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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction.

Global sugar production figures for the year 2002 indicate that some 148 million tons of sugar (raw value) were produced. Of this quantum, 110 million tons (74.3 percent) were derived from the cane plant and the remainder 38 million tons (25.7 percent), from the sugar beet 1. Meanwhile, examining the financial year 1999-2000, 136.1 million tons of sugar was produced worldwide with cane sugar accounting for some 98.8 million tons (72.6 percent) and beet sugar 37.3 million tons (27.4 percent).2 From these figures, it is quite clear that cane sugar as a primary product is produced in higher quantities; and by way of inference, would be of greater socio-economic importance to many territories across the world engaged in its production. In this regard, Guyana cannot be considered exempt, since its production and export allows meaningful economic contributions to be made in the forms of foreign exchange earnings and employment. Commenting further on the benefits associated with the production of cane sugar in Guyana, the following extract from the National Development Strategy, indicates that:

... 16 percent of the countrys total GDP and 30 percent of its agricultural GDP are derived from this commodity; it is the largest net earner of foreign exchange in the country; and it is the biggest corporate contributor to public revenue. Moreover, it directly employs 25,000 people or about 10 percent of Guyanas labour force; indirectly, it absorbs a further 10 percent of the countrys citizens... (NDS, 2000).

Notwithstanding these contributions, several influencing factors predispose the agro ecological production units on which the sugar industry of Guyana and other territories are founded, to the ravages of insect pests 3. These include the presence of genetically uniformed plant species of nearly similar ages, alternative host species in its environs, and
1 2

(http://www.spriinc.org/buton11g.html) (http://www.liffe.com/products/commodities/background/sugar.htm) 3 (Clapham, 1981) Human Ecosystems- characteristics and controllability of agro ecosystems pp.147150.

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more importantly environmental conditions that favour their proliferation (Bates, 1965). In strategic response to these obtaining realities, several approaches have been employed to limit the environmental challenges offered by these factors. These happen to range from the use of biological control, chemical control, physical or mechanical control, cultural control to genetic control (Metcalf & Luckmann, 1982; Yount, 1995). Today, despite the gamut of approaches available for pest control there is heavy reliance on highly toxic substances (pesticides) for the purposes of controlling a wide range of pests, including: insects, mites, nematodes, rodents, weeds, and bacterial, viral and fungal pathogens, in especially the developing world. Ideally, these substances have been intended for use in the suppression of competing plant pests populations, but many of them have proven themselves to be broad-spectrum biocides that are profound in effect on nontarget species (Carson, 1963; Croft, 1990). In the Caribbean domain, alternative methods of pest control were almost completely neglected with the advent of pesticides. However, due to the development of resistance in some major pest fauna, as well as increased public awareness of hazards posed to human health and the environment, intensive efforts were made to harness the capabilities of seemingly old alternatives (Cruz & Segarra, 1996). Today, biocontrol is one of the most thoroughly studied methods of controlling insects, nematodes, diseases and weeds. Scientists are now increasing research efforts and placing more emphasis on pest control methods not aimed at wholesale eradication, but maintenance of pest populations below economic thresholds (Huffaker & Messenger, 1976; Cruz & Segarra, 1996). More convincingly, there is now increasing supportive evidence of biocontrols successes, in particularly, the Caribbean region (Meagher, 1996). A case in point is noted in Guyana, where the use of the Amazon fly (Metagonistylum minense), the Cotesia wasp (Cotesia flavipes) and other indigenous natural enemy populations, by the Guyana Sugar Corporation, continues to even today play a leading role in the suppression of small moth borers Diatraea spp.

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1.2. 1.2.1.

BACKGROUND. Distribution of the Diatraea spp.

Small moth borers (Diatraea spp) are a major insect pest of sugar cane cultivations in Latin America (Bates, 1965; Ferrer, 1990; Linares & Ferrer, 2001; Rossi & Fowler, 2002) the Caribbean (Cruz & Segarra, 1996) and the Southern states of the U.S.A mainland (White, et al. 2001). Several species have been identified as major pests of Sugar cane in different countries with several others being minor pests. In Guyana, as is highlighted in A-01 the Diatraea centrella (Moschler), Diatraea saccharalis (Fabricius) and Diatraea impersonatella4 (Walker) (all Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) are important economic pests of sugarcane, but alternatively feed on other Graminae such as: Corn (Zea mays L.), Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), Rice (Oryza sativa L.), and a number of cultivated and wild grasses5 (Charpentier, Gifford et al. 1965; Posey, 2004). Schaaf (1976) elaborating on their feeding patterns in Guyana indicates that before the introduction of the Sugar cane plant, these species were initially in association with wild thick-stemmed grasses species; clearly highlighting it polyphagous feeding habit. 1.2.2 Losses attributed to Diatraea spp. damage

Annual financial losses accruing as a result of Diatraea spp damages in the Americas, was estimated at $55 million dollars (Bates, 1965), and specifically in the case of Guyana, some $2 million (Guyana) dollars annually (Bates, 1971) .In Guyana, several quantifications of actual field damage levels due to Diatraea spp. infestations were done. Bates (1965) further, elaborating on this subject recognised that for every 6.5 percent joint infestation there was a corresponding 2.2 percent loss of sugar. Although no estimation of losses caused by these moth borers was done in Guyana prior to his work (Huntley, 1986) the damage was widespread at 95 percent stalk damage and 25 percent joint infestation; indicating the prevalence, as well as impact, of these pest at that point in time.
4

The Diatraea impersonatella is of negligible importance to sugar cultivations in Guyana, but is a pest of other Neotropical sugar producing territories. 5 These species are referred to in this instance as alternative hosts plant species.

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1.2.3.

Pest control options: Biological control vs. Chemical control

In certain sub tropical cane growing regions, partial chemical control of the Diatraea spp. has been achieved, primarily, because climatic conditions allow for the discontinuous breeding of their populations. During the unfavourable winter months only well protected over wintering pupae survive, with the advent of warmer weather conditions, these emerge with predictable regularity - forming well-defined broods which may successfully be controlled by granular insecticides such as Endrin, Gusathion etc (Bates, 1971; Charpentier, Gifford et al. 1965; Hensley, 1971; Negm & Hensley, 1971). To the contrary, in tropical territories such as Guyana, this kind of tactic has not proved feasible, because of the absence of reproductive peaks and the continuous over lap of all life stages of these pests (egg, larvae, pupae and adults) 6 (Bates, 1954; Bates, 1965; Bates, 1967; Williams et al., 1969; Bates, 1971). Experimental works have been undertaken to determine the potential value of systemic insecticides7 against stalk or moth borers, but so far, this form of control has only been proven effective against many sucking and leaf-mining insects, but not against stem boring lepidopterous larvae (Bates, 1954). Because of these realities, control measures employed by many tropical cane growing territories, inclusive of Guyana, for the control of these lepidopterous pest species have been chiefly biological; utilizing several exotic and endemic insect parasitoid species (Bates, 1971; Huntley 1987).

1.2.4. Development of Integrated Pest Management

Such conditions have also been considered to be "ideal" for the use of biological control because of higher biodiversity and less interruption of populations by changing seasons (Huffaker et al. 1976) 7 The principle of this type of chemical control is that the chemical enters through the leaves or the roots of the plant and toxic residues remain within the body of the plant (Bates, 1971)

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In the 1950s, pest researchers recognised the problems inherent in the reliance on a single pest control technology such as pesticides. Resistance in pests, concerns over environmental issues and human health, the emergence of new pest species and the ever increasing costs of a shrinking arsenal of chemicals were some of the tell tale signs that prompted the re- evaluation of the I.P.M concept on a scientific basis (Metcalf & Luckmann, 1982; Croft, 1990; Yount, 1995; Richards-Haynes, 2000). Apart from the problems associated with over reliance on chemical control, were the increase in awareness of the importance of parasites, predators, and the pathogens in the limitation of insect numbers, and the suggested practical use of natural enemy populations. Since, this recognition, the concept of I.P.M has been receiving wide spread adoption for pest control in many agro ecosystems around the world.

1.2.5.

Fundamentals of Integrated Pest Management.

Metcalf and Luckmann (1982) reviewed the general subject discussing its ecological basis and recognised that this means of control rests upon an understanding of the concept of an ecological system or ecosystem: - the complete complement of organisms, the husbandry practise and the conditioning of the environment. In essence, this strategy recognises that consideration must be given to all factors influencing the ecosystems, recognising their complexity and remembering at the same time that the primary concern is the entire agro ecosystem and its components, not a particular pest. The most important limitation to I.P.M, however, is the broad toxic action of most commercial insecticides. Today, commercial synthetic agrochemicals in use fail to be fully selective in the control of specific arthropod species. Despite this limitation, the usage of selective insecticides enables the natural balance of a natural population to be shifted in the favour of biological control organisms, when these pests are present. Additionally I.P.M as an approach is often demanding in terms of scientific and technical support. Since, the approach necessitates through the study of agro ecosystem ecology (Miskimen, 1969; Metcalf & Luckmann, 1982). 1.2.6. Integrated Pest Management usage in Guyana.

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The current I.P.M approach used by the Guyana Sugar Corporation Inc. for Diatraea spp management, capitalizes on a series of tactics to reduce, but not necessarily eliminate, pest populations. Pesticides are applied as part of the overall strategy only after all other relevant tactics have been deployed or when their need is justified by knowledge of pest biology, established decision guidelines and the results of field surveys for pest populations. (Richards-Haynes, 2000) This approach also considers the approach of taking no action. The key element in I.P.M is the concept of a threshold level which is the population density at which control measures must be applied to prevent an increasing pest population from reaching the point where crop loss would exceed the cost of control. Therefore, crop damage is tolerated until the threshold is reached (Metcalf & Luckmann, 1982). From the aforementioned details it can be inferred that I.P.M requires that accurate and regular surveys be carried out to monitor pest life-stage populations and for damage to the crop in order to determine whether the threshold level has been reached or is likely to be reached. From the year, 1993 to present GUYSUCOs pest management policy has been directed towards the development of environmentally friendly practices as part of the Integrated Pest management programme. Its current programme emphasizes the use of cultural and biological control techniques and minimizes the use of chemical insecticides for the control of major pest species (GUYSUCO, 1999). To the contrary, quite surprisingly, this pest management approach though given worldwide and even local accreditation, has not been used outside of the bounds of the Guyana Sugar Corporation Estates, in spite of the ecological, socio-economic and health implications associated with the dependence on chemicals for general pest control. Further, more perturbing in the rural setting of developing countries - of which Guyana happens to be classified - is the prevalence of high rates of illiteracy and inability to read and understand complex label instructions; labels not written in the language of the user; the virtual impossibility of wearing protective clothing or equipment in hot and humid climates; mixing of hazardous active ingredients by hand; inappropriate use of pesticides; reuse of containers for food or water storage; lack of training; absence of medical facilities

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or other access to antidotes.... (Dinham, 1996). These deficiencies are unacceptable by international standards, but, frequently are exacerbated by the lack of regulatory infrastructures including national pesticide registration and control schemes, appropriate legislation regulations, enforcement mechanisms, laboratory infrastructures for quality control and residue analysis for pesticides, etc (FAO, 1999). It is for this reason that I have sought to - in this research piece - evaluate the impact of biological control, as a component of Integrated pest management (IPM), on Diatraea spp infestation levels on two GUYSUCO estate locations and, to examine pesticide usage patterns, their associated ecological, economic and health implications in Canal # 2 Polder, and to determine the support potential of the area for the use of alternative approaches of general pest control.

1.3

OBJECTIVES:

The specific objectives of this research project are: 1.3.1 Specific Objectives

1. To evaluate three (3) years of summarized routine damage assessment data to determine current Diatraea spp. infestation levels. 2. To evaluate biocontrol programme assessment data to determine the effectiveness of the biological control programs. 3. To evaluate the general agronomic practice of sugar cane cultivation in Canal # 2 Polder with special emphasis being placed on cultivated varieties, cycle length, production levels, methods of pest control; types of pesticides used; pesticide usage patterns; adherence to pesticide application considerations; impacts of pesticide use on health, economics and the environment; educational level of farmers, awareness of other methods of pest control and their willingness to use alternative methods of pest control in their cultivations , and

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4. To draw conclusions and make appropriate recommendations on future directions that can be taken for the support and use of such a strategy by private cane farmers in this and other cane producing communities in Guyana.

1.4

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The findings of this piece of research will be useful in the following ways: 1. To provide baseline data to the requisite personnel of the Guyana Sugar Corporation, so that informed decisions can be made about ways in which the corporations technical expertise can be of benefit to small scale farmers in the study area: Canal # 2 Polder, and other production areas, so that the risks of general pesticide usage can be greatly minimized or averted. 2. To provide comprehensive and easy to understand information for farmers about alternative approaches of pest control, the requirements for usage, and the benefits that can accrue from their operationalization. 3. To demonstrate to cane farmers that integrated pest management (IPM) as a pest control strategy has the ability to lower significantly general pest incidence and dependence on these chemicals in the sugar cane ecosystems thus increasing appreciably the quality and quantum of yields. 4. To highlight to Estate officials that an initiative of effective technical capacity extension needs to be extended to private farmers by this corporation to improve the socio-economic disposition of rural communities and to more importantly, for standardizing pest control practices across the sector. In summation, it is hoped that other researchers desirous of studying general pest management in the monocultures of rice and sugar cane and its general implications would be motivated to follow ideas, suggestions, conclusions and even recommendations emanating from this study.

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1.5 1.5.1

POSTULATES Research Postulate.

Biological control of the Diatraea spp, as an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) component manages to keep damage levels on the Blairmont and La Bonne Intention Estates, below the level of economic injury; and cane farmers in Canal # 2 Polder are willing to use biological or alternative approaches in their cultivations that would greatly reduce the socio - economic, ecological and health implications associated with over reliance on chemical approaches of pest control.

1.5.2

Null Postulate.

Biological control of the Diatraea spp, as an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) component does not manage to keep damage levels on the Blairmont and La Bonne Intention Estates, below the level of economic injury; and cane farmers in Canal # 2 Polder are unwilling to use biological or alternative approaches in their cultivations that would greatly reduce the socio - economic, ecological and health implications associated with over reliance on chemical approaches of pest control.

1.6

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

This study required the collection and analysis of the most recent and available routine monitoring data emanating from the Entomology departments of two estate locations: Blairmont and East Demerara Estates over the time frame 2000-2002; and the collection of questionnaire survey data from a representative sample of Canal # 2 Polder cane farmers. Because of the nature of this study, a number of factors may influence the findings of the research, and they are as follows:

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1. The data collected via Questionnaire from Canal # 2 Polder, was from 35 Sugar cane farmers and as such, the findings cannot be generalized for other cane farming areas in other locations. 2. The data being collected from the two (2) estates represent differing agro ecosystem locations and as such, these differences may influence research findings. 3. In as much as the researcher strived to follow the sampling plan to the letter, the conditions that prevailed in the field did not allow, for strict adherence to the sampling frame; therefore, some amount of bias would have been introduced in the questionnaire survey.
4. There may be bias in the responses, as respondents may give replies that they

perceive, to be ones the researcher might have been looking for when filling out survey instruments. 5. The acreages under assessment and the rates of parasitoid release vary for the two estates being assessed. Therefore, this may influence the research findings. 6. The data collected from each estate location may not be representative of a years results of ecological inquiry via the use of routine survey procedures, since certain lapses in the handing in of data sheets may have caused discrepancies in the data to emerge.

CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE.

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2.1

The Philosophy, scope, and importance of biological control

The term Biological control is most simply recognised as the use of natural enemy populations (whether introduced or otherwise manipulated) to control insect pests (Huffaker & Wilson, 1972; Dent, 1991; Croft, 1990). Despite this conditionality, the term presently seems to have taken on added meaning with the expansion of its scope, to include non chemical forms of control that are biology based such as: the development of resistant varieties, modification of cultural practices, release of sterile males, use of genetic, pheromonal and other actual or potential forms of pest control that arise from new scientific knowledge (Huffaker & Wilson, 1972). But these inclusions, Huffaker&Wilson (1972) state quite candidly, tend to obscure the unique functional and ecological basis of biological control, and with this statement, I agree. In examining, the mode of action of natural enemy populations that have been used in the suppression of the Diatraea spp. in the Sugar cane ecosystems of Guyana, the exceptional nature of this form of pest control becomes apparent. 2.2. 2.2.1 Description and life History of Biological control agents: Amazon fly (Metagonistylum minense)

Fig 2.1: Pictorial representation of the Adult Amazon fly

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The Adult Amazon fly Metagonistylum minense resembles the common housefly. The head is usually held well away from the body causing a distinct neck appearance. The body shape and the large number of body spines and hairs give this species a distinctive appearance. 2.2.1.1 Life History

The female Amazon fly lays maggots at the entrance of the Diatrea tunnels. The maggots wander along the tunnels until they contact their host, which they enter. Once in the hosts body, feeding proceeds on fat bodies and internal fluids until the maggot is nearly fullygrown, when gross destruction of internal organs causes death. The large maggot then emerges and pupates. Each host can support several Amazon fly maggots to maturity, but the individual size decreases as the number increases. Females mate within three days to emerge and have viable maggots ten days later. (Cleare,1938; Schaaf, 1976) 2.2.1.2 Description

Egg - Eggs are never laid by this species. Larva - Larvae resemble the maggots of common flies. The anterior end is smaller

than the posterior with no recognizable head. The mouthparts are a set of hooks which can be seen through the integument .The body is creamy white with white bands of minute spines.

Fig 2.2: Pictorial representation of Amazon fly larvae

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Pupa Pupation occurs in the last larval instar integument called the puparium.

The puparium is a hard, brown, slightly curved cylinder and is marked with the spiracles and spines typical of larvae. After this stage, the Adult Amazon fly emerges.

Fig 2.3: Pictorial representations of the Amazon fly Pupae. 2.2.2 The Cotesia Wasp (Cotesia flavipes)

Fig 2.4: Pictorial representation of the Cotesia wasp in action. The Adult Cotesia wasp (Cotesia flavipes) is a tiny black-bodied wasp with yellow legs. They are winged, very mobile, and active. The males have long thread like antennae. The females have shorter antennae with knob like tips and piercing ovipositors. The wings of both sexes have coloured lobes in the venation

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2.2.2.1

Life History.

After mating, the females go in search of suitable host larvae. The wasps are attracted by to the host by the smell of frass or the host feeding. The female enters the borer tunnel, approaches and grabs the hosts body with her legs. The wasp folds her abdomen downwards and forwards, simultaneously inserting her ovipositor. At this point, the host remains still and Oviposition takes place. During this process, the female injects a batch of eggs into the larvae, usually two thrusts are required, and each thrust deposits 20-100 eggs (60 eggs average). The eggs incubate for 1-3 days. On hatching, the first stage larvae feed on the Haemocoel of the host consuming fat and protein. They do not attack the hosts vital organs; therefore, the host is able to continue feeding. During stage II of the parasites development, the host decreases its food consumption. By the third stage, the host is moribund. The stage III maggots bite through the hosts integument and emerge. In some cases, the host is still alive but it is unable to pupate and eventually dies. The stage III maggots leave the host simultaneously, searching for an appropriate place to spin their cocoons. This is usually in the borer tunnel, near the opening, close to the dying or dead host. The total life cycle take between 14-43 days. 2.2.2.2 Description

Egg: - The eggs are 0.138 mm long and 0.037 mm wide. They are transparent and rounded at the head end, tapering posteriorly. The chorion or eggshell is smooth, thin, and transparent devoid of surface markings.

Larvae: - There are three stages of larval development: Stage I 0.75 mm long and 0.18 mm wide. Milky white in colour, hook like mandibles at head end. Body consists 12 ring like segments, covered with setae or hairs. No clear body demarcation.

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Stage II - 1.07 mm long and 0.20 mm wide. Cylindrical shape with simple colourless mandibles. Body consists of 13 segments with hairs. Head recognisable and tracheal system becoming apparent. Stage III - 2.92 mm long and 0.72 mm wide. Creamy white in colour. Grub like shape, with light brown sclerotised mandibles. Distinct segmentation, covered in stout spines. Tracheal system complete with open spiracles, No antennae present.

Pupa: - 2.2 mm long and 0.76 mm wide. White to start with becoming light to dark

brown with age. Antennae present. It begins to take on the Adult appearance. Pupation occurs within a cocoon.

Cocoon: - 3.25 mm long and 1.25mm diameter. A Fluffy, white, silky cocoon is

spun around the pupa. Cylindrical shape. Cocoons are spun on or near the moribund host. Numerous cocoons (20-40) cluster to form a cocoon mass about 2-3 cm long. Cocoon mass turns grey just before the adults emerge.

2.3

Biological control of the Diatraea spp in Guyana.

It must be stated foremost that the biological method of control, has been chiefly used to for controlling the sugar cane borers (Diatraea spp) in Guyana. Bodkin (1913) indicates that (Parasitoids)14 were observed in Guyana since the 1880s, but it was not until 1921 that a laboratory rearing and field release programme for these agents was established (Cleare, 1934). Subsequent investigations revealed that the Diatraea spp in Guyana were parasitized at nearly every stage of their development; which was considered ideal given the nature of these pests.

14

Parasitoids according to Metcalf &Luckmann (1982) are an organism that are predatory, often about the same size as its host, kills its host, and requires only one host for development into a free living adult. But more specifically (W& R chambers, 1988) indicates that these are organisms, which are parasitic in one stage of its life history and subsequently free living in the Adult stage. It is these organisms that Bates (1971) indicates markedly reduced the populations of these lepidopterous pests.

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Laboratory rearing of the Trichogramma Fasciatum continued until the 1980s but on a non-commercial scale. This programme was slightly boosted in the 1980s with the introduction of two (2) exotic species: T. Japonicum and T. eldanae. The Indigenous species Telenomus alecto was reared along Trichogramma spp, but this was eventually discontinued some time later. In 1986, colonies of exotic species, Telenomus applantus and an unknown species were introduced. Rearing of this egg parasitoid re-commenced and a small amount of releases were made before the programme was discontinued owing to its failure to become established in the field. The larval endoparasite Lixophaga diatraea was discovered in Cubas sugar cane ecosystem by Loftin in 1915 and was introduced in Guyana presumably by H.E. Box in the same year (Myers, 1931), but its establishment was however unsuccessful. Later in 1933, Myers introduced the Amazon fly Metagonistylum minense to Guyana from Brazil; where it was found parasitizing the Diatraea saccharalis. Three months later releases and recoveries were made in the Demerara Sugar cane ecosystem. Successfully by 1938, the fly was well established as a parasitoid of the Diatraea saccharalis species, after wide spread releases across the Industry (Cleare, 1939). Laboratory rearing and field releasing ceased in 1953 (Bates, 1965), and to date it still is a significant source of mortality against one of the Diatraea species: the Diatraea saccharalis; which meant that the Diatraea centrella population was virtually uncontrolled. This upsurge in the Diatraea centrella population prompted a continuous search for an effective parasite resulting in the introduction of several potential parasites into the country through the cooperation of the West Indies Station of the Commonwealth Institute of Biological control. Disappointingly, none of these parasites could be successfully reared on the D.centrella under laboratory conditions and as such, no releases were possible. Pediobius furvus (Graham) (Hymenoptera: Eulopidae) was eventually introduced in the 1970s showing initial promise of success but work was discontinued in the 1980s for unfounded fears that it might have adverse effects on the established Amazon fly population. Other potential agents introduced include the larval parasites: Cotesia (Apanteles) flavipes (Cameron) and Allorhogas pyralophagus (Marsh) (Both Hymenoptera: Braconidae). A. pyralophagus, a gregarious ecto parasite collected in 1981 from Mexico

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was mass produced from 1989 and released in the Sugar cane ecosystem for approximately six (6) years. The programme was terminated in 1995 after the release of approximately two million adult parasites resulted in a mean field parasitism of only 0.22 percent. In contrast to the mean invitro parasitism rate of 62.3 percent. The reasons for this low rate of parasitism are unknown, but it is quite clear that it offered little prospect for significant control of the Diatraea spp, particularly D. centrella (Dasrat et al, 1997). The Cotesia flavipes was later re introduced in 1990 from Jamaica where rearing was successful on the D. saccharalis. Very low laboratory parasitism on the D. centrella prevailed prevented the continuous rearing, however in efforts to augment the existing population small shipments of Cotesia cocoons were imported form Trinidad in 1991, until laboratory parasitism of the D. centrella was achieved (Dasrat et al, 1997). From the first documented reports of the Diatraea spp population in Guyana, in the early 1900s to the early 1930s, the populations of the Diatraea saccharalis and the Diatraea centrella were in a ration of 1: 1 (Beg & Bennett, 1974). Damage level assessments done several years after the successful introduction and establishment of the Amazon fly Metagonistylum minense from 1938 to 1953 as recounted by Bates (1965) revealed that the ration of the two species had changed to 1:7.3, with damage levels being high at 54.3 percent R.T and 6.10 percent J.B, but not as high as the averages for 1928 1932, 92.6 percent R.T and 23.8 percent J.B, respectively (Huntley, 1987) as highlighted in A-02. These substantial declines in the Diatraea saccharalis population and damage levels were directly attributed to the use of the Brazilian tachnid: the Amazon fly Metagonistylum minense. Unfortunately, its preference for the Diatraea saccharalis allowed for the proliferation of the Diatraea centrella, which today is still predominant in Guyanas sugar cane ecosystems. Later, Bates (1965) revealed that the ration of the two species had changed considerably, based on the species percentages, to 1:15, with damage levels being 64.7 percent R.T and 7.4 percent J.B. Later, Wilen (1969) revealed that the percentage infestation was 4.6 percent: 95.4 percent or the ratio of approximately 1:20, with damage levels at 63.0 percent R.T and 6.7 percent J.B as shown in A-03 and A-04. Infestation surveys conducted over the last 20 years have

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revealed average damage levels ranging from 4.5 5.6 percent J.B by Diatraea spp with natural fluctuations in their populations and seasonal changes in the species ration on various locations on estates. Population surveys have also confirmed that the ration changed for the industry, from 1:4.3 in 1987 (Huntley, 1987) to 1:2 in 2002 with the mean joint damage being 2.03 percent (GUYSUCO quinquennial survey data), as is shown in A05 and A-06. These changes have been a direct result of the changing pest management practices that minimize the dependence on chemical approaches to effectively control pests.

2.10

JUSTIFICATION.

This piece of research has been done because of the following reasons: 1. The sugar sector, which is export-oriented, contributes immensely to Guyanas socioeconomic development: 16 percent of the countrys total GDP and 30 percent of its agricultural GDP are derived from this commodity; it is the largest net earner of foreign exchange in the country; and it is the biggest corporate contributor to public revenue. Moreover, it directly employs 25,000 people or about 10 percent of Guyanas labour force; indirectly, it absorbs a further 10 percent of the countrys citizens (NDS, 2000). 2. Some of the sugar cane grown locally is produced by farmers, as opposed to GUYSUCOs estates, at a farmer/estate cane ratio of 9.5:91 (Bureau of Statistics, 2003). 3. Private cane farmers produce cane at a higher cost than the estates, primarily because their yields are lower and the quality of their cane inferior. These defects in the product are in turn due to ineffective drainage and irrigation systems, the relatively primitive nature of the technology that is applied, and the inadequacy of their farming practices. (Ibid, 2000).

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4. Many developing countries lack regulatory infrastructures including national pesticide registration and control schemes, appropriate legislation regulations, enforcement mechanisms, laboratory infrastructures for quality control and residue analysis for pesticides, etc. Such deficiencies had led to unacceptable situations, such as availability and use of highly acute toxic products and pesticides of inferior quality (FAO, 1999). 5. The World Health Organisation (WHO), has estimated that there are a minimum of 3 million acute severe cases of pesticide poisoning and as many as 20,000 unintentional deaths each year, primarily in developing countries (WHO, 1990) Additionally, it has been estimated that, pesticide poisoning injures 15 million agricultural workers a year (World Bank, 2002). 6. Farmers using these chemicals at the subsistence level for pest control are often illiterate and unaware of many of the potential health and environmental risks associated with pesticide misuse (FAO, 1999). 7. Integrated Pest Management, commonly known as "IPM," is a scientifically accepted pest control method used to decrease both the economic costs of heavy pesticide use and the risk of human and environmental exposure to chemicals. IPM involves an ongoing process of evaluating and treating site-specific pest problems, and eliminating the general practice of applying broad-spectrum pesticides to "prevent" pest problems that don't exist (http://www.wsn.org/pesticides/ipm.shtml). This approach not only ensures high quality agricultural production, but also ensures that it is done in a sustainable, environmentally safe and economically sound manner. More so, it emphasizes the reliance on natural enemy populations and improved cultural practices to increase efficacy of pest management (Dent, 1991).

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CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 3.1 INTRODUCTION

Outlined in the following sub sections of this chapter will be the procedures used in the acquisition and analysis of primary and secondary data relating to the parameters under study. These collections were achieved using: 1. Questionnaire surveys, 2. Secondary data gathering, 3. Extensive reviews of Literature 3.2 QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY

The survey instrument consists of (5) sections that were specifically designed to capture pertinent pieces of information relating to the agronomic practices of cane farmers in Canal # 2 Polder. (Refer to the Appendix for a copy of the survey instrument). The questionairre consisted of five (5) sections A. Location and interview specific details, B. Particulars of person being interviewed, C. Economic activities, D. Health section, and E. Land, farm and agronomic practices. 3.2.1 Sampling Plan

For the purpose of representative sampling in Canal # 2 Polder, a 10% sample (35 Farmers) of the total cane farming population (350) was surveyed based on an established sampling allotment as defined by Table 3.1 for each sub village in Canal # 2 Polder.

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TABLE 3.1 Code 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL 3.2.2

SAMPLING FRAME FOR QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY. Village names Middle Section. Resource. Alliance. New Ann Legt. The Buff. Rosetta. Endeavour. The Commons. Mon Desir. Questionairre allotment 6 6 5 6 4 3 3 3 3 35

Piloting of Questionnaire

The first draft of the questionairre was pre tested in Canal # 2 Polder by a sample of five (5) sugar cane farmers and found to need minor adjustments. Amendments were made to the survey instrument and the problems that presented themselves were soon remedied by question restructuring. 3.2.3 Data collection procedures

This study required the capture of certain pieces of information from specifically sugar cane farmers in Canal # 2 Polder. In conducting this survey, opportunity sampling was used, but it was important that each sub-village be representatively sampled. Additionally, for verifying the identity of the interviewee an identification card outlining the objectives of the questionairre survey was presented to each respondent before questioning commenced. Further, the responses secured were entered into their appropriate place on the survey instrument to be later prepared for data entry by codification. 3.2.4 Data Inputting and Analysis

The responses acquired from the questionairre surveys were codified as defined by the Coding key for the purposes of data entry (Refer to Appendix). Each code was then entered into the appropriate column of the inputting form or spreadsheet of the statistical package (SPSS version 8.0), for the purpose of analysis. In addition to the previously mentioned

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statistical package, Microsoft Excel 2000 was used to generate tables, charts, frequency distributions and other data representations for trend observation and analysis. 3.3 SECONDARY INFORMATION GATHERING

Quintennial Diatraea spp survey data indicative of species ration; Routine damage assessment (3, 6, 9 and 12 month) survey data representative of mean (%) Joints bored and (%) Rotten top by crop cycle; and post release assessment data indicative of total agent production, parasitism rates, amount of agents released and field parasitism, were collected from the GUYSUCO Agricultural Research unit of the East Demerara Estate. 3.3.1 Data Analysis

The Summarized pieces of data that were collected was analysed against the backdrop of the population and damage figures presented in research works highlighted in the literature review and the established thresholds set by GUYSUCO at 5.0 % Joints bored. and 10.0 % Rotten top. These parameters were additionally assessed over a three-year period to determine the effect of established management practices on the two estate locations under investigation. 3.4 LITERATURE REVIEW

The pieces of literature reviewed ranged from edited and/ or authored book works; published and unpublished research papers, journals, scientific conference papers, theses, encyclopaedias, abstracts, annual reports and internet publications. The pieces of information gathered from these sources were useful in the presentation of an historical as well as present day perspective in relation to Diatraea spp management in sugar cane ecosystems.

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CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS/ RESULTS 4.1 4.1.1 DISCUSSION OF SECONDARY DATA Diatraea spp. damage trend (1999/2000 2002)

Examining the 1999/2000-2002 figures quoted in A-07 and A-08 that give a general summary of the damage trends over the time period as per cropping cycle for both Estate locations: Blairmont and La Bonne Intention, it can be observed that damage levels are below the established economic thresholds of 5.0 percent (J.D) and 10.0 percent (R.T), respectively. But, in comparing the presented damage levels delineated in tables above, it can be clearly seen that higher incidences of Diatraea spp damage, prevail on the Blairmont Estate15 (1999/2000 2.90% J.D, 2.18 % R.T; 2001 3.43 % J.D, 2.24 % R.T; 2002 - 2.58%J.D, 1.50% R.T) as opposed to the East Demerara Estate is portrayed in Figure 4.1 and Figure 4.2, respectively. Figure 4.1 Summary of % J.D and % R.T for the Blairmont Estate (1999/2000-2002)
% J.B 3.5 3 2.5 % J.D / % R.T 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1999/2000 2001 Year 2002 % R.T
16

(1999/2000

1.50% J.D, 0.77 % R.T; 2001 1.31 % J.D, 0.78 % R.T; 2002 - 1.73 %J.D, 1.03% R.T), as

15

In 1999/2000 % Joints bored was 2.90 percent and % rotten top was 2.18 percent. Later in 2001, these percentages increased by 0.53 and 0.16 percent respectively, and in 2002s damage trend % J.B increased from its previous level by 0.35 percent, but the latter decreased by 0.84 percent. 16 In 1999/2000 % Joints bored was 1.50 percent and % rotten top was 0.77 percent. Later in 2001, % J.B decreased by 0.21 and % R.T increased by 0.01 percent, and in 2002s damage trend both damage manifestations increased from their previous level by 0.42 and 0.25 percent, respectively.

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Figure 4.2 Summary of % J.D and % R.T GARU/EDE (1999/2000-2002)

% J.B 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 % J.D / % R.T 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 % R.T

1999/2000

2001 Year

2002

Although these data presentations seemingly give the indication that economic thresholds are not being surpassed, it can be clearly seen that some cultivated varieties are severely attacked by the Diatraea spp while some varieties are least affected at certain periods of the sugar canes growth. Examining the damage trends presented in A-09 to -A-14 representative of the time frame under analysis, it can be seen that damage levels are far higher on the Blairmont estate as opposed to the East Demerara Estates. This is particularly the reason why biological control agent production has been so high for the Blairmont estate as opposed to the East Demerara estates, as will be further elaborated on in the upcoming sections.

4.1.2

Biocontrol programme assessment

The introduction of the exotic biological control agent: Cotesia flavipes as a source of mortality for the control of the Diatraea spp in the Sugar cane cultivations of GUYSUCO have shown success since 1995 as the Biocontrol assessment data has indicated.

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4.1.2.1

Total Laboratory production and percentage parasitism

Total progeny production and percentage laboratory parasitism for the programme at the Blairmont estate (LBI) has shown for 2003, a production quantum of 587, 910 adults and a laboratory parasitism rate of 79.07 percent, as against that of the year 1995, which shows a total production of 3,259 adults and 6.25 percent. Meanwhile for the La Bonne Intention estates biological control programme in 2003, parasitoid production levels were some 210,480 adults and a laboratory parasitism rate of 31.18 percent and in 1995, a parasitoid production level of 6821 adults and a laboratory parasitism rate of 23.0 percent. as is shown in Figure 4.3 and Figure 4.4 . Meanwhile in 1995, for the overall industry, parasitoid production levels and parasitism rates were 47,244 adults and 17.05%, respectively. While in 2003, total parasitoid production and laboratory parasitism were 1,822,715 and 60.70%, respectively, clearly showing significant improvements. (Figure 4.5) These figures when closely examined show an increase in the levels of production as well as parasitism as is shown in A-15, but looking even more closely at the data derived, for the Blairmont estate, parasitism levels were low in 1995 at 6.25 percent, since rearing was only extended in 1994, but has gradually increased from thence to approximately 79.07 percent. Similarly, have the production levels of the parasitoid, from 3,259 adults in 1995 to 587,910 adults for 2003. But, for the La Bonne Intention estate, the initial place of Cotesia rearing and release, that showed in 1995 parasitoid production levels and parasitism rates of 6821 adults (some 3,022 adults more than the Blairmont estate) and 23.0 percent (some 16.75 percent more than the Blairmont estate), there has not been a consistent trend of increase as that of the corresponding estate, which is reflected in 2003s data, showing a total production of 210,480 adults and a laboratory parasitism rate of 31.18 percent These increases, over time, in both production levels and parasitism rates, have been quite significant. But, quite startling, similar consistent trends have not been seen in the East Demerara estate: La Bonne Intention, as it relates to the laboratory parasitism rates which only show an 8.18 percent increase up to 2003. But, for the Blairmont estates bio control

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programme a consistent increase of up to 72.82 percent for 2003, which seems to be quite promising. Figure 4.3 Cotesia flavipes production Trend GARU/EDE1995-2003)

T.P % L.P Total Laboratory Production 250000 200000 150000 100000 50000 0 1995 1997 1999 2001 2002 2003 YEAR 50 40 30 20 10 0 Ave% Parasitism

Figure 4.4 Cotesia flavipes production Trend - Blairmont Estate (1995-2003)

T.P % L.P Total Laboratory Production 700000 600000 500000 400000 300000 200000 100000 0 1995 1997 1999 2001 2002 2003 YEAR 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Figure 4.5 Cotesia flavipes production Trend Industry (1995-2003)

Ave% Parasitism

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T.P % L.P 2000000 1800000 1600000 1400000 1200000 1000000 800000 600000 400000 200000 0 1995 1997 1999 2001 2002 2003 YEAR Total Laboratory Production 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Ave% Parasitism

4.1.2.2

Total Field Releases and percentage parasitism

Data presented in A-16 shows that there have been significant increases in the quantum of biological agents released in the cultivations of Blairmont and the La Bonne Intention estates, since 1995. These successes have been largely attributed to the high levels of diatraea larvae recovery, production of healthy parasitoids and their ability to thrive in local sugar cane ecosystems. Total parasitoid releases and field parasitism have shown a rather erratic trend but have increased significantly from 2875 adults and 0% in 1995 to 203,866 adults and 3.85 % in 2003 for the East Demerara Estates; and from 8,290 adults and 0% in 1995 to 2,028,406 adults and 17.3% in 2003 for the Blairmont estates as is shown in Figure 4.6 and Figure 4.7.

Figure 4.6 Cotesia flavipes Field establishment trend GARU/EDE (19952003)

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F.R 250000 Total Field Releases 200000 150000 100000 50000 0 1995 1997 1999 Year 2001 2002 2003 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 % F.P

Figure 4.7 Cotesia flavipes Field establishment trend Blairmont Estate (1995-2003)
F.R 2500000 Total Field Releases 2000000 1500000 10 1000000 500000 0 1995 1997 1999 2001 2002 2003 Year 5 0 20 15 % F.P

Meanwhile in 1995, for the overall industry, parasitoid releases and parasitism rates were 19590 adults and 0.5%, respectively. While in 2003, total parasitoid production and laboratory parasitism were 3,264,452 and 14.71%, respectively, clearly showing marked improvements (Figure 4.8). Figure 4.8 Cotesia flavipes Field establishment trend Industry (1995-2003)

AVE % L.P

AVE % L.P

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F.R 3500000 3000000 Total Field Releases 2500000 2000000 1500000 1000000 500000 0 1995 1997 1999 2001 2002 2003 Year 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 AVE % L.P % F.P

4.1.3

DIATRAEA SPECIES RATIO ASSESSMENT

Historically, as was highlighted in the latter portions of Section 2.8, the Diatraea saccharalis and the Diatraea centrella were in a equal 1:1 ratio prior to the introduction of the Amazon fly into the sugar cultivations of then known British Guiana (Guyana). But, because of the preference of the Amazon fly for one of the two species, there was a significant change in the ratio of the two pests owing to the proliferation of the Diatraea centrella. The Quinquennial survey results A-5 collected, show that in 1987 the DS: DC ratio for the Blairmont estate was approximately 1:0.5 (Figure 4.9); and for the La Bonne Intention Estate 1:8.1 (Figure 4.10), But for the Industry 1:4.3 (Figure 4.11). Further, results show that, for 2002- the last Quinquennial survey period- ratios were 1:1.4 for the Blairmont estate; 1:2.3 for the East Demerara estates and 1:2.0 for the Industry. (Figure 4.12).

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Figure 4.9 Diatraea spp ratio for the Blairmont Estate (1987-2002)
D.S D.C

DS:DC RATIO

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 1987 1992 Ye ars 1997 2002

Figure 4.10 Diatraea spp. ratio for the GARU/EDE (1987-2002)

D.S D.C

DS:DC RATIO

5 4 3 2 1 0 1987 1992 Ye ars 1997 2002

Figure 4.11 Diatraea spp. ratio for the Industry (1987-2002)

10 8 DS:DC RATIO 6 4 2 0 1987 1992 Years 1997 2002 D.S D.C

Figure 4.12 Diatraea spp. ratio for the Industry (1928-2002)

D.S

5 4 DS:DC RATIO 3 2 1 0 1928 1987 1992

YEARS

D.C

1997

2002

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4.2 4.2.1

PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS Sample Representation

The survey results revealed that 35 households: approximately 10 percent of the cane farming population, were surveyed in the Canal # 2 Polder area; with respondents emanating from several sub villages in Canal # 2 Polder as is shown in the following (Table 4.1) Table 4.1 Distribution of cane farmer households sampled by Sub village in Canal # 2 Polder

Area Middle section Resource Alliance New Ann Legt The Buff Rosetta Endeavour The Commons Mon Desir Total 4.2.2 Sex Distribution

Number of Households sampled 6 5 2 7 4 3 6 0 2 35

Percent 17.1 14.3 5.7 20.0 11.4 8.6 17.1 0.0 5.7 100.0

Based on the survey results, 91.4 percent (32 respondents) were male and approximately 8.6 percent (3 respondents) were female (Figure 4.13). The latter statistic may have been representative of the compensating role played by women in the absence of men folk because of either infidelity or bereavement. Nevertheless, in such cases, there was heavy reliance on family labour or on hired labour for the upkeep of cane cultivation plots. This practise along with the high costs of production inputs have caused private cane farmer costs of production to escalate and profit margains to be significantly narrowed; thus rendering cane cultivation unfeasible or unattractive.

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Figure 4.13 Sex Distribution of sampled population Male Female

Female 9%

Male 91%

4.2.3

Age Distribution.

From the sample, 34.3 percent (12 respondents) were between the ages of 36 45 years; 28.6 percent (10 respondents) between 26- 35 years of age; 17.1 percent (6 respondents) between 46 55 years; 5.7 percent (2 respondents) between 55 65 years as shown in Figure 4.14. Quite interestingly, at an age that one would consider retirement in urban centers, 14.3 percent (5 respondents) indicated that they were still actively engaged in Sugar cane cultivation. Further, persons from this class indicated that pension receipts were often insufficient to support their families, and as such, sugar cane cultivation was a means of supplementing this meager, but yet useful monetary handout. Figure 4.14 Age Distribution of Sugar cane farmers
0-16

35 30 25 20 % SAMPLE 15 10 5 0 0 0

34.3 28.6 17.1 5.7 1 AGE

16-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 55-65

14.3

Greater than 65

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4.2.4

Ethnicity Distribution

Survey results reveal that the area is predominantly an Indo Guyanese area, with this ethnic group accounting for 100% of the surveyed sample, as is highlighted in the underlying (Table 4.2). Table 4.2 Ethnic Distribution of sampled Sugar cane farmer population Distribution Category Afro Guyanese Indo Guyanese Mixed Other Total 4.2.5 Marital Status Frequency 0 35 0 0 35 Percent 0 100.0 0 0 100.0

As Table 4.3 indicates, 71.4 percent of the respondents were married; 14.3 percent were single; 8.6 percent were in a common law union (CLU) and approximately 5. 7 percent were widowed. Table 4.3 Marital Status of Sugar cane farmers Distribution Category Common law Union Married Single Widowed Divorced Total 4.2.6 Educational Level Frequency 3 25 5 2 0 35 Percent 8.6 71.4 14.3 5.7 0 100.0

Although the populace of city centres are afforded the opportunity of schooling at the secondary and even tertiary or tertiary levels. Table 4.4 indicates that 77.1 percent (27 respondents) received only primary education, 17.1 percent (6 respondents) received

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secondary education, 2.9 percent (1 respondent) received technical education and another 2.9 percent (1 respondent) received no education.

Table 4.4 Educational levels of Sugar cane farmers Distribution Category None Nursery Primary Secondary Technical Education Tertiary Education Total Frequency 1 0 27 6 1 0 35 Percent 2.9 0 77.1 17.1 2.9 0 100.0

Quite interestingly, many of the respondents indicated that the economic disposition of their families back then- at school attending ages- did not permit for further opportunities at Education. Table 4.5 indicates however, that two (2) female respondents managed to obtain a secondary school education.

Table 4.5 Educational level by Gender Category Male Female Total Percent None 1 0 1 2.9 Nursery 0 0 0 0 Primary Secondary Technical 26 4 1 1 2 0 27 6 1 77.1 17.1 2.9 Tertiary 0 0 0 0 Total 32 3 35 100.0

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4.2.7 4.2.7.1

PESTICIDE USE AND HEALTH PROFILE Pesticide application

According to the findings of the survey presented in tabular form below (Table 4.6), 100 percent of the respondents used pesticides for the purpose of general pest control.

Table 4.6 Pesticide applications. Distribution Category Yes No Not applicable Total Frequency 35 0 0 35 Percent 100.0 0 0 100.0

4.2.7.2 Reason for Pesticide usage (Figure 4.15) generated from the survey results, reveal that, 77.1 percent (27 respondents) used weedicides for general weed control and 22.9 percent (8 respondents) indicated that they combined the pesticides to hit, as we would say, colloquially, two birds with one stone, to effect mortality of both weeds and insects. But there were no cases of applications for specifically insect pest control.

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Figure 4.15 Percentage Distribution of the reasons for pesticide use Weed control Insect and Weed control
23%

77%

4.2.7.3

Adherence to general pesticide application considerations

Although it is recognised that the use of safety apparel and general spraying considerations greatly reduce the health risk associated with pesticide handling, survey results reveal that 71.4 percent (25 respondents) did not use respirators. (Table 4.7) Table 4.7 Use of Respirators. Distribution Category Yes No Not applicable Total Frequency 10 25 0 35 Percent 28.6 71.4 0 100.0

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Further, as it relates to the use of plastic gloves or heavy-duty gloves, only 31.4 percent (11 respondents) indicated using them (Table 4.8). Based on an observation that was made of the hands of a cane farmer, his fingernails were rotted significantly and discoloured giving them a horrid look. This he indicated was as a direct effect of the chemical on his hand. The question is, who knows what a toxicological study would reveal, for many other farmers suffering with ailments that have been caused by improper pesticide use. Table 4.8 Use of Plastic or heavy-duty gloves. Distribution Category Yes No Not applicable Total Frequency 11 24 0 35 Percent 31.4 68.6 0 100.0

From the survey results highlighted in Table 4.9 it was also recognised that there was also minimal use of goggles or eyepieces that minimize or prevent chemical spray droplets from accessing the body through the dermal tissues of the eye. Table 4.9 Use of protective eyepieces. Distribution Category Yes No Not applicable Total Frequency 6 29 0 35 Percent 17.1 82.9 0 100.0

A significant percentage of the cane farmer population surveyed (71.4 percent) changed leaky spray can seals (Table 4.10) which is quite justifiable given the effects a damaged seal on the performance of the task at hand and probably, on the health of its applicant. Table 4.10 Changing of leaky spray can seals. Distribution Category Yes No Frequency 25 8 Percent 71.4 22.9

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Not applicable Total

2 35

5.7 100.0

Further, as it relates to the use of protective overalls or protective clothing there is indication that 100 percent (32 respondents) used none, but instead used long sleeve shirts, long pants tucked into long boots (Table 4.11). Farmers were generally of the opinion that these pieces of apparel were effective in their protective capacity. In spite of this perception, these pieces of apparel are porous and can facilitate easy entry of pesticide active ingredients through the material into the pores of the skin. Farmers indicate that protective pieces of apparel were cumbersome, uncomfortable and expensive. Table 4.11 Use or protective clothing or overalls. Distribution Category Yes No Not applicable Total Frequency 0 32 0 35 Percent 0 100.0 0 100.0

Standard pesticide application directions indicate that pesticides are not to be sprayed into the wind, but should be applied backing the wind to reduce the risk of pesticide exposure. Survey results indicate that 62.9 percent (22 respondents) used these considerations, while 37.1 percent (13 respondents) sprayed the pesticide without considering wind velocity (Table 4.12) Table 4..12 Use of Directional spraying considerations Distribution Category Yes No Not applicable Total Frequency 22 13 0 35 Percent 62.9 37.1 0 100.0

Elaborating on the latter issue, many of the respondents indicated that their field orientation/ layout did not allow for directional spraying considerations to be employed, but 8.6 percent (3 respondents) indicated that they did such applications in low wind velocity situations to avoid upwelling of the chemical. This is quite commendable, but as

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the survey results in Table 4.13 indicate, a great many farmers still spray without considering such factors. Table 4.13 Use of other spraying considerations Distribution Category Yes No Not applicable Total Frequency 3 0 32 35 Percent 8.6 0 91.4 100.0

These findings clearly highlight the great need for training in the proper use of pesticides and additionally at the policy level the need for pesticide usage regulation and their effective enforsal in agricultural communities in Guyana.

4.2.7.4

Pesticide exposure and symptom manifestation.

Interestingly, though toxicological studies have not been conducted to confirm pesticide exposure and its implications on the health of farmer populations in this and other major producing areas in Guyana, survey results indicate that some 42.9 percent (15 respondents) manifested symptoms of illness as a result of direct pesticide exposure (Table 4.14). Table 4.14 Pesticide exposure symptoms. Distribution Category Yes No Total Frequency 15 20 35 Percent 42.9 57.1 100.0

22.9 percent (8 respondents) indicated having manifestation of two symptoms and 20.0 percent (7 respondents) indicated having one symptoms being manifested as is highlighted in the underlying table (Table 4.15.1 and Table 4..15.2).

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Table 4.15.1 Case manifestations of pesticide exposure symptoms. Distribution Category None One Symptom Two Symptoms Total Frequency 20 7 8 35 Percent 57.1 20.0 22.9 100.0

These symptomatic manifestations included nausea, dizziness, skin irritations, headaches, asphyxiation (shortness of breath), burning; nostrils, that have been highlighted, in terms of frequency as is indicated in Table 4.15.2. Table 4.15.2 Manifestation of Pesticide exposure symptoms. None Dizziness Category None Dizziness Nausea Skin irritations Numbness Headaches Shortness of breath Burning Nostrils Other Total 20 2 0 1 0 2 0 0 2 27 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Skin Nausea Headaches Shortnes Burning Other Irrita s of nostrils tions Breath 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 Total

20 4 1 4 0 3 1 0 2 35

4.2.7.5

Treatment of pesticide exposure symptoms.

Table 4.16 indicates that pesticide exposure symptoms were treated by 40 percent (14 respondents), while 2.9 percent (1 respondant) did nothing when these symptoms became manifested.

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Table 4.16 Treated Pesticide exposure symptoms. Distribution Category Yes No Not applicable Total Frequency 14 1 20 35 Percent 40.0 2.86 57.10 100.0

However, for those respondents indicating that some form of treatment was used, as shown in Table 4.17.1, 22.9 percent (8 respondents) used two remedies, while 17.1 percent (6 respondents) used a single remedy to treat with symptoms of pesticide exposure. Table 4.17.1 Number of cases of symptom treatment. Distribution Category None One remedy Two remedies Not applicable Total Frequency 1 6 8 20 35 Percent 2.86 17.1 22.9 57.1 100.0

Quite interestingly, it was found that none of the respondents sought the assistance of any medical practitioner to treat with symptoms. But, relied heavily on several forms of home remedy as is shown in Table 4.17.2, ranging from the use of milk, alcohol, and water; which increase the rate of metabolism of foreign compounds (Xenobiotics), to bathing and resting. Table 4.17.2 Symptoms treatments used. None Category None Drank milk Drank alcohol Took a bath Took some rest Did nothing special Other 20 3 0 0 2 0 1 Drank Milk 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Drank Alcohol 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Took Took Did A bath some rest nothing special 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Total 21 6 1 4 2 0 1

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Total 4.2.8 4.2.8.1

26

35

PESTICIDE HANDLING Pesticide Storage

Table 4.18, indicates that 77.1 percent (27 respondents) had a special place for pesticide storage that was secured. However, results also revealed that 8.6 percent (3 respondents) stored these chemicals indoors; which is indeed a high-risk occurrence if pesticide containers were to be mistaken, by unsuspecting individuals, for water or food containing receptacles. Table 4.18 Type of Storage for pesticides Distribution Category Special store room Under the House In the House On farm plot Just buy to use Other Not applicable Total 4.2.8.2 Pesticide container disposal Frequency 27 1 3 0 3 1 0 35 Percent 77.1 2.9 8.6 0 8.6 2.9 0 100.0

The main methods of pesticide container disposal, as indicated by the surveys results presented in Table 4.19, reveal that 54.3 percent (19 respondents) disposed of chemical containers in the cane field for subsequent pre harvest burning; 25.7 percent (9 respondents) disposed of chemical containers via burning; 11.4 percent (4 respondents), disposed of chemical containers with domestic garbage in the proximity of the homestead; 5.7 percent (2 respondents) buried chemical containers. Given that Polder areas are generally susceptible to flooding, disposal of chemical containers in the field, especially containers that have been damaged before disposal can result in seepages of the active

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ingredients into the water table. Consequentially, resulting in the reductions of potable water quality to levels that can be considered unsatisfactory for human consumption. Table 4.19 Methods of pesticide container disposal Distribution Category Burning Burying Disposal into canal Disposal in field Disposal with domestic garbage Rinse and re- use Other Total Frequency 9 2 1 19 4 0 0 35 Percent 25.7 5.7 2.9 54.3 11.4 0 0 100.0

4.2.8.3

Pesticide Residue disposal

Inquiry was also made of methods of pesticide residue disposal and it was found that 40 percent (14 respondents) washed sprayers disposing of residues in back dam field drains, and 40 percent (14 respondents) washed sprayers at a standpipe situated in their yards. While, 11.4 percent (4 respondents) disposed of residue on land in their cultivation plots (Table 4.20). Table 4.20 Methods of pesticide residue disposal Distribution Category Disposal atop of dam bed Wash at standpipe in yard Wash in back dam drains Throw on the land in the field No special way Other Total Frequency 0 14 14 4 0 3 35 Percent 0 40.0 40.0 11.4 0 8.6 100.0

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4.2.8.4

Use of fish from catchment areas

Of concern, with these particular revelations, are the associated ecological and health implications of improper disposal practices. Since, 28.6 percent (10 respondents) caught fishes from main canals for consumption (Table 4.21.1), with 5.7 percent (2 respondents) capturing fish from these waterways which are ultimately the catchments for pesticide residue - as recently as two (2) weeks ago, as shown in Table 4.21.2 Table 4.21 .1 Use of fish from main canals for consumption Distribution Category Yes No Total Frequency 10 25 35 Percent 28.6 71.4 100.0

Table 4.21.2 Time frame of fish capture for consumption Distribution Category A few days ago Last week Last two weeks Last month Last year NA Total Frequency 1 2 0 1 6 25 35 Percent 2.9 5.7 0 2.9 17.1 71.4 100.0

4.2.8.5

Use of Pesticide containers

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Quite, interestingly 2.9 percent (1 respondent) indicated using pesticide bottles for storing drinking water. But, generally 97.1 percent indicated that at no time did they ever use these containers for storing water or any other type of food stuff (Table 4.22). Table 4.22 Use of Pesticide containers for storage of water or foodstuff Distribution Category Yes No Total 4.2.9 Frequency 1 34 35 Percent 2.9 97.1 100.0

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE

Agricultural extension is a useful function that can change farmer mindset and ultimately husbandry practices. Survey results reveal that limited technical assistance is offered in this particular area (Table 4.23) . Table 4.23 Technical Advice received Distribution Category Yes No Total Frequency 2 33 35 Percent 5.7 94.3 100.0

Respondents acknowledging receipt of agricultural extension information, indicated that information on general pesticide handling was provided (Table 4.24) Table 4.24 Type of Advice given Distribution Category Avoiding contamination Use of protective gears Directional spraying Disposal of containers All of the above Not applicable Total Frequency 0 1 0 0 1 33 35 Percent 0 2.9 0 0 2.9 94.3 100.0

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4.2.10 4.2.10.1

AGRONOMIC PRACTICES AND PESTICIDE USAGE PATTERNS Land Farmed and Sugar Production levels

This survey showed that land ownership ranged from less than 5 acres to as much as 100 acres with a mean farm size of about 12.3 acres. Figure 4.16 depicted below, clearly indicates that approximately 8.6 percent (3 respondents) owned no land, but had lands under alternative land tenure arrangements; 40 percent (14 respondents) owned less than 5 acres, 37.1 percent (13 respondents) owned between 5.50 - 15 acres; and 14.3 percent (5 respondents) owning greater than 15 acres. These figures clearly indicate a high level of small and medium sized farms. Figure 4.16 Pie chart showing distribution of owned lands
None 0-5 acres 5.5-15 acres 14% 9% >15 acres

37%

40%

Table 4.25, providing a break down of the differing land tenure arrangements, shows that 429.95 acres of land was owned, 57 acres was under other tenure arrangements, and 425.0 acres were under Sugar cane cultivation. Farmers indicated that the difference between the

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amounts of land owned and the amount of land under cultivation was a direct result of improper an improperly functioning drainage system and the prohibitively high costs associated with Sugar cane cultivation. Sugar cane yield ranged from 22.5 to 36.8 tonnes of cane per acre, with the mean yield being 28.2 tonnes per acre. Total Sugarcane production levels for the sampled population ranged from 180 tonnes of cane to 7367 tonnes of cane, with a total of approximately 13,713 tonnes of cane (Table 4.26). Table 4.25 Land tenure arrangemnt Land Owned 158.0 23.5 10.0 92.0 36.2 15.0 84.25 0 10.0 429.95 Land Rented in 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Land Rented out 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Other Type land 25 12 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 57 Land Farmed 183.0 22.0 8.0 108.0 31.0 5.5 57.5 0 10.0 425.0

Area Middle section Resource Alliance New Ann Legt The Buff Rosetta Endeavour The Commons Mon Desir Total

Table 4.26 Total: Area farmed, Sugar cane yield and Production Total Farmed (Acres) Percentage Average Farmed Crop yield (Acres) (Tonnes cane per acre) Total Percentage Crop Production producti (Tonnes on cane) (Tonnes cane Harveste d) 7367 53.7 672 4.90 180 1.3 2370 17.3 745 5.4 163 1.2 1968 14.4 0 0 248 1.8

Area

Middle section Resource Alliance New Ann Legt The Buff Rosetta Endeavour The Commons Mon Desir

183.0 22.0 8.0 108.0 31.0 5.5 57.5 0 10.0

43.1 5.2 1.9 25.4 7.3 1.3 13.5 0 2.4

33.62 31 23.3 24.0 22.5 36.8 29.6 0 24

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Total/ Average

425.0

100.0

28.2

13,713

100.0

4.2.10.2

Sugar cane varieties cultivated

Table 4.27 shows that 82.9 percent (29 respondents) cultivated White knot, while 28.6 percent (14 respondents) cultivated White soft cane. These varieties are often cultivated, as indicated by the underlying table, on an average of 19 years and 12 years, respectively. Table 4.27 Varieties of sugar cane cultivated and Average cycle length Average Cycle length 19 6 5 9 12 2 2 19 20 1 5 5.5

Category White knot Bid eye harry Fat white Morning cock White soft cane Red soft cane Ice apple Pindar Iron man DB7869 Spurwing Old man beard

Frequency 29 1 8 10 14 1 1 4 1 1 1 1

Percentage 82.9 2.9 22.9 28.6 40 2.9 2.9 11.4 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9

Interestingly, many of the respondents indicated that these varieties were being cultivated along with other varieties, because such a practise managed to harness the differing characteristics of the cultivated cane varieties, and increased the weight of canes harvested. Elaborating further, respondents indicated that some of the thick-stemmed varieties do not allow for maximum utilization of packing arrangement. However, when combined with

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thinner stemmed varieties these vacant spaces are filled thus giving a higher packing density and accordingly more tonnage.

4.2.10.3

Influencing biotic factors

From Table 4.28, it can be seen that the main pests affecting sugar cane cultivations, are weeds affecting 100 percent (35 respondents). Further, 82.9 percent (29 respondents) are affected by the small moth borer; 77.1 percent by leaf-eating beetles that destroy the eye of the cane setts; 74.3 percent by the large moth borers that brings about mortality to the entire stool; 48.6 percent (17 respondents) by rats that destroy the cane stalk; 42.9 percent (15 respondents) by caterpillars that defoliate entire cultivation in short space of time. From the survey, the main insect pests found affecting sugar cane cultivations, in terms of severity, were the beetles, rats and leaf-eating caterpillars. Many of the respondents indicated that the damages caused the large and small moth borers can be tolerated, because their levels of incidence are fairly low. Table 4.28 General pests affecting sugar cane cultivations Category Small moth borers Large moth borers Frog Hoppers Termites Caterpillars Beetles Ants Smut Rats Weeds 4.2.10.4 Frequency 29 26 2 10 15 27 12 11 17 35 Percent 82.9 74.3 5.7 28.6 42.9 77.1 34.3 31.4 48.6 100.0

Pesticide acquisition and usage patterns.

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The underlying Figure 4.17 shows that some 77 percent (27 respondents) sourced their pesticides from a retailer in Canal # 2 Polder.

Figure 4.17 Source of pesticides

Caribbean Chemicals Amazon Chemicals Retailer in village

3% 3%

17%

Other

77% Further, with 94.3 percent (33 respondents) acknowledging the receipt of labelling on bottles, 2.9 percent (1 respondent) the receipt of leaflets or pamphlets and 2.9 percent (1 respondent) the receipt of verbal communication. (Table 4.29) Table 4.29 Forms of information received Distribution Category Instruction labeling on bottles Leaflets of pamphlets Verbal communication Total Frequency 33 1 1 35 Percent 94.3 2.9 2.9 100.0

However, quite surprisingly, though directions for chemical application were provided, in the forms above stated, 60 percent of the sample (21 respondents) trusted their own judgment above the application rates that were plainly written on the bottle or pesticidecontaining receptacle. (Table 4.30)

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Table 4.30 Adherence to directions provided Distribution Category Frequency Never 21 Occasionally 6 Every time 8 Total 35 Pesticide Brand names used. Percent 60.0 17.1 22.9 100.0

4.2.10.5

Table 4.31 reveals that approximately 97.1 percent (34 respondents) applied the brand names: 2,4-D and Karmex, to kill weeds; acquiring them at the underlying retail costs. These weedicides are often applied at different stages of the sugarcanes growth by labourers at a cost ranging from $1000.00 to $1500.00 for a work period of approximately 5 hours (7:00 am 12:00 pm). Their services are often contracted for approximately 4 weeks for both chemical applications. In total the costs of general weed and insect control is moderately estimated at $21, 000.00 (labour) + Costs of chemicals (2,4D, Karmex, Grammaxil, Grammaxone) $12,000.00 = $ 33,000.00 per acre. The survey results have also managed to show that these chemicals are often applied in tandem with weedicides - as was mentioned earlier - to bring about mortality of both weeds and insect fauna (Figure 4.15 above). This practice of pesticide combination by farmers is a dangerous practice since lethal byproducts can be produced and more importantly, the active ingredients in the chemicals brought to none effect.

Table 4.31 Brand name and average retailing cost of pesticides used Retailing price per unit $5,00.00/ pint $1,000.00/ 1 pound $1,400.00/ 1 pound $3,000.00/1 litre $2,000.00/1 litre $2,000.00/1 litre Distribution Frequency Percent 34 34 8 12 15 2 97.1 97.1 22.9 34.3 42.9 5.7

Category WEEDICIDE 2, 4 D Karmex Acelox Grammaxil Grammaxone Touchdown

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Merlin INSECTICIDE Monocrotophus Malathion Basadin 4.2.10.6

$1,200.00/ 0.25 pound $1,000.00/ 0.5 ounces $1,000.00/ 0.5 pints $12,000.00/1 litre

1 6 3 2

2.9 17.1 8.6 5.7

Pesticide Application Rates

Approximately 88.6 percent of the sample (31 respondents) did not use the recommended application rates as delineated on the bottle labeling. While, 11.4 percent (4 respondents) acknowledged using recommended dosages. Table 4.32 Table 4.32 Use of recommended dosages Category Yes No Total Frequency 4 31 35 Distribution Percent 11.4 88.6 100.0

Table 4.33, reveals that the approximated dosage rates for most of the pesticides with the exception of Basadin, were below the stipulated rates of application. Though these figure give the indication that pesticide application rates are below the minimum overall, individually, some dosages were found to be quite higher than the stipulated dosages Table 4.33 Pesticide application rates Category Recommended Application Rates (Unit/ acre) 2 pts/acre 1 lbs/acre 3 lbs/acre 2 pts/acre 2 pts/acre 4 tbs/ acre 2 pts/acre Dosages Approximated Average Dosages used (Units / acre) 0.53 pts/acre 0.54 lbs/acre 0.50 lbs/acre 0.40 pts/acre 0.30 pts/acre 4.00 tbsp/acre 0.25 pts/acre Level of Deviation (Units) 1.5 pts/acre 0.5 lbs/acre 2.5 lbs/acre 1.6 pts/acre 1.7 pts/acre 0 tbsp/acre 1.75 pts/acre

WEEDICIDES 2, 4 D Karmex Aculox Gramoxil Gramaxone Merlin Touchdown INSECTICIDES

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Monocrotophus Malathion Basadin

0.5 pts/acre 2 tsp/acre 0.25pts/acre

0.25pts/acre 12.0 tsp/acre 0.75pts/acre

0.25pts/acre 10 tsp/acre +0.50 pts/acre

4.2.10.7 Reason using and not using recommended dosages

For those respondents that used the recommended dosage rates of application (some 11.4 percent), 5.7 percent indicated the instructions were clear so the directions could have been followed and a further 5.7 percent indicated that the recommended dosages were effective enough, as is portrayed in the underlying Figure 4.18. Figure 4.18 Distribution of reasons for using recommended dosages Effective Clear instruction NA

5.7%

5.7%

88.6%

However, Figure 4.19 shows that, 29 respondents (85.3 percent) indicated that the recommended rates of dosage were ineffective, while one (1) respondent, didnt not understand the instructions on the labeling of the bottle. Figure 4.19 Distribution of reasons for not using recommended dosages

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Ineffective
2.9% 11.8%

Didnt understand NA

85.3%

4.2.11.

USE AND KNOWLEDGE OF OTHER PEST CONTROL TECHNIQUES

4.2.11.1

Use of other pest control techniques

Table 4.34 indicates that 88.6 percent (31 respondents) were using methods of weed and pest control, other than the chemical control. These techniques included manual and mechanical weeding, the wrapping of cane thrash and placing them in rows, for the purpose of mulching, and post harvest burning of sugar cane residues. Quite interestingly, many of the farmers formed an association between pest incidence and weed prevalence, which is very amazing. It was also indicated by farmers that the practice of cane thrash wrapping (mulching) controls grass but, negatively, encourages rodents that ultimately cause stalk damage. Further 2.9 percent of the sample (1 respondent) encouraged the proliferation of certain species of Reptilia (i.e. Snakes) to limit the rodent population.

Table 4.34 Use of other pest control techniques Category None Biological control None 2 1 Biological control 0 0 Cultural control 0 1 Other 0 0 Total 2 2 Percent 5.7 5.7

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Cultural control Other Total

29 0 32

1 0 1

0 0 1

1 0 1

31 0 35

88.6 0 100.0

4.2.11.2

Knowledge of other pest control methods

However, outside of these methods of general weed and insect control only 17.1 percent (6 respondents) were aware of other methods of general pest control. (Figure 4.20)

Figure 4.20 Knowledge of other methods of insect and weed control

No

17.1%

Yes

82.9%

These ranged from knowledge of cultural practices such as flash flooding that is often times used by the estate when the damage levels for the Large moth borer are above threshold; The use of biological plant extracts such as Neem; and the use of poisoned rice in special fixtures made out of the bamboo to kill rodents. Table 4.35 provides a break down of known techniques. Table 4.35 Awareness of other techniques of general pest control Category None None 29 1 0 2 0 3 0 4. 0 5 0 Total 29 Percent 82.9

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Biological control Cultural control Bio pesticides Chemical control Total

0 1 1 2 34

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 2 35

2.9 2.9 2.9 5.7 100.0

However, 2.9 percent (1 respondent) of the sample indicated using one of these other techniques, while 14.3 percent (5 respondents) did not use the methods. (Figure 4.21) Figure 4.21 Use of other known techniques of general pest control
No Yes NA

14.3%

2.9%

82.9%

4.2.11.3

Reasons for not using known techniques

Table 4.36 shows that 8.6 percent (3 respondents) did not use the known methods because of their perceived prohibitive costs. Additionally, 2.9 percent (1 respondent) indicated that their present methods of general insect and weed control were effective enough so other approaches were not warranted. Further, 2.9 percent (1 respondent) acknowledged that the current cultivation layout could not support, what is termed flash flooding,. Table 4.36 Reason for not using known techniques. Category Chemical method is effective enough Too costly Land layout does not support it Not applicable Total Frequency 1 3 1 30 35 Percent 2.9 8.6 2.9 85.7 100.0

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4.2.12. 4.2.12.1

WILLINGNESS TO USE BIOLOGICAL CONTROL Farmer Willingness assessment

From the underlying Figure 4.22, 57.1 percent (20 respondents) indicated their willingness to use biological control agents in their cultivations for the control of the Diatraea spp. Figure 4. 22 Willingness to use biological control for the Diatraea spp.

Yes No 2.9% 40.0% 57.1% Indeterminate

4.2.12.2

Reason for wanting to use biological control

Further, 28.6 percent (10 respondents) of the population surveyed wanted to use the method only if proven effective, 14.3 percent (5 respondents) indicated that there was no pest problem that warranted the use of these agents, 11.4 percent (4 respondents) indicated that they would only use the method if assistance or technical support was offered by the Guyana Sugar Corporation. (Table 4.37) Table 4.37: Reason for wanting to use biological control Category Reduces cost of pest control GUYSUCO offers assistance Pest problem becomes severe Frequency 2 4 5 Distribution Percent 5.7 11.4 14.3

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Proven effective Not applicable Total 4.2.12.3

10 14 35

28.6 40.0 100.0

Reasons for not wanting to use biological control

However, to the contrary 25.7 percent (9 respondents) indicated that they were unwilling to use biological control agents because the Diatraea spp population does not damage sugar canes to the extent that it had reduced considerably tonnage. Additionally, it was recognised that the incidence of their infield attacks were in isolated pockets, especially in areas proximal to bushy areas. Another reason posited by 5.7 percent (2 respondents) of the sample was that the present approach of pest control managed to deal with the pest problem. It was also indicated that ignorance and the perceived inability to afford, prevented respondents from even wanting to use the method. (Table 4.38) Table 4.38 Reasons for not wanting to use biological control. Category Ignorant of method Cannot afford No pest problem Present method is effective Not applicable Total
4.3

Distribution Frequency 1 1 9 2 22 35 Percent 2.9 2.9 25.7 5.7 62.9 100.0

Implications of Research findings. Blairmont and La Bonne Intention Estates.

4.3.1

The secondary data manages to clearly show the effect of the biological introductions on the Diatraea spp infestation levels in the Sugar cane cultivations of Blairmont and La Bonne Intention. Comparing the damage levels of 2002 for the industry, with those that obtained in 1928, while pest management practices were slowly evolving, it can be seen that Diatraea spp control has come a far way, as is indicated by diminished levels of

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damage. Although these positive indications of success have been revealed, several deficiencies are evident that might have bearing on the management of these species particularly by the estates under investigation. These include the following: Deviation by estates from the 20 % of cultivation sample size for damage determination. Obscuring of damage trends with 3,6,9 and 12 month averages or even using summaries for 2 years in one data presentation. Discrepancies in data presented in annual reports as against those obtained by the GARU/EDE- LBI that clearly use the same procedures for data collection. Untimely presentations of data by individual estate entomology departments to the Estates research and monitoring facilities. Improper monitoring of hyperparasites that might have a significant impact on the Cotesia flavipes. Lack of focus on the economics of using integrated pest management. Lack of proper data storage and reliable back up media. Lack of research into the impacts of pre and post harvest cultivation burns on the establishment trends of biological control agents in the sugar cane ecosystems of the GUYSUCO estates. etc These deficiencies can have severe implications if not dealt with in a timely manner by the corporation. 4.3.2 Private cane farmers in Canal # 2 Polder.

The questionnaire survey has quite positively revealed that 57.1 percent (20 respondents) of the surveyed cane farmer population are willing to use biological control in their cultivations for the control of the Diatraea spp. Although there is generally an expressed willingness to use biological control agents, there are several manifestations also evident at the subsistence level that would place a strangle hold on an initiative of this nature. These include the following:

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Unorganised nature of private cane farmer cooperatives. Diminished functional capacity of cane farmer cooperative in bargaining with estates for added revenue for cane farmers cane. Lack of proper agricultural extension or technical outreach by the Estates and the Ministry of Agriculture. High availability of banned chemical classes at relatively low acquisition costs. High costs of agricultural inputs and its impact on the cost of production. Use of non-selective pesticides for general pest control. Use of these pesticides with the minimum of concern for health and safety considerations. High levels of abandoned land due to improper drainage and high costs of cane production rendering cane production in the area unfeasible.

Sugar production is Guyanas major economic contributor, yet these trends obtain. It is important that these negatives be dealt with as soon as possible for any effective delivery to be feasible.

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 CONCLUSIONS.

Biological control continues to be a superior means of control for the Diatraea spp in the sugar cultivations of Guyana. The use of this approach in an integrated manner with other pest control tactics and other general pest control considerations has seemingly amplified its suppressive capabilities in the sugar cane cultivations of GUYSUCO, as survey results indicate.

Thought this trend is indeed a positive one for GUYSUCOs estates, alarming trends have also been unearthed in this study, showing several occurrences that threaten the effectiveness of this pest management strategy; and that pesticide use in Canal # 2 Polder,

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by private cane farmers, has been accompanied by severe ecological, health and socioeconomic implications that has primarily been the result of several deficiencies ranging from: Lack of proper agricultural extension, lack of knowledge of other pest control alternatives, over reliance on chemicals for general control, non adherence to pesticide application specifications, improper pesticide handling and application, improper residue and container disposal, regarding of pesticide exposure symptoms as a normal occurrence etc. Notwithstanding these negatives, there is an expressed willingness by sugar cane farmers to use alternative methods of pest control if it were first of all proven effective and provided by the estate along with technical assistance.

The following sub sections will be devoted to the proposition of recommendations, which if considered, will greatly increase the effectiveness of natural enemy releases in GUYSUCO estate cultivations and the feasibility of making biological introductions into the private cane farmer cultivations of this and other cane farming areas.

5.2

RECOMMENDATIONS.

In order to address the issues presented in Section 4.3, following are some broad recommendations made in view of the survey results and background information gathered: In view of the current nature of damage trends, it is important to monitor these trends with accurate data that is both representative and consistent. For this to be collected by estates it is important that there be full adherence to the sampling protocol of assessing 20 % of the cultivation. Additionally it is recommended that the 3,6,9 and 12 month surveys be done in a timely manner by the field laboratory of the estates so that the information may be used for effective guidance of the biological control units in the deployment of biological counter measures in areas of the cultivation nearing or above established damage thresholds. In view of the impact of Hyperparasites in cultivations and pre and post harvest practices that can reverse the positive trends that have been found, it is important that

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surveys be done on a yearly basis to determine the present impact of these agents and practices on the control capacity of commercially reared parasitoids and parasitoid that have been established in the Sugar cane ecosystem prior to the introductions of the Cotesia flavipes. Damage trends though a good indicator of biological control successes, can be greatly bolstered by economic analysis. These correlations need to be established to properly comparatively evaluate pest management approaches. Data storage is another area that needs urgent attention, it is important that the data collected be properly entered into computers and stored on reliable media for future reference. It is important that back up systems be used so, as to store data that would normally be lost if computers crash or storage media become unreliable. In view of the current trend in Canal # 2 Polder, of lacking technical extension, it is recommended that this offering be improved to be meaningful in improving agronomic practices in private cane farming areas. This improvement requires regular in house training sessions for officers liaising with farmers to improve the quality of disseminated information. Many of the farmers in rural areas are unaware of alternative pest control options, and as such are locked into one mode thinking as it relates to general pest control. The Ministry of Agriculture along with the Guyana Sugar Corporation can assist in changing this particular trend by having seminars or discussions with farmer representatives and farmers in agricultural areas. Knowledge is power, and it is this knowledge that can cause changes in agronomic practice within such areas for the better. It is recommended that the Estate and the Ministry of Agriculture consider providing safety apparel at subsidized costs to private cane farmers for the purpose of minimizing greatly the risks associated with pesticide use in the area, and if biological introductions

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are to be made it is important that the initial agents provided be provided at subsidized costs. In light of the associated ecological and health impacts of pesticide use, it is recommended that toxicological research be done to monitor pesticide residue levels and other associated impacts of pesticide use in private cane cultivation areas. It is recommended that a comprehensive pest inventory be done in private cane farmer cultivations to determine the current complement of pests so as to guide pest management model development. It is important that trials be conducted in the area to determine the feasibility of using biological control agents in private cane farming areas. It is recommended that meaningful technical and financial interjections be made into cooperatives in rural areas by Government and other stakeholders. This is important for ensuring proper functioning of the existing cooperatives. It is important that financial monitoring or auditing be done to discourage the practise of thievery. Once this is done it is recommended that re-registration be done of farmers in the area so as to have an accurate and updated farmer status and land tenure record.

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