8.

2 Chemical Earth
8.2.1 The living and non-living components of the Earth contain mixtures
y

Construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions as they are encountered Combustion reaction (burning) element + oxygen oxide e.g. 4Na (S) + O2 (g) Na2O (s) Reaction with hydrogen element + hydrogen hydride e.g. Ca (s) + H2 (g) CaH2 (s) Reaction between an oxide and water metallic oxide + water hydroxide * metallic oxide is also known as basic oxide e.g. Na2O (s) + H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq) non-metallic oxide + water acid * non-metallic oxide is known as acidic oxide e.g. SO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO3 (aq) Reaction between active metals and water active metal + water (liquid or gas) hydroxide + hydrogen gas e.g. 2K (s) + 2H2O (l) 2KOH (aq) +H2 (g) Reaction between acids and carbonates acid + carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide e.g. 2HNO3 (aq) + MgCO3 (s) Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) Decomposition reactions by heating carbonates e.g. CaCO3 (s) metallic oxide e.g. 2HgO (s) hydroxide oxide + carbon dioxide CaO (s) + CO2 (g) metal + oxygen 2Hg (s) + O2 (g)
oxide + water

e.g. Mg(OH)2 (s) MgO (s) + H2O (l) Reaction between metallic oxides and acids metallic oxide + acid salt + water e.g. MnO (S) + 2HCl (aq) MnCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) Reaction between non-metallic oxides and bases non-metallic oxide + base salt + water e.g. CO2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l) Precipitation (2 solutions mixed together form a solid) e.g. AgNO3 (aq) + HCl (aq) AgCl (s) +HNO3 (aq) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl (s) * note: H+ and NO3- are not directly involved in the reaction; hence they are spectator ions e.g. BaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) BaSO4 (s) + NaCl (aq)

Ba2+(aq) + SO4 2-(aq) BaSO4 (s) Identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of particle theory Element A pure substance consisting of the same type of atoms and cannot be decomposed or broken down by physical or chemical means. Compound A pure substance consisting of 2 or more different elements chemically combined together in a fixed ratio. Mixture An impure substance comprising of two or more pure substances which are physically mixed together. Its components can be separated by physical means (e.g. distillation, filtration). Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain examples of mixtures of elements and compounds Biosphere The living things on Earth o Mixtures: wood, blood, sugarcane o Compounds: carbohydrates (or sugars), proteins, fats and vitamins o Elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, chlorine, sulphur Lithosphere The earth s solid outer mantle and crust o Mixtures: metal ores, sandstone, granite o Compounds: quartz/sand (SiO2), calcite (CaCO3) o Elements: oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium Hydrosphere The earth s water o Mixtures: sea water o Compounds: water, carbon dioxide and sodium, calcium and magnesium chlorides and sulphates o Elements: oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, sodium, magnesium Atmosphere The mixture of gases surrounding the Earth o Mixtures: air o Compounds: water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide o Elements: nitrogen, oxygen, argon Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally occurring mixtures of: o Solids of different sizes o Solids and liquids o Dissolved solids in liquids o Liquids o Gases Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of earth materials, identifying the differences in properties which enable these separations

Separation Method Sieving Evaporation Crystallisation Distillation Fractional distillation Filtration Decantation (using a separating funnel) Sedimentation and decantation Magnetic separation

Property used in separation Particle size of solids Solubility Solubility Boiling points (big difference) of liquids Boiling points (small difference) of liquids Particle size of solids and liquids Density of immiscible liquids Density of solids Magnetic properties

Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for chemists and other scientists Qualitative analysis identifying components in a mixture Quantitative analysis calculating how much of each component is found in the mixture Gravimetric analysis quantitative analysis carried out by calculating its mass Volumetric analysis quantitative analysis carried out by calculating its volume Gravimetric analysis can be used to determine the: o composition of a mixture using physical separation techniques o percentage composition of a compound using chemical and physical separation techniques. It can be used to determine the: o percentage by weight of ingredients (sugar, fat, fibre) in food. This analysis is recorded on the packaging. o purity and composition of alloys used for building construction o extent of heavy metal pollution in river water and human food o percentage composition of new compounds produced by chemical and medic al research. Apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are introduced in the laboratory Ionic compounds: o Write the name of the metal first o Write the beginning of the non-metal o Add -ide as a suffix to the non-metal Covalent compounds: o Use the normal element name for the first element and add the -ide suffix for the second element o The first element named is the one that occurs further to the left of the periodic table o If both the elements occur in the same group, the one lower down the group is named first (exception: oxygen is always name last, except when with fluorine) o The prefixes mono (1), di (2), tri (3), tetra (4), penta (5), hexa (6) are added to the front of each word to indicate the number of atoms present in each type Identify IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are encountered Series Suffix General Formula Bonding in C series

ALKANE ALKENE ALKYNE

-ane -ene -yne

CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n-2

Single Bond C - C Double Bond C = C Triple Bond C C

Prefix Meth Eth Prop But Pent Hex Hept Oct Non Dec

Number of carbon 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

8.2.2 Although most elements are found in combinations on earth, some elements are found uncombined
y

Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of its existing as an uncombined element o Reactivity is a chemical property that is related to the electronic structure of the element. As a result of this:  Unreactive elements can exist as free elements in nature.  Reactive elements combine with other substances in the environment to form compounds. o Examples of highly reactive metals include Group 1 and 2 metals such as potassium and magnesium. Examples of less reactive metals include gold, copper and titanium. o Examples of highly reactive non-metals include oxygen and fluorine. Examples of inert non-metals include helium and radon which belong to Group 8 (noble gases). o The more reactive an element is, the less chance there is of finding it in the Earth as an uncombined element. Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals according to their physical properties Physical Property Appearance Electrical conductivity Heat conductivity Malleability and ductility Density Boiling point Strength Examples Metals Lustrous High High High Generally high Generally high High Sodium, Magnesium, Semi-metals Low sheen Low (semi-conductors) High Moderate Moderate Very high Variable Boron, Silicon, Arsenic, Tellurium, Germanium, Non-metals Dull Nil (insulators) Low (insulators) Nil (brittle) Low Low Low Hydrogen, Helium, Oxygen, Carbon,

Iron, Copper, Antimony Gold, Silver, Zinc, Mercury, Lead

y

Nitrogen, Fluorine, Neon

Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties The uses of metals and non-metals will be determined by their physical properties as well as their chemical properties Metals e.g. copper is used for electrical circuits (wiring) for its good conductivity of electricity and its low reactivity. Non-metals e.g. neon is used for neon lightning for its low reactivity. Process information from secondary sources and use a Periodic Table to present information about the classification of elements as: o Metals, non-metal and semi-metals

Solids, liquids and gases at 25C and normal atmospheric pressure

8.2.3 Elements in Earth material are present mostly as compounds because of interactions at atomic level
y

Identify that matter is made up of particles that are continuously moving and interacting Matter can exist in three states: solid, liquid and gas. Solid Particles are close together & vibrating in the same place Liquid Particles are close together & moving more freely Gas Particles are far apart & moving very freely

Particle position

Diagram

Shape

Definite shape

Volume Definite volume Compressibility Cannot be compressed

y

Shape depends on container Definite volume Cannot be compressed

Shape depends on container Fills all available space Can be compressed

Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms Electrons surround the nucleus by orbiting in certain stationary energy levels. Each of the energy levels can accommodate only a certain number of electrons. The 2n2 rule is used to determine the maximum number of electrons that are able to reside in each energy level. Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number Atoms are made up of three sub-atomic particles: protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons are positively charge particles, electrons are negatively charged and neutrons have no

charge. Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus and the electrons surround the nucleus in stationary energy levels. The nucleus constitutes 99.95% of the mass of an atom. The atomic number (Z) of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus. The mass number (A) of an element is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Electrons have a very small mass of 0.00055 amu compared with protons and neutrons. T he mass of electrons of atoms are not considered since its relative mass to protons and neutrons is negligible. Describe the formation ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing electrons Ions are formed due to the imbalance of protons and electrons. In a neutrally charged atom, the number of protons equals the number of electrons. When an atom loses electrons, it becomes positively charged as there are more protons than electrons (becomes a cation). When an atom gains electrons, it becomes negatively charge as there are more electrons than protons (becomes a anion). Apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and non-metals o Group 1 metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs) all tend to lose one electron and therefore form singly charged positive ions: Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+. o Group 2 metals (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba) tend to lose two electrons and therefore form doubly charged positive ions: Be2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+. o Group 3 elements except for boron tend to lose three electrons and therefore form cations: Al3+, Ga3+, In3+. o Group 6 elements (non-metals, O, S, Se, Te) tend to gain two electrons and thus form doubly charged negative ions: O2-, S2-, Se2-, Te2-. o Group 7 elements (non-metals, F, Cl, Br and I) all tend to gain one electron and therefore they form singly charged negative ions: F-, Cl-, Br-, I-. o Group 8 elements (non-metals; inert gases) will not form ions. o The transition metals all lose electrons to form positive ions (for example Cr3+, Fe2+, Cu2+, Ag+, Zn2+), but it is not possible from a simple look at the Periodic Table to predict just how many electrons any particular atom will lose. Apply Lewis electron dot structures to: o The formation of ions o The electron sharing in some simple molecules Ions

Covalent

Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the attraction of ions of opposite charge Ionic bonds involve atoms losing and gaining electrons, thus forming ions (charged atoms). The attraction of opposite charges (electrostatic force) is what brings ions together to form an ionic compound. Describe molecules as particles which can move independently of each other The intermolecular force between molecules is a weak force in comparison to the intermolecular force holding the atoms of the molecule together. This weak force gives the molecule the ability to move independently. Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and molecules with more than one atom Some molecules are elements and some are compounds. Examples of molecules include: monatomic molecules o helium atoms, He o argon atoms, Ar

diatomic molecules o oxygen, O2 o nitrogen, N2 o hydrogen iodide, HI o carbon monoxide, CO triatomic molecules o ozone, O3 o water, H2O o sulfur dioxide, SO2 o carbon dioxide, CO2 tetra-atomic molecules o white phosphorus, P4 o ammonia, NH3 Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of electrons Covalent bonds are attractive forces between atoms that occur because the atoms are sharing one or more pairs of electrons. The shared pair of electrons orbits the nuclei of both atoms, thus holding the atoms together and form a covalent compound. There are three types of covalent bonds: o single bond - One electron pair is shared. (e.g. water H2O) o double bond - Two electron pairs are shared. (e.g. oxygen gas O2) o triple bond - Three electron pairs are shared. (e.g. butyne C8H6) Construct formulae for compounds formed from: o Ions o Atoms sharing electrons Ionic bond: Na+ + ClNaCl (s) 2H2O

Covalent bond: 2H2+ + O2 2-

8.2.4 Energy is required to extract elements from their naturally occurring sources
y

Identify the differences between physical and chemical change in terms of rearrangement of particles Physical change is the change of state where no new substances are formed. Particles of the substance remain the same. Chemical change is when new substances have been made, old bonds have been broken between the atoms in molecules and new bonds have been formed. They usually require a large input or output of energy and are not easily reversible. Summarise the differences between the boiling the electrolysis of water as an example of the difference between physical and chemical change Boiling of water Electrolysis of water y No new substances are formed y New substances formed (O2 and H2) as old bonds between oxygen and y Change of state from liquid to hydrogen are broken and new bonds gas through process of boiling have been established y Less energy is required y Requires much more energy than boiling y Easily reversible via y More difficult to reverse condensation

Identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy that may be released or absorbed during decomposition or synthesis of substances and identify examples of these changes occurring everyday life o Decomposition reaction is a reaction which involves the breakdown of a complex substance into its simpler constituent elements and/or elements. o A decomposition reaction only occurs if energy is added (i.e. heat, light and electricity). Application of decomposition reaction in the real world:  Heat energy is used in our industrialised society to decompose minerals to produce metals in smelters.  In nature, ultraviolet light energy decomposes ozone molecules into oxygen gas and oxygen radicals. This process is important in preventing most highenergy UV rays reaching the Earth s surface.  Lightning initiates decomposition reactions in the atmosphere by providing electrical energy to various gas molecules.  Airbags in cars contain the chemical sodium azide, which decomposes by detonation to produce a large volume of nitrogen gas to inflate the airbag during a crash. o Examples:  1. Thermal decomposition of gold oxide  2. Light decomposition (photolysis) of silver bromide  3. Electrolytic decomposition of molten lead (II) bromide o Synthesis reaction is the formation of a compound from its elements or a more complex compound from simpler compounds. o Application of decomposition reaction in the real world:  Rust is an oxide of iron that forms when iron structures are exposed to oxygen in the air.  The ammonia industry synthesises ammonia directly by combining nitrogen and hydrogen gases at high temperatures and pressures over a catalyst. o Examples:  1. Synthesis of iron (III) chloride using heat energy  2. Synthesis of hydrogen chloride using light Explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an indication of the strength of the attraction, or bond, between them The stronger the chemical bonding in a compound, the more energy is required to break the compound into atoms. Alternatively, the stronger the chemical bonding in a compound the more energy is released when the compound is formed from its atoms. For example, it is difficult to separate the ions in an ionic bond since the electrostatic force is relatively strong whereas it is relatively easy to separate covalent molecular substances since the bond strength is weaker than those present in ionic substances.

8.2.5 The properties of elements and compounds are determined by their bonding and structure

Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of elements, compounds and mixtures
Physical Properties Metal (at STP): y Malleable y Ductile y Found as solids (except for mecury) y Good conductors of heat and electricity y Lustrous y High density y High tensile strength Non-metals (at STP): y Brittle * y Dull * y Found as solids, liquids and gases y Good insulators of heat and electricity^ y Low density * except for carbon in diamond form which is strong and lustrous ^ except for carbon in graphite form Semi-metals (at STP): y Have properties of both metals and non-metals y Have intermediate density Ionic compounds: y Formed between metals and non-metals y Solid at room temperature y Soluble y Non-conductors of electricity in solid state y Conductors of electricity when dissolved in solution Covalent molecular compounds: y Non-conductors of electricity y Have low melting points y Are soft and brittle Covalent network compounds: y Are non-conductors in all states of matter y Are insoluble y Have very high melting points y Are very hard and brittle Heterogeneous mixtures: y Are not chemical combined y Demonstrate the physical properties of the constituent pure substances y Don t look the same throughout the mixture Homogeneous mixtures: y Are not chemical combined y Demonstrate the physical properties of the constituent pure substances y Looks the same throughout the mixture Chemical Properties Metals: y Form positive ions y Form basic oxides y Form ionic chlorides

Non-metals: y Form negative ions y Form acidic oxides y Form covalent chlorides

Elements

Compounds

Compounds: y Demonstrate different chemical properties to their constituent elements y Can be decomposed into its component elements or simpler compounds.

Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or covalent molecular or covalent network

Mixtures

Mixtures: y Demonstrate the chemical properties of their constituent pure substances

Type of compound Particles forming the lattice Forces holding the particles in place Electrical conductivity Melting point Hardness
y

Ionic Cations and anions Ionic bonds Only in molten or aqueous state High Hard, brittle

Covalent molecular Molecules Intermolecular forces No electrical conductivity in all states Low Soft, brittle

Covalent network Atoms Covalent bonds No electrical conductivity in all states Very high Very hard, brittle

Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds Metallic bond formed between metals; result of the attraction between positive ions and delocalised electrons. Ionic bond formed between metals and non-metals (cations and anions); electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions forms the ionic bond, occurring throughout the entire lattice. Covalent bond formed between non-metals through the sharing of valence electrons in order to gain a stable electron configuration. Describe metals as three-dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of electrons Metals are formed as the result of positive ions arranged in a three-dimensional lattice with delocalised electrons moving throughout the lattice. The delocalised electrons are lost from the valence shell from each metal atom and belong to the lattice as a whole. The attraction between the positive metal ions and delocalised electrons stabilises the lattice. This attraction is called the metallic bond. Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions Ionic compounds are formed by infinite three-dimensional array of cations and anions attracted to each other due to electrostatic forces. Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula In ionic compounds, there are no discrete molecules, just an infinite three-dimensional array of cations and anions. The simplest repeating unit of the crystal lattice is taken into account and the simplest ratio of ions present in that unit determines the empirical formula of an ionic compound. Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices Examples of molecular substances: H2, F2, Cl2, O2 and N2 (diatomic gases) Examples of covalent network substances: SiO2 (silicon dioxide - sand), SiC (silicon carbide), graphite and diamond

Explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness and the structure of ionic, covalent molecular and covalent network structures Properties of ionic substances

Property Hard and brittle

Non-conductivity of electricity when solid

Conductivity of electricity when molten or in aqueous solution High melting and boiling points

Explanation Ions are tightly bound by electrostatic forces in the crystal lattice. The force exerted to try and break the lattice forces like charged ions together accounts for the hardness and brittleness of ionic compounds. Ions occupy fixed positions in the lattice. Electrons are strongly held by nuclei of individual ions, thus there are no free moving electrons. Mobile ions can transfer electric charge. Ions tightly bound by strong electrostatic forces

Properties of covalent molecular substances Property Low melting and boiling points Non-conductivity of electricity when solid or liquid The solids are generally soft Properties of covalent network substances Property Very high melting and boiling points Non-conductivity of electricity in solid or liquid state Hard and brittle Not reactive with other substances Insoluble

Explanation Intermolecular forces between molecules are weak. The molecules are uncharged and electrons are localised in covalent bonds or with the atoms. Forces between molecules are weak.

Explanation Covalent bonds are strong and are found throughout the entire lattice. Electrons are localised (except graphite) in covalent bonds or with the atoms. Atoms are strongly bound, distortion breaks covalent bonds Strong covalent bonds throughout the lattice accounts for insolubility of these substances.

Choose resources and process information from secondary sources to construct and discuss the limitations of models of ionic lattices, covalent molecules and covalent and metallic lattices. Limitation

Model structure

Ionic

Covalent Molecular
y

The ionic, covalent and metallic bonds all have different strengths of attraction. These models cannot demonstrate the different strength of these bonds (covalent molecular are weak, whereas metallic bonding is strong) Unable to see all the different physical properties (hardness, malleability or brittleness) of the different compounds. (Covalent network is hard and brittle whereas, metals are hard and malleable) These structures don t apply to all ionic, covalent molecular, covalent network and metallic compounds (i.e. they won t all be made up of the same type of atom and have the same types of bonds)

Covalent Network

Metallic