
...
1 0
2 2 1
3 3 1
4 = 2
2
5 5 1
6 2 3 2
7 7 1
8 = 2
3
9 = 3
2
10 = 2 5 2 5 2
11 11 1
12 = 3 2
2
13 13 1
14 2 7 2
15 3 5 2
16 = 2
4
23.3
1
log t
2
t
1/2
log t
cos(log t) is the approximate

density of f(t)
Riemann wrote
To approximate f(t), we take a nite sum of
_
Li(t
1/2+i
) + Li(t
1/2i
)
_
,
where the zeros of , , are positive and sequenced by
size.
The derivative of the approximated f(t) is the nite
sum
1
log t
2
t
1/2
log t
cos(log t)
+{0, very rapidly for t 0} ,
where the zeros of , , are positive and sequenced by
size.
This expression approximates the density of the primes
at t
+
1
2
the density of the squared primes at t
+
1
3
the density of the cubed primes at t
+.......
We have
d
dt
_
Li(t
1/2+i
) + Li(t
1/2i
)
_
=
=
d
dt
_
_
_
u=t
_
u=0
u
1/2+i1
log u
du +
u=t
_
u=0
u
1/2i1
log u
du
_
_
_
=
t
1/2
log t
_
t
i
+ t
i
_
=
t
1/2
log t
_
e
ilog t
+ e
ilog t
_
=
t
1/2
log t
2 cos(log t)
Thus, the derivative of the approximated f(t) is
1
log t
2
t
1/2
log t
cos(log t) +
1
t(t
2
1) log t
1
log t
2
t
1/2
log t
cos(log t)
This approximates
F
(t) +
1
2
F
(t
1/2
) +
1
3
F
(t
1/3
) + ...
23.4 The Approximate Count of the Primes
by non-oscillatory, unbounded terms is
Li(t)
1
2
Li(t
1/2
)
1
3
Li(t
1/3
)
1
5
Li(t
1/5
)+
1
6
Li(t
1/6
)
1
7
Li(t
1/7
) + ...
Riemann wrote
Since
f
(t)
1
log t
2
t
1/2
log t
cos(log t),
the well-known approximation formula
F(t) = Li(t)
is correct only to order of magnitude of
t
1/2
and gives a value that is somewhat too large.
Except for quantities that are bounded as t increases,
the non-oscillatory terms in F(t) are
Li(t)
1
2
Li(t
1/2
)
1
3
Li(t
1/3
)
1
5
Li(t
1/5
) +
1
6
Li(t
1/6
)
1
7
Li(t
1/7
) + ...
If oscillatory and bounded terms are eliminated from f(t) then,
f(t) Li(t).
Therefore, by Section 23.2,
F(t) = f(t)
1
2
f(t
1/2
)
1
3
f(t
1/3
)
1
5
f(t
1/5
)+
1
6
f(t
1/6
)
1
7
Li(t
1/7
)+......
Li(t)
1
2
Li(t
1/2
)
1
3
Li(t
1/3
)
1
5
Li(t
1/5
)+
1
6
Li(t
1/6
)
1
7
Li(t
1/7
)+...
23.5 The Error in the Approximate Count
Riemann wrote
Gauss and Goldschmidt compared
Li(t)
with the
Number of primes < t
up to t = 3, 000, 000.
Then,
Number of primes < 100, 000
was already smaller than
Li(100, 000).
That dierence increases gradually, with minor uctu-
ations, as t increases.
Riemanns approximation
(t)
u=t
_
u=2
du
log u
1
2
u=t
1/2
_
u=2
du
log u
1
3
u=t
1/3
_
u=2
du
log u
1
5
u=t
1/5
_
u=2
du
log u
+
1
6
u=t
1/6
_
u=2
du
log u
1
7
u=t
1/7
_
u=2
du
log u
+ ...
is compared with Gauss approximation
(t)
u=t
_
u=2
du
log u
in the following Lehmer table [1, p.35]
t Riemann Error Gauss Error
1, 000, 000 30 130
2, 000, 000 9 122
3, 000, 000 0 155
4, 000, 000 33 206
5, 000, 000 64 125
6, 000, 000 24 228
7, 000, 000 38 179
8, 000, 000 6 223
9, 000, 000 53 187
10, 000, 000 88 339
23.6 Fluctuations of the Density of f(t)
Riemann wrote
The nite sum of oscillatory terms
2
t
1/2
log t
cos(log t)
cause irregular uctuations in the density of the primes.
In a future count, it would be interesting to trace the
uctuations of the density of the primes
F
(t)
to the particular oscillatory terms in
f
(t).
We take the nite sum
f(t) 2
t
1/2
log t
<t
cos(log t)
over the zeros of that are less than t.
Since the Mobius inversion applies linearly, we have
F(t) f(t)
1
2
f(t
1/2
)
1
3
f(t
1/3
)
1
5
f(t
1/5
)+
1
6
f(t
1/6
)
1
7
f(t
1/7
)+...
According to [1, p. 37],
So far as I know, no such investigation has ever been
carried out.
Perhaps, even now, this is still an open problem.
23.7 Fluctuations of f(t)
Riemann wrote
The behavior of f(t) is more regular.
Already for t 100,
f(t) Li(t) + log (0).
References
[1] Edwards, H. M. Riemanns Zeta Function, Academic Press,
1974. The Appendix has a translation of Riemanns paper.
[2] Riemann, B. "On the Number of Prime Numbers less than a
given quantity", 1859, in God Created the Integers: The Mathe-
matical Breakthroughs that changed History, edited by Stephen
Hawking, Running Press, 2005. Page 876.
[3] Magnus, W., Oberhettinger, F., Soni, R. Formulas and The-
orems for the Special Functions of Mathematical Physics, Third
Enlarged Edition, Springer Verlag, 1966. p.3.
[4] Titchmarsh, E. C. The Theory of the Riemann Zeta Func-
tion. Oxford U. Press, 1951, page 21.
[5] Whittaker, E. T. and Watson, G. N. A Course of Modern
Analysis. Cambridge U. Press, 1958, page 273.
[6] Jacobi, C. G. J. Fundamenta Nova Theoriae Functionum El-
lipticarum, Borntraeger, Konigsburg, 1829, p.184. is cited by
Riemann. (Also, in Werke, Volume 1, pp.255-263)
[7] Hadamard, J., Etude sur les Proprietes des fonctions En-
106
tieres et en particulier dune fonction consideree par Riemann.
J. Math. Pures Appl. [4] 9, 1893, pp. 171-215. Also, in [1,
chapter 2]
[8] Backlund, R., Sur les zeros de la function (s) de Riemann.
C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 158, 1914. pp. 1979-1982. Also, in [1,
section 6.7]
[9] Dannon, V., Hilberts Eighth Problem: Riemanns Zeta Hy-
pothesis, Abstracts of papers presented to the American math-
ematical Society, Volume 27, Number 1, issue 143, p. 86. Joint
Mathematics meeting, San Antonio, January 12-15, 2006.
[10] Saks, S. and Zygmond, A., Analytic Functions. Second
Edition, Polish Scientic publishers, 1965.
[11] Holland, A. S. B.,Introduction to the Theory of Entire Func-
tions, Academic Press, 1973.
[12] Landau, E., Nouvelle demonstration pour la formule de Rie-
mann...Ann. Sci. Ecole Norm. Sup. [3], 25, 1908, pp. 399-442.
[13] Genocchi, A., Formule per determinare quanti siano i nu-
meri primi no ad un dato limite (Resume of Riemanns paper).
Ann. Mat. Pura Appl. [1] 3, 1860, pp. 52-59. Referenced by
Edwards [1, p. 31]

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Riemanns Zeta Paper: The Product Formula

) i, for upper half plane

) + i, for lower half plane path . . . . . . . 82

) +i, for lower half plane

if the zeros of are on x = 1/2 and sequenced by size . . . . . 91

cos(log t) is the approximate density of f(t) . 99

(1), dierentiate Jacobis formula

= n(R) log 2+log

Since for k = 1...n(R),

This ensures that the boundary terms vanish

) i, for upper half plane path

) + i, for lower half plane path

cos(log t) is the approximate

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