6.1.

Introduction
6.2. Reynolds Equation
6.3. Long Bearing
6.4. Short Bearing
6.5. Pad Bearing
6.6. Journal Bearing
6.7. Squeeze Film Bearing
6.8. Questions.

6.1. Introduction:
Consider situations where the pressure is produced by virtue of the
viscosity of the fluid and the relative motion of the two solids. Such bearings
are often called self-acting bearings, and the lubrication method is referred to
as hydrodynamic lubrication. The moving surfaces must converge
geometrically - that is the two surfaces are not-parallel, as shown in fig. 6.1.
The viscous fluid is being squeezed into a converging space as it is dragged
along by the motion of the solids, and pressure is therefore generated in the
film. This pressure enables the film to withstand the applied loading. Even
without mathematical analysis, we can sense that the load with higher values of
viscosity.

Fig. 6.1 The convergent oil film.
We must now ask how we can create the geometrical conditions. The
most obvious solution is to use tapered pads for either linear or journal
bearings as shown in fig. 6.2. The degree of taper of the oil films is relatively
modest, the main requirement being that some tapering exists. Typically we
therefore rethink of a change in film thickness of say 40 m per cm length,
with film thickness of about 400 m. In all the diagrams of films and tapers,
the scales have had to be greatly distorted and magnified to facilitate
explanation.

6.2. Reynolds Equation:
Assumptions:
We shall first simplify our problem by making the following
assumptions.
(a) We assume that the fluid is incompressible. This is reasonably true for most
liquids and particularly oils, but is clearly not true for fluids such as air,
gases and vapors, although as we shall see later these can still be the
satisfactory lubricants.
(b) We assume that the fluid is Newtonian, with the shear stress proportional to
the shear strain rate. Some fluids, and indeed almost all fluids at very high
pressures, depart form this Newtonian behavior, but fortunately for mineral
oils acting as lubricants witching beings this assumption is reasonably valid.
(c) It will be assumed that the fluid properties, particularly the viscosity, are
independent of pressure and temperature. This is not generally true, as we
saw in chapter 5, but for many cases we can obtain reasonable results by
assuming the fluid properties have a characteristic constant value at the
particular operating value of temperature and pressure.
(d) We neglect any effect due to the inertia of the fluid and assume that the
fluid flow to be laminar i.e. turbulence in the fluid in acceptable
assumption.
(e) The solid bodies constitution of the bearing surfaces are assumed to be
rigid. Again at very high pressures such as those existing between the balls
and their races in ball bearings this assumption is no longer valid.
(f) Although we shall consider variations in pressure along the bearing .it will
be assumed that at any point the pressure is constant across the thickness of
the fluid film.
(g) We assume that the bearings are infinitely wide in the z direction so that
we may neglect any fluid flow in this direction; see fig. 6.1.
In view of the above assumptions it may at first appear that any results
based on such a model will be of little value. In practice, they give fairly
accurate predictions of observed behavior over a wide range of bearing
designs.

Fig.6.2. The geometry of the inclined pad slider bearing.

Fig.6.3. Equilibrium of an element of fluid from a hydrodynamic film; p is the
pressure; t
x
is the shear stress acting in the 'x' direction.

Equilibrium of an Element:
The equilibrium of an element of fluid is considered. This approach is frequently
used in engineering to derive formulae in stress analysis, fluid mechanics, etc. Consider a
small element of fluid from a hydrodynamic film shown in figure 6.3. For simplicity,
assume that the forces on the element is in equilibrium, forces acting to the left must
balance the forces acting to the right, so
pdydz + (t
x
+ ct
x
dz) dxdy = (p + cp dx) dydz + t
x
dxdy ... (1)
cz cx
which after simplifying gives:
ct
x
dxdydz = cp dxdydz ... (2)
cz cx

TABLE 4.1. Summary of simplifying assumptions in hydrodynamics.
Sr.
No.
Assumption Comments
1.
Body forces are
neglected
Always valid, since there are no extra outside fields of
forces acting on the fluids with an exception of magneto
hydrodynamic fluids and their applications.
2.
Pressure is constant
through the film
Always valid, since the thickness of hydrodynamic films
is in the range of several micrometers. There might be
some exceptions, however, with elastic films.
3.
No slip at the
boundaries
Always valid, since the velocity of the oil layer adjacent
to the boundary is the same as that of the boundary.
4.
Lubricant behaves as
a Newtonian fluid
Usually valid with certain exceptions, e.g. polymeric oils.
5. Flow is laminar Usually valid, except large bearings, e.g. turbines.
6.
Fluid inertia is
neglected
Valid for low bearing speeds or high loads. Inertia effects
are included in more exact analyses.
7.
Fluid density is
constant
Usually valid for fluids when there is not much thermal
expansion. Definitely not valid for gases.
8.
Viscosity is constant
throughout the
generated fluid film
Crude assumption but necessary to simplifying the
calculations, although it is not true. Viscosity is not
constant throughout the generated film.

Assuming that dxdydz = 0 (i.e. non zero volume), both sides of equation (2) can
be divided by this value and then the equilibrium condition for forces acting in the 'x'
direction is obtained,
ct
x
= cp ... (3)
cz cx
A similar exercise can be performed for the forces acting in the 'y' direction,
yielding the second equilibrium condition.
ct
y
= cp ... (4)
cz cy
In the 'z' direction since the pressure is constant through the film (assumption 2)
the' pressure gradient is equal to zero:
cp = 0 ... (5)
cz
It should be noted that the shear stress in expression (3) is acting in the 'x'
direction while in expression (4) it is acting in the 'y' direction, thus the values of the
shear stress in these expressions are different.
The shear stress 't' can be expressed in terms of dynamic viscosity and shear
rates:
t
x
= q cu ... (6)
cz
Where:
t
x
is the shear stress acting in the 'x' direction [Pa].
Since 'u' is the velocity along the 'x' axis, the shear stress ' t' is also acting along
this direction. Along the 'y' (out of the page) direction, however, the velocity is different
and consequently the shear stress is different:
t
y
= q cv ... (7)
cz

Where:
t
y
is the shear stress acting in the 'y' direction [Pa];
v is the sliding velocity in the 'y' direction [m/s].
Substituting (6) into (3) and (7) into (4), the equilibrium conditions for the forces
acting in the 'x' and 'y' directions are obtained:

cp = c q cu ... (8)
cx cz cz
cp = c q cv ... (9)
cy cz cz
The above equations can now be integrated. Since the viscosity of the fluid is
constant throughout the film (assumption 8) and it is not a function of 'z' (i.e. q = f(z)),
the process of integration is simple. For example, separating the variables in (8),
cp cz = c q cu
cx cz
And integrating gives:
cp z + C
1
= q cu
cx cz
Separating variables again:
cp z + C
1
cz = q cu
cx
And integrating again yields:
The above equations can now be integrated. Since the viscosity of the fluid is
constant throughout-the film (assumption 8) and it is not a function of 'z' (i.e. q = f(z)),
the process of integration is simple.
cp cz = c q cu
cx cz
And integrating gives:
cp z + C
1
= q cu
cx cz
Separating variables again:
cp z + C
1
cz = q cu
cx
And integrating again yields:
cp z
2
+ C
1
z + C
2
= q u ... (10)
cx 2
Since there is no slip or velocity discontinuity between liquid and solid at the
boundaries of the wedge (assumption 3), the boundary conditions are:
u = U
2
at z = 0
u = U
1
at z = h
In the general case, there are velocities corresponding to each of the surfaces ' U
1
'
and 'U
2
'. By substituting these boundary conditions into (eq.10) the constants 'C
2
' and 'C
2
'
are calculated:
C
1
= (U
1
U
2
) q cp h
h cx 2
C
2
= qU
2

Substituting these into (eq.10) yields:
cp z
2
+ (U
1
U
2
) qz cp hz + qU
2
= q u
cx 2 h cx 2 2
Dividing and simplifying gives the expression for velocity in the 'x' direction.
u = z
2
zh cp + (U
1
U
2
) z + U
2
... (11)
2h cz h
In a similar manner a formula for velocity in the 'y' direction is obtained,
v = z
2
zh cp + (V
1
V
2
) z + V
2
... (12)
2h cz h
The three separate terms in any of the velocity equations (11) and (12) represent
the velocity profiles across the fluid film.
Continuity of Flow in a Column:
Consider a column of lubricant. The lubricant flows into the column horizontally at rates
of 'q
x
' and 'q
y
' out of the column at rates of (q
x
+ cq
x
dx) and (q
y
+ cq
y
dy) per unit length

and width respectively, In the vertical direction the lubricant flows into the column at the
rate of 'w
0
dxdy' and out of the column at the rate of 'w
h
dxdy', where 'w
0
' is the velocity at
which the bottom of the column moves up and 'w
h
' is the velocity at which the top of the
column moves up.
The principle of continuity of flow requires that the influx of a liquid must equal
its efflux from a control volume under steady conditions. If the density of the lubricant is
constant (assumption 7) then following relation applies:

q
x
dy + q
y
dx + w
0
dxdy = q
x
+ cq
x
dx dy + q
y
+ cq
y
dy dx + w
h
dxdy ... (13)
cx cy
Simplifying:
cq
x
dxdy + cq
y
dxdy + (w
h
w
0
)dxdy = 0 ... (14)
cx cy
cx cy
Since 'dxdy = 0' equation (eq.14) can be rewritten as:
cq
x
+ cq
y
+ (w
h
w
0
)dxdy = 0 ... (15)
cx cy
Which is the equation of continuity of flow in a column.
Flow rates per unit length, 'qx' and 'qy', can be found from integrating the lubricant
velocity profile over the film thickness. i.e.:
q
x
= udz and ... (16)
q
y
= vdz
Substituting for 'u' from equation (eq.11) yields:
h
q
x
= z
3
z
2
h cp + (U
1
U
2
) z
2
+ U
2
z ... (17)
3 2 2qcx 2h
0

Which after simplifying gives the flow rate in the 'x' direction.
q
x
= h
3
cp + (U
1
U
2
) h ... (18)
12q cx 2
Similarly the flow rate in the 'y' direction is found by substituting for 'v' from
(equation12):
q
y
= h
3
cp + (V
1
V
2
) h ... (19)
12q cy 2
Substituting now for flow rates into the continuity of flow equation (4.15):
c h
3
cp + (U
1
+ U
2
) h + c h
3
cp + (U
1
+ U
2
) a + (w
h
w
0
) = 0 ... (20)
cx h cx 2 cx h cy 2
Defining U = U
1
+ U
2
and V = V
1
+ V
2
and assuming that there is no local
variation in surface velocity in the 'x' and 'y' directions (Le. V *- fry) and V *- fry)) gives:
c h
3
cp + U c h
3
cp + U dh + (w
h
w
0
) = 0
cx n cx 2 dx cx n cy 2 dy
Further rearranging and simplifying yields the full Reynolds equation in three
dimensions.
c h
3
cp + c h
3
cp = o U dh + V dh + (w
h
w
0
) ... (21)
cx q cx cy n cy dx dy

Simplifications to the Reynolds Equation:
It can be seen that the Reynolds equation in its full form is far too complex for
practical engineering applications and some simplifications are required before it can
conveniently be used. The following simplifications are commonly adopted in most
studies:
Unidirectional Velocity Approximation:
It is always possible to choose axes in such a way that one of the velocities is
equal to zero, i.e. V = 0. There" are very few engineering systems, in which, for example,
a journal bearing slides along a rotating shaft.
Assuming that V = 0, equation (21) can be rewritten in a more simplified form:
c h
3
cp + c h
3
cp = 6U ch + 12 (w
h
w
0
) ... (22)
cx n cx cy n cy cx

Steady Film Thickness Approximation:
It is also possible to assume that there is no vertical flow across the film, i.e.
w
h
w
0
= 0.
This assumption requires that the distance between the two surfaces remains
constant during the operation. Some inaccuracy may result from this analytical
simplification since most bearings usually vibrate and consequently the distance between
the operating surfaces cyclically varies. Movement of surfaces normal to the sliding
velocity is known as a squeeze film effect. Furthermore, in the case of porous bearings
there is always some vertical flow of oil.
Assuming, however, that there is no vertical flow and w
h
w
0
= 0, equation (22)
can be written in the form:
c h
3
cp + c h
3
cp = 6U ch ... (23)
cx n cx cy n cy cx

Isoviscous Approximation:
For many practical engineering applications it is assumed that the lubricant
viscosity is constant over the film, i.e. q = constant. This approach is known in the
literature as the 'isoviscous' model where the thermal effects in hydrodynamic films are
neglected. Thermal modification of lubricant viscosity does, however, occur in
hydrodynamic films and must be considered in a more elaborate and accurate analysis
which will be discussed later. Assuming that q = constant, equation can further be
simplified:

c h
3
cp + c h
3
cp = 6Uq ch ... (24)
cx cx cy cy cx
This is in fact the most commonly quoted form of Reynolds equation throughout
the literature.
6.3. Long Bearing:
The simplified Reynolds equation (24) is two-dimensional and numerical methods
are needed to obtain a solution. Thus, for a simple engineering analysis further
simplifying assumptions are made.
It is assumed that the pressure gradient acting along the 'y' axis can be neglected,
i.e. cp / cy = 0 and h = f(y). It is therefore necessary to specify that the bearing is
infinitely long in the 'y' - direction. This approximation is known in the literature as the
'infinitely long bearing' or simply 'long bearing approximation'. It can be said that the
pressure gradient acting along the 'y' - axis is negligibly small compared to the pressure
gradient acting along the 'x' - axis. This assumption reduces the Reynolds equation to a
one-dimensional form which is very convenient for quick engineering analysis.
Since cp / cy = 0, the second term of the Reynolds equation (24) is also zero and
equation (24) simplifies to:
c h
3
cp = 6Uh ch ... (25)
cx cx cx
Which can easily be integrated, i.e.:
h
3
cp = 6UqC ... (26)
cx
Now a boundary condition is needed to solve this equation and it is assumed that
at some point along the film, pressure is at a maximum. At this point the pressure
gradient is zero, cp / cx = 0 and the corresponding film thickness is denoted as 'h'.
Thus the boundary condition is:
dp = 0 at h =h
dx
Substituting to (26) gives:
C = 6Uqh
And the final form of the one-dimensional Reynolds equation for the 'long
bearing approximation' is:
cp = 6Uq h h ... (27)
cx h
3

Which is particularly useful in the analysis of linear pad bearings. Note that the
velocity 'U' in the convention assumed is negative.
6.4. Short Bearing:
Finally it is assumed that the pressure gradient acting along the 'x' axis is very
much smaller than along the 'y' axis, i.e.: cp / cx << cp / cy as shown in Figure 6,6. This
is known in the literature as a 'narrow bearing approximation' or 'Ocvirks
approximation'. Actually this particular approach was introduced for the first time by an
Australian, A.G.M. Michel, in 1905. It was applied to the approximate analysis of load
capacity in a journal bearing. A similar method was also presented by Cardullo. Michel
observed that the flow in a bearing of finite length was influenced more by pressure
gradients perpendicular to the sides of the bearing than pressure gradients parallel to the
direction of sliding. A formula for the hydrodynamic pressure field was derived based on
the assumption that cp / cx << cp / cy. This work was severely criticized by other
workers for neglecting the effect of pressure variations in the 'x' direction when equating
for flow in the axial or 'y' direction and the work was ignored for about 25 years as a
result of this initial unenthusiastic reception. Ocvirk and Dubois later developed the idea
extensively in a series of excellent papers and Michels approximation has since gained
general acceptance.


Fig. 6.4. Pressure distribution in the narrow bearing approximation.
The utility of this approximation became apparent as journal bearings with
progressively shorter axial lengths were introduced into internal combustion engines.
Advances in bearing materials allowed the reduction in bearing and engine size, and
furthermore the reduction in bearing dimensions contributed to an increase in engine
ratings. The axial length of the bearing eventually shrank to about half the diameter of the
journal and during the 1950s equation. During this period, Ocvirk realized the validity of
considering the pressure gradient in the circumferential direction to be negligible
compared to the pressure gradient in the axial direction. This approach later became
known as the Ocvirk or narrow journal bearing approximation. An infinitely narrow
bearing is schematically illustrated in Figure 6.5 the bearing resembles a well deformed
narrow pad. Also the film geometry is similar to that of an 'unwrapped' film from a
journal bearing, which will be discussed later.
In this approximation since L << B and cp / cx << cp / cy, the first term of the
Reylonds equation (24) may be neglected and the equation becomes:
c h
3
cp = 6Uq ch ... (28)
cy cy cx
Also, since h = f (y) then (4.28) can be further simplified,
d
2
p = 6Uq ch (29)
dy
2
h
3
cx
Integrating once:
dp = oUq ch y + C
1
(30)
dy h
3
cx
And again gives:
p = oUq ch y
2
+ C
1
y + C
2
(31)
h
3
cx 2
From figure 6.4 the boundary conditions are:
p = 0 at y = L/2 i.e. at the edges of the bearing and
dp = 0 at y = 0
dy i.e. the pressure gradient is always zero along the central
plane of the bearing.
Substituting these into (30) and (31) gives the constants 'C
1
' and 'C
2
':
C
1
= 0
C
2
= 3Uq dh y
2
L
2
(32)
h
3
dx 4
And the pressure distribution in a narrow bearing approximation is expressed by
the formula:
p = 3Uq dh y
2
L
2
(33)
h
3
dx 4

The infinitely long bearing approximation is acceptable when L/B> 3 while the
narrow bearing approximation can be used when L/B < 1/3. For the intermediate ratios of
1/3 < L/B < 3, computed solutions for finite bearings are applied.

Bearing Parameters Predicted from Reynolds Equation:
From the Reynolds equation most of the critical bearing design parameters such
as pressure distribution, load capacity, friction force, coefficient of friction and oil flow
are obtained by simple integration.

Pressure Distribution:
By integrating the Reynolds equation over a specific film shape described by
some function h = f(x,y) the pressure distribution in the hydrodynamic lubricating film is
found in terms of bearing geometry, lubricant viscosity and speed.
Load Capacity:
When the pressure distribution is integrated over the bearing area the
corresponding load capacity of the lubricating film is found. If the load is varied then the
film geometry will change to re-equilibrate the load and pressure field. The load that the
bearing will support at particular film geometry is:
L B
W = } } Pdxdy (34)
0 0
The obtained load formula is expressed in terms of bearing geometry, lubricant
viscosity and speed; hence the bearing parameters can be optimized to give the best
performance.
Friction Force:
Assuming that the friction force results only from shearing of the fluid and
integrating the shear stress 't' over the whole bearing area yields the total friction force
operating across the hydrodynamic film. i.e.;
L B
F = } } Pdxdy (35)
0 0
The shear stress 't' is expressed in terms of dynamic viscosity and shear rates:

t = qdu
dz
Where du/dz is obtained by differentiating the velocity equation (11).
After substituting for 't' and integrating, the formula, expressed in terms of
bearing geometry, lubricant viscosity, and speed for friction force per unit length is
obtained. The derivation details of this formula are described later in this chapter.
L B
F = } h dp dx } U dx (35)
L
0
2 dx
0
h

'+' and '' refer to the upper and lower surface respectively.
The '' sign before the first term may cause some confusion as it appears that the
friction force acting on the upper and the lower surface is different which apparently
conflicts with the law of equal action and reaction forces.
The reaction force from the pressure field acts in the direction normal to the
inclined surface while a load is applied vertically. Since the load is at an angle to the
normal there is a resulting component 'W tano' acting in the opposite direction from the
velocity. This is in fact the exact amount by which the frictional force acting on the upper
surface is smaller than the force acting on the lower surface.

Coefficient of Friction:
The coefficient of friction is calculated from the load and friction forces:
L B
F } } Pdxdy
=
0 0
(36)

L B
W } } Pdxdy
0 0
Bearing parameters can then be optimized to give, for example, a minimum value
of the coefficient of friction. This means, in approximate terms, minimizing the size of
the bearing by allowing the highest possible hydrodynamic pressure. This is discussed in
greater detail later as bearing optimization involves many other factors.
Lubricant Flow:
By integrating the flow expressions 'q
x
' and 'q
y
' (18) and (19) over the edges of the
bearing, lubricant leakage out of the sides and ends of the bearing is found.
L
Q
x
= } q
x
dy
0
L
Q
y
= } q
y
dx (37)

0

Lubricant flow is extremely important to the operation of a bearing since enough
oil must be supplied to the hydrodynamic contact to prevent starvation and consequent
failure. The flow formulae are expressed in terms of bearing parameters and the lubricant
flow can also be optimized.
6.5. Pad Bearings:
Pad bearings, which consist of a pad sliding over a smooth surface, are widely
used in machinery to sustain thrust loads from shafts, e.g. from the propeller shaft in a
ship. An example of this application is shown in figure 6.5 the simple film geometry of
these bearings, as compared to journal bearings, renders them a suitable example for
introducing hydrodynamic bearing analysis.
Infinite Linear Pad Bearing:
The infinite linear pad bearing, as already mentioned, is a pad bearing of infinite
length normal to the direction of sliding. This particular bearing geometry is the easiest to
analyze. It has been described in many books on lubrication theories. The basic
procedures involved in the analysis are summarized in this section.
Consider an infinitely long linear wedge with L/B > 3, where 'L' and 'B' are pad
dimensions normal to and parallel to the sliding direction, i.e. pad length and width,
respectively. Assume that the bottom surface is moving in the direction showing dragging
the lubricant into the wedge which results in pressurization of the lubricant within the
wedge. The inlet and the outlet conditions of the wedge are controlled by the maximum
and minimum film thicknesses. 'h
1
" and 'h
0
' respectively.
Bearing Geometry:
As a first step in any bearing analysis the bearing geometry, i.e. h = f(x), must be
defined. The film thickness 'h' in figure 6.5 is expressed as a function:
h = h
0
+ x tan o = h
0
+ x h h
2

B
Or simply:
h = h
0
1+ h
1
h
0
x
h
w
B
The term (h
1
h
0
) / h
0
is often known in the literature as the convergence ratio 'k'
[3.4]. The film geometry can then be expressed as:
h = h
0
1+ kx (38)
B

Fig. 6.5 Geometry of a linear pad bearing.
Pressure Distribution:
As mentioned already, the pressure distribution can be calculated by integrating
the Reynolds equation over the specific film geometry. Since the pressure gradient in the
'x' direction is dominant, the one-dimensional Reynolds equation for the long bearing
approximation can be used for the analysis of this bearing.
h = h
0
1+ kx (38)
B
There are two variables 'x' and 'h' and the equation can be integrated with respect
to 'x' or 'h'. Since it does not really matter with respect to which variable the integration is
performed we choose 'h'. Firstly one variable is replaced by the other. This can be
achieved by differentiating (38) which gives 'dx' in terms of 'dh':
dx = B dh (39)
kh
0

Substituting into (27) yields:
dp = oUq h h
B h
2

kh
And after simplifying and separating variables:
kh
0
dp = h h dh ... (40)
oUqB h
2

Which is the differential formula for pressure distribution in this bearing.
Equation (40) can be integrated to give:
kh
0
p = 1 + h + C ... (41)
oUqB h 2h
2

The boundary conditions, taken from the bearing's inlet and outlet, are (figure
6.5):
p = 0 at h = h
0

p = 0 at h = h
1
... (42)
Substituting into (41) the constants 'h' and 'C' are:
h = 2h
0
h
1
... (43)
h
1
+ h
0
The maximum film thickness 'h
1
' can also be expressed in terms of the
convergence ration 'K':

k = h
i
h
0

h
0

Thus:
h
1
= h
0
(K + 1) ... (44)
Substituting into (43) the constants 'h' and 'C' in terms of 'K' are:
h = 2 ln (k + 1)
(k + 2)
C = 1 ... (45)
h
0
(k + 2)
Substituting into (41) gives:
kh
0
= 1 + h
0
(k + 1) + 1
oUqB h h
2
(k + 2) h
0
(k + 2)

p = oUqB 1 + h
0
(k + 1) + 1 ... (46)
kh
0
h h
2
(k + 2) h
0
(k + 2)
Note that the velocity 'U', in the convention assumed is negative, as shown in
figure 6.2.
It is useful to find the pressure distribution in the bearing expressed in terms of
bearing geometry and operating parameters such as the velocity 'U' and lubricant
viscosity 'q'. A convenient method of finding the controlling influence of these
parameters is to introduce non-dimensional parameters. In bearing analysis non-
dimensional parameters such as pressure and load are used. Equation (46) can be
expressed in terms of a non-dimensional pressure, i.e.:
p* = h
0
1 + h
0
(k + 1) + 1 ... (47)
k h h
2
(k + 2) h
0
(k + 2)
Where the non-dimensional pressure 'p*' is: .
p* = h
0
p ... (48)
6UqB
It is clear that hydrodynamic pressure is proportional to sliding speed 'U' and
bearing width 'E' for a given value of dimensionless pressure and proportional to the
reciprocal of film thickness squared. If a quick estimate of hydrodynamic pressure is
required to check, for example, whether the pad material will suffer plastic deformation, a
representative value of dimensionless pressure can be multiplied by the selected values of
sliding speed, viscosity and bearing dimensions to yield the necessary information.
Load Capacity:
The total load that a bearing will support at specific film geometry is obtained by
integrating the pressure distribution over the specific bearing area.
L B
W = } } pdx . dy
0 0
This can be re-written in terms of load per unit length;
B
W = } pdx

L
0
And substituting for 'p', equation (4.46), yields:
p* = G
0
1 + G
2
(K + 1) + 1 ... (49)
K h h (K + 2) G
0
(v + 2)
Again there are two variables in (49), 'x' and 'h', and one has to be replaced by the
other before the integration can be performed. Substituting (39) for 'dx'.
And integrating yields:
W = 6Unp
2
(ln K + 1) + 2K ... (50)

L K
2
G
0
2
K + 2

Equation (50) is the total load per unit length the bearing will support expressed in
term of the bearing's geometrical and operating parameters. In terms of the non-
dimensional load 'W*' equation (50) can be expressed as:
W* = 1 (ln K + 1) + 2K ... (51)
K
2
K + 2
Where:
w* = h
0
2
W ... (52)
6qUL
2

6.6. Journal Bearing:
Journal bearings are very common engineering components and are used in
almost all types of machinery. Combustion engines and turbines virtually depend on
journal bearings to obtain high efficiency and reliability. A journal bearing consists of a
shaft rotating within a stationary bush. The hydrodynamic film which supports the load is
generated between the moving surfaces of the shaft and the bush.
There are two basic aspects of journal bearing analysis. The first refers to the
basic analysis of journal bearing load capacity, friction and lubricant flow rate as a
function of load, speed and any other controlling parameters. The second aspect of
journal bearings relates to practical or operational problems, such as methods of lubricant
supply, bearing designs to suppress vibration and cavitations or to allow for
misalignment, and friction heating of the lubricant. These aspects are introduced in this
chapter and continued in the next chapter.
Evaluation of the main parameters:
The same method of analysis applies to journal bearings as to the previously
described examples of linear and converging-diverging wedges. The film geometry is
defined and then the Reynolds equation is applied to find the pressure field and load
capacity. The geometry of the journal bearing is shown in figure. 6.6.
Bearing Geometry:
In the same manner as previous cases, bearing geometry is defined in the first step
of the analysis. Consider the triangle O
S
O
B
A from figure. 6.6.

Fig. 6.6 Geometry of the journal bearing; R
1
is the radius of the bush, R
2
is the
radius 'C' if the shaft. O
B
is the centre of the bush. O
S
is the centre of the shaft.
It should be noted that the angle 'o' is very small. From inspection of the triangle
O
S
O
B
A it can be written:
O
S
A = O
S
C + CA = O
S
B + BA or
O
S
A = ecosu + R
1
coso = R
2
+ h
Thus:
h = ecosu + R
1
coso R
2
... (53)
Applying the sine rule gives:
e_ = R
1

sin o sin u
. e. e
sin o = e_ sin u
R
1

Remembering that:
sin
2
o + cos
2
o = 1
And substituting for 'sino' yields:
coso = \1 sin
2
o = 1 e
2
sin
2
u
R
1

Since e/R
1
<< 1 then:
cos o ~ 1
Substituting into (Eq. 53) yields:
h = ecosu + R
1
R
2
= ecosu + c
Where:
c is the clearance, i.e. difference between the radii of bush and shaft (R
1
- R
2
) [m].
or
h = C (1 + c cosu) ... (54)
Where:
c is the eccentricity ratio, i.e. the ratio of eccentricity to clearance (e/c).
Equation (54) gives a description of the film shape in journal bearings to within
0.1 % accuracy [3].
Pressure Distribution:
In most journal bearings where the axial length is less than the shaft diameter, the
pressure gradient along the 'y' axis is much larger than the pressure gradient along the 'x'
axis (circumferential direction). The narrow bearing approximation can therefore be used.
This approximation gives accurate results for L/D < 1/3. The one-dimensional Reynolds
equation for the narrow bearing approximation is given by & (33).
p = 3 Uq dh y
2
L
2

h
2
dx 4
Where 'L' is the length of the bearing along the 'y' axis. Substituting 'x' for angular
displacement times radius gives:
x = Ru
Differentiating:
dx = Rdu
And substituting gives:
p = 3Uq dh y
2
L
2
... (55)
h
2
R du h
Differentiating (eq. 54):
dh = (ccsinudu)
Rearranging:
dh = ccsinu
du
And substituting for 'h' and 'dh/du' to (eq.55) yields the pressure distribution in a
narrow journal bearing:
p = 3Uqc sin u L
2
y
2
... (56)
Rc
2
(1 + c cosu)
3
h
It can be seen that this equation complies implicitly with the Fu11-Sommerfeld
and Half-Sommerfeld boundary conditions since:
p = 0 at u = 0, t and 2t

Load Capacity:
The total load that the bearing will support is found by integrating the pressure
around the bearing. In the early literature, the Half-Sommerfeld condition was used for
load calculations, i.e. the negative pressures in one half of the bearing were discounted.
Load is usually calculated from two components, one acting along the line of shaft and
bush centres and a second component perpendicular to the first. This method allows
calculation of the angle between the line of centres and the load line. As will be shown
later, the shaft does not deflect co-directionally with the load but instead always moves at
an angle to the load-line. The angle is known as the 'attitude angle' and results in the
position of minimum film thickness lying some distance from where the load-line
intersects the shaft and bush. The load components and pressure field of a journal bearing
are shown in figure 6.6.
To analyze and derive expressions for the load components 'W
1
' and 'W
2
' consider
a small element of area Rdudy where the 'y' axis is normal to the plane of the diagram in
figure 6.7 and hence is invisible. The axis is shown in an 'unwrapped film' in figure 6.8.
Hydrodynamic pressure fields of journal bearings are often shown in 'unwrapped form'
where the film is shown as a plane surface is plan view. This is equivalent to taking a
sheet of paper and rolling it to form a cylinder. In cylindrical form, the true shape of the
hydrodynamic film is represented when unwrapped or flat. In this way the form most
convenient for film visualization is obtained.
The increment of force exerted by the hydrodynamic pressure on the element of
area is pRdudy and this force is resolved into two components:

- pRcosududy acting along the line of shaft and bush centres and
- pRsinududy acting in the direction normal to the line of centres.

Fig. 6.7 Load components and pressure field acting in a journal bearing.
Thus the load component acting along the line of centres is expressed by:
t +L/2
w
1
= } } pRcosu .du . dy ... (57)
0 -L/2
Similarly the component acting in the direction normal to the line of centres is:



Fig. 6.8 Unwrapped journal bearing.
t +L/2
w
2
= } } pRsinu .du . dy ... (58)
0 -L/2
Substituting for 'p' and integrating:
... (59)
... (60)
The total load that the bearing will support is the resultant of the components 'W
1
'
and 'W
2
':
W = \W
1
2
+ W
2
2
... (61)
Substituting for 'W
1
' and 'W
2
' gives the expression for the total load that the
bearing will support:
W = UqcL
3
. t 16 1 c
2
+1 ... (62)
c
2
(1 c
2
) 4 t
2


Fig 6.9 Cavitations in journal bearing
6.7. Squeeze Film Bearing:
We have examined the behavior of fluid film when the surfaces, which they
separate, are moving tangentially to each other. It is also of interest to consider what
happens when the two surfaces have also of interest to consider what happens when the
two surfaces have normal velocities V
1
and V
2
as shown in fig. 6.10 Physical insight
suggest that when V
1
V
2
is positive, so that the film of lubricant is getting thinner, some
additional pressure will be developed in the film. This is to say that as surfaces approach
each other they will tend to increase the load-carrying capacity of the fluid film.
Consider the case shown in fig. 6.10 where we separate the motion into one
component decreasing the film thickness provided V
1
V
2
is positive, and one
component resulting in a motion of the whole system, which does not affect the film
thickness. It is obvious that as the film thickness decreases a pressure a will be developed
and fluid will flow to the left end to the right from the center of the pad, the coordinate
position X
m
.
For the flow between parallel plates and adopting the value of dz as one unit to
simplify the argument, we may write
q
n
= h
3
1 / 12q (dp/dx).

Fig.6.10. The hydraulic pressure arising from the squeeze film effect.
The fluid flow will be to the left when x < X
m
, where dp/dx will be positive; and
to the right when x > X
m
where dp/dx will be negative. Thus at x = X
m
we are not
surprised to find dp/dx = 0, so that X
m
is the point of maximum pressure.
By considering a small reduction of film thickness dh in a time dt it is easily seen
that the outward flow rate at a given value of x is given by
q
n
= (x X
m
) dh/dt = (x X
m
) (V
1
V
2
).
This means that the flow rate increases form zero at X
m
to a maximum value at
each end of the pad. Combining the equations (23) and (24) produces the expression for
the pressure development:
dp / dx = 12q(V
2
V
1
) (x X
m
)/h
3

The term V
2
V
1
occurs since dp/dx must be positive when x < X
m
.
Integration of this equation using the appropriate boundary condign of p = 0 at the
edges of the pad then produces the pressure distribution. The summation of this pressure
over the area over which it acts then gives the additional load capacity due to squeeze
film effects.
Examination of equation shows a remarkable similarity of form to our original
Reynolds equation and we may combine these tow equation to give
dp / dx = 12q (U
I
U
2
/ 2) h h
m
/ h
3
+ 12q (V
2
V
1
) (x X
m
)/h
3
... (63)
In equation the first term defines the pressure development due to the tangential
velocity components whilst the second term defines the effect of any normal velocity
components.

( Questions )
1. Derive the generalized expression of Reynolds equation for hydrodynamic
lubrication and explain the terms.
(i) Physical wedge
(ii) Surface stretching
(iii) Density wedge
(iv) Squeeze film action
(v) Local compression
2. State the various assumption made in deriving the generalized Reynolds equation.
3. What are the types of a hydrostatic bearings? Discuss anyone in detail.
4. Show that Reynolds equation for pressure distribution at any angle u in a
hydrodynamic journal bearing is
P P
0
= 67 UR c sin u (2 + ccosu )
C
2
(2 + c
2
) (1 + ccosu)
2

Where,
= Dynamic viscosity of the oil
U = Speed of the journal
R = Journal radius
C = Radial clearance
c = Eccentricity ratio.
5. The following data refers to a hydrodynamic journal bearing:
Length of bearing = 100 mm
Diameter of bearing = 100 mm
Speed of journal = 960 rpm
Diameter clearance = 02 mm
Minimum oil film thickness = 50 m
Dynamic viscosity of oil = 30 cP

Determine the maximum pressure in fluid film.