Materials and Curriculum Development in TESOL Professor Xiang 2/16/12 Curriculum Project: Research Paper By Keri George and

Kevin Garvey Based on our desire to explore what it means to work in an EFL setting, a mutual interest in East Asia, our previous teaching experiences, and conversations with our classmate Matthew Stockman, we designed an imagined but accurate adult education course in Taipei, Taiwan. Matthew was a teacher of English for Business Purposes in Taiwan for five years and we have interviewed him about his impressions and experience of the EFL climate there. Sources drawn from six academic articles, two conference papers and one book helped to inform Taiwans recent education policy changes, trends in EBP language learning, and the unique linguistic position of Mandarin L1 speakers. The goal of this paper is to provide the background of EFL in urban Taiwan, the motivations and situations of typical EBP students, the conditions and objectives of our hypothetical course, and an analysis of several EBP curricular models. We are teaching a medium-sized (12-18 students) class of Taiwanese students in Taipei, Taiwan. There are both men and women and their ages range from twenty-eight to fifty years old. The class size is manageable for one teacher. All the students speak Mandarin Chinese. This course is categorized as Business English for adult continuing education learners and is taught at the intermediate level. Students are sponsored by several different companies to improve their speaking and writing skills. Our course meets three times a week on Monday, Wednesday and Friday, for one hour between seven and eight in the evening. The course lasts fifteen weeks for a total of forty-five class-time hours. We recommend our students take at least an additional two hours outside of class per week to study the material. Our students typically work an eight hour shift beginning in the morning. It is clear from many of them that they work overtime, but since the company is providing for these English lessons, they make sure to attend class. The course is held at a Taiwanese-run private school in downtown Taipei. The students are employees of private business and finance companies that provide sponsored scholarships for their workers to improve English skills. The students are motivated to learn English for their professional development and to improve their social status. By passing the programs exit exam students will earn this credit within their company. Enrollment is open, but the academy typically attracts company administrators looking to enroll their employees for improved business English. Independent enrollment by students is rare. According to Matthew, the image of a professional is partially dependent on always looking busy, which is why our learners put so much effort into their studies even after working more than eight hours a day at their job. We have conducted a brief survey for needs assessment to get to know our students needs better. Our survey attempted to gauge interest in productive and receptive skills, as well as individual versus group work. We have found that students are more interested in production skills (speaking and writing) than they are in receptive skills (listening and reading), and are more interested in individual work than group work. At the completion of the program we offer our students a pass or fail mark for the course based on their grades on a final examination. A passing grade earns the student a certificate of completion of their level to be shown to their company supervisor. A failing grade comes with a recommendation to re-take the course. We also assess needs through an on-going writing and multimedia portfolio. Components include sample CV/resumes, emails, and recorded audio practice, in order to simulate conference calling and other phone etiquette. The academy uses the Interchange Series, a British-based ESL textbook. With the

permission of the academy we produce our own writing templates and final exam independently so as to follow the textbook units and to better gauge our students progress. English for Business Purposes in mainland China began around thirty years ago when the Open-Door policy in the late 1970s lead the way for the establishment of a market economy (Wang, Zhu 2011). As the economy of China expanded, so did the need for English language instruction. Not to be outdone, Taiwan took its own steps towards democracy and an open market starting in the 1980s. Through the Teachers Law of 1995, Taiwan attempted to grant more power to public sector teachers (rather than schools) by using what Wing-wah Law calls a pincer effect: they used a mediating agency to forcepressure from the heads of government above and from civil society below. (Law 2004). The mediating agency was known as the Taiwan Commission on Education Reform (CER). CER was given a clear mandate for reformation of the educational system with full autonomy, reported directly to the heads of the government and was headed by Lee Yuan-tze, Nobel laureate and president of Academia Sinica, a non-bureaucrat educational expert (Law 2004). CER worked with as many stakeholders as possible (school authorities, parents, employers, teachers, community leaders and politicians) and focused their reforms on decentralizing educational reform and preparing students for the challenges of economic globalization. (Law 2004). Included in these reforms were special attention towards English language learning and communication and information technology. CERs report was used alongside others as the basis for the Comprehensive Plan of Education Reform of 1997. Subsequent changes in curricula soon followed: (please see attached file for full table) (Law 2004) There have been a few problems with the new emphases on key learning areas and basic competencies since their introduction in 2001. The idea of integrated activities demands an interdisciplinary approach to conventional fields of study. Teachers must either be re-trained under this approach or new teachers must be quickly deployed to teach the altered curricula. Students unfamiliar with interdisciplinary approaches to education must adapt to the new changes (Law 2004). With an expectation that education in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) will move from teacher-centered and textbook-based modes of learning in favor of an emphasis on more interactive and pupil-focused learning (Law 2004, emphasis added), Taiwanese educators are expected to use 20% of class time in ICT education. By the 1990s, alongside English, a new emphasis on ICT emerged, and by 1998 English lessons were offered at nearly half of all primary schools in Taiwan (Chou 2002). Given that our course in Taipei takes place a full eleven years after the reforms, we anticipate that some of our students will have been exposed to these new curricula. We will attempt to incorporate the interdisciplinary ideology in our lesson plans in the interest of helping our students stay competitive in this new educational climate. It will also be valuable, albeit more challenging, to expose our older students to the concept of interdisciplinary studies and ICT. If Taiwan is moving in this direction, we wish our students to have a share in that future. Taiwan is overwhelmingly Han Chinese (98%) who are primarily Mandarin speakers (Law 2004), and neither of us have significant exposure to the language. We have consulted Michael Swan & Bernard Smiths Learner English: A Teachers Guide to Interference and Other Problems to help us anticipate obstacles to learning English prevalent amongst Mandarin speakers. Our first concern is the disparity between vowel contrasts between English and Mandarin, or as Swan & Bernard put it: English vowels are closer to each other in terms of position of articulation than Chinese vowels. This means that more effort is required to distinguish them (Swan & Bernard 2001, emphasis added). We predict this disparity will lead to a number of recurrent mistakes in the listening and speaking skills of our students that

will take time and practice to overcome. Similarly, we expect the differences in English and Mandarin consonants to cause recurrent mistakes. Perhaps our largest obstacle to overcome in speaking and listening will be pronunciation, due to the role of tonality in Mandarin in altering individual word meanings, whereas in English, tonality can alter the meaning of an entire utterance: Unfamiliar with these patterns, Chinese learners tend to find them strange and funnyThus their speech may sound flat, jerky or sing-song to English ears. (Swan & Bernard 2001). Since our students plan to use their English skills in professional settings, it will be important for us to improve their listening and speaking skills to a level suitable for formal settings. Mandarin has a non-alphabetic writing system, which leads to four main problems related to reading, as described by Swan & Bernard: 1. Failure to apply standard spelling conventions 2. Problems arising from the lack of hard and fast spelling rules in English 3. Mistakes arising from learners incorrect pronunciation 4. Omission of syllables (Swan & Bernard 2004) As with challenges in pronunciation, we plan to emphasize practice, trial and error when it comes to improving our students reading abilities. We will include real-world reading samples (emails and memos) as well as longer articles and essays to check comprehension. To complement their reading, we will have students write sample pieces as practice. Finally, we come to grammar. As an isolating language, Chinese has little in common with Englishs primarily inflecting syntax. Both languages have a basic (though not consistent) subject-verb-object structure, but as Swan & Bernard warn, There are certain similarities between the syntactic structures of English and Chinese, yet the divergence is vast. It is advisable not to regard anything as a basic point which students ought to know. (Swan & Bernard 2001). Common grammatical problems we expect from our students are conjugation of inflectional verbs (Everybody are here), incorrect conjugation due to time, tense and aspect (I have seen her two days ago), dropping of the third person plural (Ive seen a lot of play lately), misuse of English modals such as should and could (which play an important role in manners and etiquette in Western culture), and the dropping of articles (Lets make fire) (Bernard & Swan 2001). In developing our students English to the level of acceptable professional discourse, these five recurrent mistakes are the most salient and damaging to their reputation as professional bilinguals. Bernard & Swan mention that educational tradition in Taiwan will predispose our students to a learning style revolving around rote memorization. While respecting the benefit of discipline that rote memorization requires, we want to introduce interactivity and real-world application of materials into our students learning styles. Before moving on to outlining our physical curriculum, we would like to discuss the background theories that helped us shape it. From their article on teaching Standard Spoken English (SSE) in American classrooms, Barbara L. Speicher and Jessica R. Bielanski assert that One must ask why the language of teachers has been exempt from the scrutiny of research on dialects. Conversely, a global debate rages

about whether they should use SSE (Standard Spoken English) and teach or enforce its use among their students. (emphasis added; Speicher & Bielanski 2000). Additionally, More specifically, one must ask how a teachers dialect affects his/her understanding of the students and their dialects, and hot it affects students ability to learn. (emphasis added; Speicher & Bielanski 2000). One salient feature will tie our pedagogy to their assertions. Our students will be speaking Non-Standard Spoken English (NSSE) and we must, as teachers, decide how we will consider NSSE. We predict that our students goal will be speaking in SSE (as well as writing in Standard Written English), and we will help them toward that goal. However, we would be remiss in neglecting the legitimacy of our students natural NSSE dialect. Our students tend to communicate with NSSE colleagues and business partners in the context of international business and finance. We have built our course around the goal of competent, professional communication in English for Business Purposes. So long as communicative competence is achieved, we do not believe ideal SSE is a pre-requisite for success. In planning the organization of our curriculum, we looked at contemporary Chinese-published textbooks. Wang and Zhu (2011) examine how the long-held notion of a dichotomy of directness in Western cultures and indirectness in Eastern cultures affects English business communication textbooks published in China. According to the researchers, scholars agree that Chinese writing is characterized by indirectness and English business communication is a sub-disciplinary-genre of Chinese writing, we assume that textbooks used to teach English business communication in China should also recommend the indirect approach to communication. (Wang & Zhu 2011). However, their findings (below) show that indirectness does not characterize English business communication textbooks and that the pedagogical strategies relating to directness and indirectness in the Chinese-published EBP textbooks in their sample (twenty-nine in all) are similar to those preferred in an American context (direct as opposed to indirect). (please see attached file for full tables) (Wang & Zhu 2011) As can be seen from the tables above, an overwhelming preference for directness in organizational and textual strategies characterizes EBP Communication textbooks published in China. We were unable to find articles discussing Taiwanese teaching materials but we predict that, given the competitive business relationship between Taiwan and China and their shared cultural traditions and conventions, the current trend of Chinese textbooks is replicated in Taiwan. Wang and Zhu continue: The emphases on clarity in business messagesshows Chinese scholars preference for directness in English business communication. (emphasis added), and, This shift of communication styles (from indirect to direct) does not mean that future development depends on how one system of rhetoric imposes on or replaces the other; instead, it shows that a rhetorical preference is subject to contextual influences and that it re-articulates and reshapes itself in the new communication process. (Wang & Zhu 2011). It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss whether or not the aforementioned dichotomy of directness/indirectness is valid, nor whether Chinese Business communication rhetoric is changing due to the globalizing of its economy. Insofar as our paper is concerned, we take the information in this article as evidence that our textbook and materials will be organized along direct rhetorical devices, and we anticipate there to be at least some degree of disfluency due to the rhetorical styles of our students. As for the development of new communicative systems emerging in the EBP world, we will keep in mind the legitimacy of NSSE dialects and their accompanying rhetorical styles. With these implications in mind, several curricular models were analyzed: a quasi-natural business model (Tarnopolsky & Kozhushko 2003), an active learning approach (Goof-Kfouri 2001), a Wiki-based

collaborative writing course (Lin & Yang 2011), and an individualized learning program (Chi 2008). Tarnopolsky & Kozhushko designed a Business English curriculum model in order to fill the need of university students in Ukraine who lacked both high English proficiency and practical business or economic experience. These students tend to have not been directly exposed to a prototypical business English environment, so this course attempts to fill the gap between a students lack of contextualized input (Business English) and an implicit integration of the four macro-skills (reading, writing, speaking, listening) through continuous simulation (Tarnopolsky & Kozhushko 2003). The model follows three main approaches: task-based assignments (using English as a tool to accomplish business-related tasks), content-based materials (authentic business, marketing, and economic texts), and theme-based units and activities (Tarnopolsky & Kozhushko 2003). Building from these approaches, six methods were developed: continuous simulation (the driving principle of the entire model), project work, learners autonomy, introduction of fictitious setting, cooperative or team work, and integrated-skills approach (the last originally established by Oxford 2001). The study tested three separate groups of learners: Group A used Tarnopolskys quasi-natural model and accompanying textbook, Group B used a western course book titled Insights into Business, and Group C used the Russian textbook English for a Businessman. Although this is limited to a pilot study, the results showed Group A outperformed all other groups across the board in every macro-skill test (Tarnopolsky & Kozhushko 2003). Additionally, students were given exit-opinion questionnaires and Group A students demonstrated the most satisfaction for their course. The next model employs many of the same principles. C.A. Goof-Kfouri examined the need for active learning in university business communication classes, influenced mainly by task-based instruction. Goof-Kfouri argues that, while university classrooms seem resistant to change from teachercentered lectures, active-learning is vital for students to learn to compete in the business job market (GoofKfouri 2001). As such, if the overall goal of business communication is the ability to use language in the workplace for functions like CV/memo writing, interviews, and meetings then students must be invited to put themselves into the shoes of the professionals who want to gain the overall goodwill of his or her clients as well as to make a profit (Goof-Kfouri 2001). The model focuses primarily on the task of getting a job, divided into these sub tasks: resume writing, email writing, interview role playing, and mock meetings with coworkers. Unlike the Tarnopolosky model, there is some explicit attention to form and focus on language, but the overall goal remains the real-world task and teaching students that this course is a starting point; a means to acquire skills on which they can build throughout their careers (Goof-Kfouri 2001). With our Taiwanese model, the goals of the classroom are much the same: help students improve EBP productive skills (i.e. email writing, telephone conference calls, business contract language, etc). In order to examine productive skills in detail, two studies focus on EBP writing below. In 1996, N. Jones published a three-year study of learning styles of advanced English composition students in Taiwan. The purposes of the study were to (1) identify the perceptual learning style preference of preferences of Chinese students enrolled in an advanced EFL composition class at National Tsinghua University, (2) Identify the kinds of compositionrelated learning tasks preferred by the students at the beginning of the course, (3) classify and implement composition tasks and teaching aids by perceptual learning style to help accommodate the learning style needs of the students, (4) assess students opinions of the course and the tasks, (5) examine the results of the study for possible implications for composition teaching and theory (Jones 1996). The study used an initial survey to gauge students preferred learning styles (and included Reids Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire), a mid-term interview with each student to track progress and concerns with writing skills, and an open-ended exit survey to identify students overall reactions and feelings toward the course (Jones 1996). Students also had the option to keep journals (which over half did) to describe their writing process and preferred ways of learning (Jones 1996). Joness results showed several general trends among the examined student population. The most salient and relevant findings for the purposes of our hypothetical classroom were

1. Students can often identify and articulate learning style preferences 2. Learning style preferences of Chinese students is not homogeneous 3. Non-traditional learning tasks may be more easily accepted when linked with more traditional tasks In light of this study, we conclude that assessing students by both examination and portfolio is a valid, and likely desired, means of assessment. We recognize, however, that business writing is more than journal writing or static, paper-based production. In todays classroom, writing must also cater to Web 2.0 mediums. In 2011, another studying exploring students attitudes and perceptions in academic writing courses was undertaken by Wen-Chuan Lin and Shu Ching Yang. Also set in Taiwan, this study specifically applied Wiki technology and collaborative writing through peer review in order to investigate its effects on students writing ability. In essence, the researchers argued that peer feedback on the Wiki platform includes responding, negotiating internally and socially, arguing against points, adding to evolving ideas, and offering alternative perspectives in the process of solving authentic tasks (Lin & Yang 2011). While it is unclear whether all students writing skills were improved, the study included survey responses, student interviews, and focus group interviews in order to ascertain perceptions of Wiki technology and the collaborative writing process it entails. The results indicate that learning from others work and receiving feedback may allow students to enhance spelling, grammar, style and quality of expression remarkably within a relatively short time (Lin & Yang 2011). This could be due, in part, to the instantaneous nature of feedback on Wiki interfaces and the willingness of students to participate. As mentioned above, some students within our hypothetical classroom may be unfamiliar with Web 2.0 technology and will require certain meta-skills or Wiki tutorials in order to participate in the collaboration. To reiterate Jones findings, students may be more likely to complete non-traditional tasks if those tasks incorporate some aspect of traditional ones (Jones 1996). For this reason, it is our aim to include both traditional paper-and-pen writing activities and web-based ones. The last curricular model is born out of the tradition of language self-study. During his interview, Matthew Stockman pointed out that the general trend of private language tutoring in Taiwan is a surprisingly lucrative business for English teachers. While this practice is by no means exclusive to Taiwan, it is important to highlight the benefits and weaknesses of this model. Researcher Gui-Min Chi analyzed an EBP program called Business English, advertised as an effective and radical business English program (Chi 2008). The program is guided by two main principles: student provided content and a businessperson perspective. The textbook employs a fully integrated needs analysis that the student performs during Chapter One. This sort of subjective analysis is meant to point the learner directly down a path of study for future chapters. This book is meant for self-study without the aid of a tutor or classroom instructor. The general trend within the chapters is to use a lexical approach to language learning, meaning both implicit and explicit knowledge of word partnership and collocations (Chi 2008). While Chi recognizes valuable aspects of the program, the overall criticism has to do with authority. In the classroom, the teacher is the main authority on language usage, but in self-study there are no resources for comprehension checks, negotiation of meaning, or meaningful input. In fact, the book puts little emphasis on listening and reading skills (Chi 2008). Business English is just one textbook available for learners interested in self-study, but the weaknesses of this program may exist in others. In essence, these programs cannot provide the authentic language guidance that traditional classroom teachers can. These curriculum models offer both empirical and structural insight for developing our hypothetical course in Taipei, Taiwan. The studies provide quantitative and qualitative evidence for certain approaches and caution against the use of others. One key concept missing, however, are our individual teaching beliefs. Educational policy and language learning research may provide a framework for curricular design, but without our own personal analysis and opinion, these studies and the cultural context of Taiwanese students cannot synthesize into a cohesive model. Articulation of our beliefs in language learning and teaching will be further examined in needs analysis and syllabus design.

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