Appearance Culture in Nine- to 12-Year-Old Girls: Media and Peer Inuences on Body Dissatisfaction

Levina Clark and Marika Tiggemann, Flinders University

Abstract Little research has investigated sociocultural factors in the development of body dissatisfaction in preadolescent girls. This study examined the combined inuence of media and peer factors. The participants were 100 girls aged nine to 12 years. The girls completed questionnaire measures of media exposure (television and magazines), peer inuences (appearance norms, appearance conversations), internalization and body dissatisfaction. Their height and weight were also measured. About half (49 percent) of the girls displayed a desire to be thinner. The inuence of sociocultural factors was conrmed in addition to biological determinants, such as body mass index. Their exposure to appearance-focused media was not directly related to their body dissatisfaction, but was indirectly related via their conversations about appearance among peers. The path analysis showed that peer appearance conversations demonstrated a signicant relationship with internalization of thin ideals, which was, in turn, signicantly related to body dissatisfaction. Like their adolescent counterparts, preadolescent girls are also exposed to appearance ideals presented in the media and manifested among peers. The results provided evidence for the existence of an appearance culture consisting of interrelated media and peer inuences among girls as young as nine to 12 years of age. Keywords: body dissatisfaction; sociocultural factors; peer conversations; media exposure Although body image is a complex and multi-faceted construct encompassing perceptual, cognitive, affective and behavioural aspects of the entire body experience (Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999), in contemporary western society, the major exploration of body image has been in relation to body shape and weight. Many different studies document widespread dissatisfaction with these aspects among both adult women and adolescent girls, with a particular desire to be thinner. Such body dissatisfaction has become so common that Rodin, Silberstein and StreigelMoore (1985) characterize weight as a normative discontent for women. Although adolescence has been targeted as the most likely time for the emergence of body dissatisfaction, a growing body of research suggests that such dissatisfaction may develop earlier, during childhood (e.g., Gardner, Sorter & Friedman, 1997; Rolland,
Correspondence should be addressed to Levina Clark, School of Psychology, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide 5001, South Australia. Email: Levina.Clark@inders.edu.au
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Farnhill & Grifths, 1997). Body dissatisfaction, in the form of wishing to be thinner has now been demonstrated in girls as young as six years of age (Davison, Markey & Birch, 2000; Lowes & Tiggemann, 2003) and is generally found to be greater for girls than boys (e.g., Wood, Becker & Thompson, 1996). In their review of childrens body image, Ricciardelli and McCabe (2001) reported specic estimates between 28 and 55 percent for the proportion of preadolescent girls who desire a thinner body size. Such body dissatisfaction during childhood has important implications. In addition to impeding a childs developing sense of self-worth (Davison et al., 2000), childhood body dissatisfaction may lead to dieting and related behaviours that are risk factors for chronic body image problems, weight cycling, obesity and eating disorders (Birch & Fisher, 1998; Shisslak, Renger, Sharpe, Crago, McKnight, Gray et al., 1999; Smolak, Levine & Schermer, 1999). As yet, however, little is known about the developmental trends and risk factors for body dissatisfaction in young girls (Smolak, 2004). As described by Smolak (2002), all gender, ethnicity, cross-cultural, historical and age differences in levels of body esteem suggest that culture and society play a major role in the construction of body image. In adolescents and adult women, a number of sociocultural models have been developed to highlight the role of family, media and peers in the development of a poor body image. Examples of such models include Stices (1994) sociocultural model for bulimia nervosa and van den Berg, Thompson, Obremski-Brandon and Cooverts (2002) tripartite inuence model, evaluated recently for adolescent girls (Keery, van den Berg & Thompson, 2004). In general, the sociocultural model maintains that a number of sociocultural inuences transmit current societal standards for beauty, which emphasize the desirability of an unrealistic level of thinness, but which are nevertheless accepted and internalized by many women. As most women and girls are not able to meet this internalized standard (Spitzer, Henderson & Zivian, 1999), the discrepancy between the ideal and the actual self results in body dissatisfaction (Thompson & Stice, 2001). It is clear that children are also subject to societal pressures from an early age. Two recently developed models for the development of body image in children (Ricciardelli, McCabe, Holt & Finemore, 2003; Smolak & Levine, 2001) postulate a role for the media, parents and peers in the development of childrens body image, in addition to biological (e.g., age, body mass index [BMI]) and psychological factors. Perhaps not surprisingly, by far the majority of studies have investigated parents as the most likely source of inuence on young children (e.g., Hill & Pallin, 1998; Smolak et al., 1999). There is no doubt, however, that the mass media are powerful transmitters of societal ideals for children, just as for adults. Children are exposed to the media from a very early age (Berk, 2000) and reportedly during a single year on average spend more time watching television than in any other activity besides sleeping (Levine & Smolak, 1996). Liebert and Sprafkin (1988) reported that eight-year-old children watch around 2.5 hours of television daily, which increases steadily to around four hours daily at the age of 12. Access to media that portrays appearance ideals is also accordingly likely to increase with age, as magazines that target preadolescent girls (e.g., Girlfriend, Dolly) are increasingly read. Greater independence in the choice of television consumption is also likely to lead to greater exposure to appearance ideals. Field, Cheung, Wolf, Herzog, Gortmaker and Colditz (1999) found that approximately 85 percent of girls in their year ve to year 12 sample (i.e., both preadolescent and adolescent girls) had some exposure to fashion magazines with 26 percent of girls reading fashion magazines at least twice a week. The proportion of girls who were infrequent readers decreased with age. In addition, 69 percent of girls reported that magazine pictures inuenced their ideal of the
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perfect body shape and 47 percent reported wanting to lose weight because of magazine pictures. The frequency of reading fashion magazines was also associated with having dieted to lose weight and exercising to lose weight or improve body shape. Some research has begun to examine the relationship of media inuences to body image development in younger, preadolescent children. Harrison (2000) found that television viewing predicted an increased tendency among grades 1 to 3 boys to stereotype an overweight female target and increased eating disorder symptomatology among both girls and boys. Sands and Wardle (2003) found that appearance magazine exposure was related to awareness of the thin ideal among nine- to 12-year-old girls. In girls from six to 12 years of age, Murnen, Smolak, Mills and Good (2003) found that a greater awareness and internalization of the thin ideal was related to wanting to look like, and placing greater importance on looking like, a thin, sexy model. Body esteem was found to be negatively related to responses to these thin, sexy images as well as to an awareness and internalization of the thin ideal. Although correlational, these data are consistent with experimental research that has shown that exposure to objectied pictures of women signicantly increased womens body dissatisfaction (Groesz, Levine & Murnen, 2002). As indicated by sociocultural models (e.g., Smolak & Levine, 2001), peers are also a likely source of inuence on body image development in young girls, and become increasingly relevant following the commencement of schooling. School may be the rst place where many children begin to interact with peers, and the importance of same-sex peer relationships develops over the middle primary school years (Berndt & Hestenes, 1996). Although peer inuences on body dissatisfaction have been widely explored for adolescent girls (e.g., Jones, Vigfusdottir & Lee, 2004; Paxton, Schutz, Wertheim, & Muir, 1999), peer inuence among children has been acknowledged to a lesser degree. In existing studies, Taylor, Sharpe, Shisslak, Bryson, Estes, Gray et al. (1998) found that the importance that peers put on weight and eating was the strongest predictor of weight concerns in grades 4 and 5 girls. In younger girls from reception to grade 2, Dohnt and Tiggemann (2005) reported that girls perception of their peers body dissatisfaction was the strongest predictor of their own level of body dissatisfaction. Oliver and Thelen (1996) showed that the perception that thinness was related to popularity among peers played a strong role in predicting childrens body dissatisfaction and eating-related concerns; more so for girls than boys. The above studies provide preliminary evidence for a role for both the media and peers (separately) in the development of childrens body image. Although particular media and peer inuences (e.g., peer likeability) (Oliver & Thelen, 1996); (perceived importance of weight among peers), (Taylor et al. 1998) have been identied in previous literature, the specic mechanisms by which these link to internalization and body dissatisfaction in children have only just begun to be explored. It seems likely that peer and media inuences are related to each other in the processes that lead to body dissatisfaction. In the current study, peer appearance conversations are proposed as a possible linking variable. Among adolescent girls and boys, Jones et al. (2004) found that those who engaged in more frequent conversations about appearance issues with friends were more likely to internalize a thin ideal. There was also a positive correlation between appearance magazine exposure and appearance conversations with friends. The authors proposed that appearance conversations direct attention to appearancerelated issues, reinforce the value and importance of appearance to close friends and promote construction of appearance ideals. It was concluded that magazines provide food for conversation that becomes personalized with friends (Jones et al., 2004),
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Appearance Culture in Nine- to 12-year-old Girls

Media variables Appearance media exposure (television and magazines)

631

Biological factors

Body mass index Age (year level)

Internalization of appearance ideals Peer variables Peer appearance conversations Peer appearance norms and perceived peer body dissatisfaction

Body dissatisfaction

Figure 1. Model of Relationship of Biological and Socio-cultural (Media and Peer) Variables to Internalization of Appearance Ideals and Body Dissatisfaction in Young Girls. forming part of an appearance culture (Thompson et al., 1999) among adolescent girls. The present study aims to examine the joint inuence of peer and media variables on internalization of appearance ideals and body dissatisfaction in nine- to 12-year-old girls. Specically, the proposition that peer appearance conversations provide a link between peers and the media will be explored. It is proposed that media ideals become translated into peer norms and increasingly accepted and internalized by girls as a function of talking about appearance issues with their friends, for example, comments when trying on clothes. Given the pervasiveness of the media, it is particularly likely that children will talk about what they read in magazines and watch on television. Skimming the latest Dolly magazine may generate discussion on how attractive a favourite celebrity is and how to achieve a similar look with clothing or make-up. In summary, the broad aim of the present study is to delineate more comprehensively the factors related to body dissatisfaction in young girls, with a particular focus on media and peer inuences. These will be incorporated into a single coherent model by postulating conversations about appearance with friends as a means through which appearance ideals portrayed in the media may be transmitted, resulting in shared peer appearance norms, and the subsequent internalization of appearance ideals and body dissatisfaction. A diagrammatic representation of the conceptual model for the current study is provided in Figure 1. Method Participants The participants were 100 grades 4 to 7 girls with a mean age of 10.59 years attending three private co-educational primary schools in Adelaide, Australia. Age group was dened by grade: grade 4 (n = 24), mean age = 9.0; grade 5 (n = 30), mean age = 10.13; grade 6 (n = 21), mean age = 11.24; and grade 7 (n = 25), mean age = 12.12 years. The mean BMI was 18.89 kg/m2. By far, the majority of girls were of normal weight (85 percent), with 13 percent classied as overweight and 2 percent as obese, according to international cut-off points for BMI (Cole, Bellizzi, Flegal, & Dietz, 2000). These were
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similar to Australian norms for seven- to 15-year-old girls (15.85 percent overweight and 5.35 percent obese; Magarey, Daniels & Boulton, 2001). Measures Appearance Media Exposure. The girls were presented with a list of 22 television shows and 12 magazines and were asked to report the frequency with which they watched/read these: never, sometimes, and almost every time its on (for television shows) or almost every time it comes out (for magazines), scored 0, 1 and 2, respectively. The list was developed from the most popular magazines and television shows nominated by a pilot sample of 48 girls from grades 4 to 7 (mean age = 10.37 years). Each magazine and television show was subsequently categorized according to its degree of appearance focus and its promotion of the thin ideal by four independent raters: 0 = no emphasis, 1 = some emphasis, 2 = large emphasis. Each show was attributed the modal rating. The raters (two female primary school teachers and two female university students) were provided with a current issue of each magazine and a recorded excerpt of each television show in the event that they were not familiar with any of the shows/magazines listed. Reliability was adequate, with a mean inter-rater correlation of .77 for television shows and .87 for magazines. Exemplar magazines include Dolly (rating = 2), Total Girl (rating = 1), and Disney Adventures (rating = 0). Examples of television shows include Friends (rating = 2), The Simpsons (rating = 1) and Harrys Practice (rating = 0). Appearance media exposure for each participant was then calculated by multiplying the appearance focus rating (0, 1, or 2) for a particular television show or magazine by the frequency with which it was watched/read (0, 1 or 2), and summing across all shows or magazines. For appearance television exposure, possible total scores ranged from 0 to 52 whereas for magazines, possible scores ranged from 0 to 24. This type of weighted measure has been recommended as providing an integrated assessment of both content and involvement with the media (Anderson, Huston, Schmitt, Linebarger & Wright, 2001; Jones et al., 2004). Appearance Conversations. Appearance conversations among peers were assessed using an adaptation of the ve-item appearance conversations with friends scale developed by Jones et al. (2004) for adolescents. Two additional items were also included (My friends and I talk about how we can look like our favourite pop stars and My friends and I talk about clothes and makeup that will make us look nice). Response options were simplied from a ve-point Likert scale to a three-point scale (a lot, sometimes and never). The nal scale consisted of seven items that were summed to produce a possible score ranging from 0 to 14. Scale reliability in the current sample was satisfactory (Cronbachs a = .78). Peer Appearance Norms. A measure of peer appearance norms was developed, loosely based on the likeability scale from the inventory of peer inuence on eating concerns (Oliver & Thelen, 1996). The questions were related to a childs perception of the importance that their friends place on appearance. This scale included ve items (e.g., My friends worry about what they look like) with three response options (yes, sometimes and no), scored 2, 1 and 0, respectively. The reliability of the ve-item scale in the current sample was not adequate (Cronbachs a = .48), but the removal of two items improved the scale reliability. The internal reliability of the nal three-item
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scale was considered satisfactory for a scale with few items (a = .64), as indicated by the mean inter-item correlation of .37 (Briggs & Cheek, 1986). Internalization of Appearance Ideals. Internalization was assessed by the seven-item internalization of media ideals scale developed by Jones et al. (2004) for use with adolescents, but with response options reduced from ve to three (yes = 2, sometimes = 1, no = 0) and the term appearance replaced by what I look like. Jones et al. (2004) report high internal consistency and a similar factor structure to the original internalization scale designed for adults (Heinberg, Thompson & Stormer, 1995). Example items include I wish I looked like a model and Women and girls who are in TV shows and movies look the way I want to look. Possible scores ranged from 0 to 14, with higher scores representing greater internalization of appearance ideals. In the current sample of children, observed scores ranged from 0 to 13 and internal reliability was adequate (Cronbachs a = .75). Body Dissatisfaction. Body dissatisfaction was assessed by two standard measures. The rst was the body esteem scale for children (Mendelson & White, 1993), which consists of 20 statements designed to assess childrens overall affective evaluation of their bodies (e.g., Im proud of my body). A yesno response format was used, with scores ranging from 0 to 20 in the direction of high body esteem. This scale has been found to have good internal consistency and moderate testretest reliability with children as young as eight years old (Mendelson, White & Mendelson, 1996). In the current study, the scale had high internal reliability (Cronbachs a = .89). The second measure of body dissatisfaction was the childrens gure ratings scale (Tiggemann & Wilson-Barrett, 1998), which provides an assessment of body dissatisfaction specic to weight and shape. The scale consists of nine young female silhouette drawings ranging from 1 (very thin) to 9 (very fat). The girls were asked to circle the number of the girl who looks most like them (current), and then the girl who they would most like to look like (ideal). Body dissatisfaction was then calculated as the self/ideal discrepancy. Thus a score of 0 indicates body satisfaction; a negative score indicates a desire for a larger gure; and a positive score indicates a desire to be thinner. High testretest reliability for gure rating tasks has been reported for children as young as eight years of age (e.g., Veron-Guidry & Williamson, 1996). The girls were also asked to consider the scale for their best friend and most of the girls in their class. These scores were averaged to provide a measure of perceived peer body dissatisfaction. Body Mass Index. Each child was privately weighed and her height was measured in order to compute her BMI (BMI = weight[kg]/height[m]2). Procedure After approval by the school was granted, a letter of introduction and consent form were sent to 234 parents of girls from grades 4 to 7 across the three schools. A response rate of 55.6 percent was achieved. Of these girls, 20 (15 percent) did not have parental consent, eight were absent from school on the day of the survey and two girls were used for pilot testing the questionnaire. Therefore the nal sample consisted of 100 girls. The nal questionnaire was pilot-tested on two girls from grades 4 and 5 (aged nine and 10, respectively). Neither of the girls expressed any particular comprehension
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Table 1. Means (and Standard Deviations) for Body Mass Index, Appearance Media Exposure and Peer Inuences Grade Predictor Variable BMI 4 5 18.75 (1.95) 4.93 (3.89) 19.80 (8.52) 3.10 (2.54) 1.63 (1.47) .50 (.64) 6 18.40 (2.64) 5.76 (2.86) 20.71 (9.06) 3.38 (3.14) 2.57 (1.43) .76 (.79) 7 18.78 (2.38) 8.28 (3.43) 22.80 (6.88) 4.23 (2.16) 2.76 (1.85) .41 (.48) F Value .97

19.60 (2.98) Appearance media exposure Magazines 3.25 (3.83) Television 19.83 (5.93) Peer inuences Appearance 2.79 conversations (2.34) Appearance norms .92 (1.02) Perceived peer .69 body (.65) dissatisfaction
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

8.51*** .86

1.47 8.08*** 1.50

difculties. The actual survey, entitled My Friends, the Media, and Me, was conducted in small groups of six to eight girls. Every session began with a brief discussion of the meaning of condentiality and each girl was given a clipboard in which to place the questionnaire so that the condentiality and anonymity of their answers could be maintained. Girls in grades 5 to 7 completed the questionnaire on their own and took approximately 15 to 20 minutes. Grade 4 girls took longer (25 to 30 minutes), as they were guided through the survey by the researcher reading aloud each question. The girls then had their weight and height measured (without shoes) in a separate room. The girls stood back-to-front on the scales, the ruler was concealed, and the girls were not given feedback about their weight and height. The girls were then brought together and were given a brief outline of the study and an opportunity to raise any problems or queries. To nish, the girls were given a candy as a small reward for their participation and were escorted back to class. Results Age Differences in Predictor Variables (Body Mass Index, the Media, and Peer Inuences) The means for BMI, appearance media exposure and peer inuences by age (grade level) are provided in Table 1. A one-way between-groups ANOVA showed that there was no signicant difference in BMI across the age group, F(3,96) = .97, NS. There was a signicant increase in exposure to appearance magazines with age,
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Appearance Culture in Nine- to 12-year-old Girls Table 2. Means (and Standard Deviations) for Internalization and Body Dissatisfaction Grade 4 Internalization 4.63 (3.50) 5 5.01 (3.09) 14.82 (4.25) 4.85 (1.04) 4.36 (.93) .48 (.64) 4.83 (.98) 4.27 (.83) .50 (.64) 6 5.40 (3.58) 12.47 (5.70) 4.71 (1.54) 4.21 (.98) .55 (1.06) 4.80 (.91) 4.00 (.91) .76 (.79) 7 5.12 (2.82) 11.52 (5.12) 5.00 (1.18) 4.52 (.95) .48 (1.14) 5.13 (.71) 4.69 (.73) .41 (.48)

635

F Value .22

Body dissatisfaction Body esteem 15.93 (4.42) Own gure ratings Current 4.67 (1.05) Ideal 4.35 (1.17) Discrepancy .31 (.75) Perceived peer gure ratings Current 4.76 (.75) Ideal 4.04 (1.07) Discrepancy .69 (.65)
* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

4.36**

.38 .35 .28

.91 3.00* 1.50

F(3,96) = 8.51, p < .001, with a large effect size, h2 = .21.1 For appearance television exposure, the age difference was not signicant, F(3,96) = .86, NS. As can be seen in Table 1, there was no signicant age effect for appearance conversations, F(3,96) = 1.47, NS. There was, however, a signicant increase by age in peer appearance norms, F(3,96) = 8.08, p < .001, h2 = .20. Finally, there was no signicant age difference on perceived peer body dissatisfaction, F(3,91) = 1.50, NS. Age Differences in Internalization and Body Dissatisfaction The internalization of appearance ideals and body dissatisfaction were also analyzed by age (means in Table 2). Results from a one-way ANOVA revealed that there was no signicant difference by age in internalization, F(3,96) = .22, NS. Means and standard deviations for both girls own and perceived peer current and ideal gure ratings can also be seen in Table 2. A mixed design ANOVA with age (grade) as the between-subjects variable and the question (current/ideal) as the withinsubjects variable was performed. The results demonstrated a signicant main effect of the question, F(1,95) = 21.16, p < .001, h2 = .18, such that overall, girls chose a signicantly thinner gure as their ideal than their actual gure. There was no signicant interaction between question and age, F(3,95) = .20, NS, and no signicant main
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effect of age on gure ratings, F(3,95) = .40, NS. To check that the choice of a thinner ideal gure was not a function of having a greater BMI, the above analysis was repeated, controlling for BMI. The resulting ANCOVA still revealed a large signicant effect for the question, F(1,94) = 34.14, p < .001, h2 = .27, with little change in the other results (question age, F(3,94) = 1.41, NS; age, F(3,94) = .58, NS). This form of analysis was also conducted for the current and ideal gure ratings nominated for peers. As for girls own gure ratings, there was a signicant main effect of the question such that the rating for the peer ideal was signicantly thinner than for the actual peer gure, F(1,91) = 62.86, p < .001, h2 = .41. Once again, there was no signicant interaction between question and age, F(3,91) = 1.05, NS, and no signicant main effect of age on peer gure ratings, F(3,91) = 2.34, NS. Finally, body dissatisfaction as measured by the body esteem scale was analyzed by age. In contrast to gure ratings, a signicant age difference was found whereby body esteem decreased (i.e., body dissatisfaction increased) with age, F(3,96) = 4.36, p < .01, h2 = .12. The age difference remained signicant when BMI was controlled, F(3,95) = 7.51, p < .001, h2 = .19. In summary, although body dissatisfaction measured in terms of overall affective evaluation signicantly increased with age, there was no signicant difference between age groups in the internalization of appearance ideals or gure rating discrepancy. Relationship Between Media and Peer Inuences and Body Dissatisfaction Correlation coefcients for the relationships between BMI, appearance media exposure, peer inuences, internalization of appearance ideals and body dissatisfaction are presented in Table 3. As can be seen, BMI was not related to any other predictor variable, but it was signicantly related to both measures of body dissatisfaction. Appearance media exposure was signicantly positively correlated with conversations about appearance. This was the case for both magazines and television, which were themselves correlated, r(98) = .55, p < .001. Appearance magazine exposure was also correlated with peer appearance norms, but not with internalization or either measure of body dissatisfaction. Appearance television exposure was related to the internalization of appearance ideals, but not to body dissatisfaction. A basic premise of this study was that appearance conversations provide a mechanism through which similar appearance norms may develop among peers. A moderate correlation was found between the extent to which girls talked about appearancerelated topics with their friends and peer appearance norms. Importantly, appearance conversations were also moderately related to internalization and both measures of body dissatisfaction. Peer appearance norms were signicantly negatively related to body esteem and perceived peer body dissatisfaction was related to body dissatisfaction as measured by gure rating discrepancy. Mediational Analyses The postulated role of internalization was tested by mediational analyses. The ndings above showed that the preconditions presented by Baron and Kenny (1986) for an assessment of internalization as a mediator between peer appearance conversations and body dissatisfaction were met. As shown in Table 3, internalization was signicantly related to peer appearance conversations (Precondition 1) and both measures of body dissatisfaction (Precondition 3). Peer appearance conversations were also signicantly
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Table 3. Correlation Coefcients Between Body Mass Index, Media and Peer Inuences, Internalization and Body Dissatisfaction
Peer Inuences

Appearance Media Exposure

BMI

Magazines

Television

Appearance Conversations

Appearance Norms

Peer Body Dissatisfaction

Internalization of Appearance Ideals

Body Dissatisfaction (Body Esteem)

Appearance media exposure Magazines Television Appearance conversations Peer appearance norms Peer body dissatisfaction Internalization Body dissatisfaction Body esteem Figure rating .32** .16 .08 .27** -.09 .07 -.20* .27** -.20* .08 .02 .27** .31** .16 .49*** -.01 .11 .19

-.14 -.08 .03 -.19 .03 .19

.55*** .35** .38** .05 .17

-.45*** .43***

-.41***

-.40*** .55***

-.08 .02

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* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

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related to both measures of body dissatisfaction (Precondition 2). Regression analyses were used to assess if the impact of appearance conversations on body dissatisfaction would signicantly decrease after controlling for internalization. Appearance conversations alone (regression equation 1) explained a signicant 4.1 percent of variance (b = -.20, p < .05) in scores in body esteem, F(1,98) = 4.21, p < .05. However, after controlling for the effects of internalization (regression equation 2), appearance conversations no longer explained any signicant variance (b = .02, NS) in body esteem. Sobels (1982) test indicated that the decrease in b value was signicant, z(2,96) = -3.27, p < .01. This process was repeated for body dissatisfaction as measured by gure rating discrepancy. Appearance conversations originally explained a signicant 7.0 percent of the variance (b = -.26, p < .01) in gure rating discrepancy, F(1,98) = 7.38, p < .01. The variance explained by appearance conversations was no longer signicant (b = .07, NS) once internalization had been entered. This decrease in b value was again signicant, z(2,96) = 2.94, p < .01. This pattern of results reects what Baron and Kenny (1986) refer to as perfect mediation. Path Analysis In order to test the proposed model, a path diagram was constructed. Appearance television and magazine exposure were standardized and summed to create a total appearance media exposure variable. Based on previous research and the theoretical reasoning outlined in the introduction, a weak causal ordering of variables was established as follows: (1) BMI and age (grade); (2) appearance media exposure; (3) appearance conversations; (4) peer appearance norms and perceived peer body dissatisfaction; (5) internalization of appearance ideals and (6) nally, body dissatisfaction (body esteem and gure rating discrepancy). Path analysis is a simpler version of structural equation modeling (e.g., linear structural relationships) suitable for smaller sample sizes. It involves a series of multiple regressions in which each variable is regressed on all variables assumed to be causally prior (Pedhazur, 1997). According to Tabachnick and Fiddell (2001), the use of multiple regression analyses requires an N 50 + 8 m (where m is the number of variables) when testing multiple correlations. Thus our sample of 100 fell only a little short of their recommendation of 106 cases for multiple regression involving seven predictor variables. Here, a full saturated model assessing all possible direct and indirect pathways was estimated. Signicant b values demonstrate signicant prediction of the next variable in the sequence. There were two nal outcome measures for body dissatisfaction assessed. The summary statistics best used to describe the goodness of t of the path analysis are multiple R or R2 (Pedhazur, 1997). For body dissatisfaction as measured by body esteem scores, here, R = .643, R2 = .414, F(7,86) = 8.68, p < .001 whereas for gure rating discrepancy, R = .704, R2 = .496, F(7,86) = 12.10, p < .001. The resulting path coefcients (standardized regression coefcients) for signicant pathways were graphically represented in Figure 2. In general, the relationships proposed in the conceptual model were supported by the path analysis results. As expected, BMI was a signicant individual predictor of body dissatisfaction (both measures). In addition to a direct effect on body esteem, age had an indirect effect on body dissatisfaction (body esteem and gure rating discrepancy) via appearance media exposure. Appearance media exposure was related to body dissatisfaction indirectly through appearance conversations and the internalization of appearance ideals. Peer appearance norms were positively related to appearance
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.37***

639

Body esteem .37*** Appearance media exposure Internalization of appearance ideals .22** Perceived peer body dissatisfaction .21* .28** Figure rating discrepancy .39***
.50***

Age (year level)

.36***

.33**

Appearance conversations

.32** Body mass index .50***

.22* Peer appearance norms

Figure 2. Path Diagram for Model of Development of Body Dissatisfaction. Note: Non-signicant pathways (NS > .05) have not been displayed. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001. conversations whereas perceived peer body dissatisfaction was related to internalization and body dissatisfaction according to gure rating discrepancy. In accord with the sociocultural model and formally tested earlier, the internalization of appearance ideals mediated the relationship between the media and peer inuences and body dissatisfaction. Notably, appearance conversations emerged as the strongest individual predictor of the internalization of appearance ideals. Discussion The current research sought to extend our understanding of the role of the media and peer inuences in the body dissatisfaction of nine- to 12-year-old girls. Although a great deal of research has investigated the role of parents, the media and peer inuences on childrens body dissatisfaction have not been widely explored. The current study clearly demonstrates that both are very relevant for young girls. In the current sample, about half (49 percent) of the girls selected an ideal size that was thinner than their current size. This gure falls within the range (28 to 55 percent) cited by Ricciardelli and McCabe (2001) for preadolescent girls and conrms the observation that body dissatisfaction of this form is prevalent among primary schoolaged children (Schur, Sanders & Steiner, 2000). It is important to note that this nding cannot be explained in terms of BMI. Less than 15 percent of the sample could be construed as in any way overweight, and the difference between current and ideal gures remained highly signicant when BMI was covaried. Nor was there any signicant age difference in gure rating discrepancy, or in the internalization of appearance ideals. Given the suggestion of other researchers (Davison et al., 2000; Lowes & Tiggemann, 2003) that body dissatisfaction emerges around six years of age, it is likely that a desire to be thinner has already surfaced in many girls by grade 4 and is then simply maintained through to grade 7. This is consistent with the nding of Sands and Wardle (2003) who likewise found no signicant age effects on body dissatisfaction or thin-ideal internalization in their similarly aged sample. Together, the results support Sands and Wardles (2003) proposition that many of the psychological processes operating towards the development of body dissatisfaction in girls are already well established by nine years of age.
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At a general level, the results offer support to the sociocultural model (Stice, 1994; Thompson et al., 1999), in which media and peer inuences relevant to appearance ideals lead to body dissatisfaction through the internalization of these appearance ideals. Here, the central mediating role of internalization was conrmed. Media inuences seemed less potent than peer inuences, in that all the specied peer inuences, in the form of appearance conversations, peer appearance norms and peer body dissatisfaction, were related to internalization and/or body dissatisfaction. Exposure to appearance media, however, did not have a direct relationship to internalization or body dissatisfaction, in contrast to other studies that have investigated this relationship in children (Harrison, 2000; Sands & Wardle, 2003). Although this may be due to methodological differences in the measurement of media exposure, our nding does replicate closely that of Jones et al. (2004) with adolescents, and investigations of the relationship between media exposure and body dissatisfaction among adults have also produced negative ndings (Cusumano & Thompson, 1997). It appears that further delineation of the relationship between naturally occurring media exposure and body dissatisfaction is necessary in adults and children alike. Our prediction that peer appearance conversations would provide the link between media exposure and peer norms was conrmed by both the correlational and path analyses. Importantly, watching or reading appearance media was signicantly related to conversations among friends about appearance topics, which were, in turn, a signicant predictor of peer appearance norms. Peer appearance conversations were also related to the internalization of appearance ideals and to body dissatisfaction. Thus, the more girls talked about topics such as clothes, make-up and their favourite pop stars, the more they perceived their friends to be focused upon appearance issues and the more they themselves internalized these appearance ideals. Both the individual correlations (Table 3) and the path analysis (Figure 2) identify appearance conversations as demonstrating a signicant relationship to internalization. To our knowledge, only the present study and that of Jones et al. (2004) with adolescents have explicitly addressed this. As a whole, these results lend support to the existence of an appearance culture (Thompson et al., 1999) consisting of intertwined media and peer inuences among girls as young as nine to 12 years of age. Although requiring replication and further exploration, the observed ndings of the present study and resulting model could usefully inform intervention programmes targeted at preadolescent girls. Interventions aimed at improving body esteem might focus on teaching girls to challenge the appearance ideals they observe on television, in magazines and on billboards, in order to disrupt the internalization process, for example, through media literacy programmes (Levine, Piran & Stoddard, 1999). Murnen et al. (2003) reported that among six- to 12-year-old girls, those girls who rejected images that objectied women had higher body esteem and seemed less vulnerable to the cultural ideal of thin, sexy women, thus demonstrating the value in challenging cultural stereotypes. Further, as peer appearance conversations were identied as particularly important in this age group, body image issues might best be addressed through discussion within a peer group setting. Alternatively, rather than targeting peer conversations specically, future research might usefully explore the role of individual factors that can increase the resistance of girls to internalizing the appearance ideals they become aware of through appearance conversations. Like all studies, the present research design carries some limitations. Firstly, the sample was not random, but one of convenience from three primary schools. Secondly, the focus on children meant that some measures had to be developed for the study (e.g.,
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media exposure, peer appearance norms) or adapted from existing measures designed for adolescents (e.g., the internalization of appearance ideals) and thus their psychometric properties have not been established. Thirdly, all measures (with the exception of measured BMI) were self-report and hence, open to a variety of reporting biases. Nevertheless, our interest was primarily in girls own perceptions of their experience. Finally, the current study employed a cross-sectional design, limiting its ability to formulate unequivocal causal conclusions. Structural techniques like path analysis cannot show the direction of causation, but can assess the strength of causal connections assumed on the basis of prior evidence or theorizing. Thus the path analysis provided one possible coherent model of the relationships; however, the testing of alternative models in future research would offer further conrmation of these relationships. Only longitudinal research, tracking girls developmental changes in media exposure, peer inuence, internalization and body dissatisfaction over time, could offer more denitive causal answers. In conclusion, the present study has made a contribution to the small but expanding literature on body dissatisfaction in young girls. The results showed that body dissatisfaction was prevalent in nine- to 12-year-old girls, clearly demonstrating that many girls experience a desire to be thinner well before adolescence. Support was found for the relationship of sociocultural inuences to body dissatisfaction, in addition to biological determinants such as BMI. Most noteworthy, the present study was the rst to identify peer appearance conversations as an important link between media and peer inuences in children, and between these sociocultural inuences and the internalization of appearance ideals and body dissatisfaction. Like their adolescent counterparts, girls as young as nine years of age also appear to exist within an appearance culture that is informed by the media and manifested among their peers. References
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Note
1. According to Cohen (1988), an eta square value of .01 is a small effect, .06 is a medium effect, and .14 is a large effect.
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