An Assignment on the outline and description of the various branches of climatology based on the scale of atmospheric phenomenon and

the topic of phenomenon emphasized.

Course title: Gpy 203 (Introduction to climatology)

Submitted to: Dr. t.o odeKunle

By: Ajibola, saheed remilekun Gpy/2010/012

Department of geography, Obafemi awolowo university, Ile ife.

Introduction: Climatology has a wide scope and it can be subdivided either on the basis of the topics emphasized or on the scale of the atmospheric phenomena that are emphasized. Branches of climatology can be then identified based on the scale of atmospheric phenomenon; Micro Climatology Meso Climatology Macro Climatology The three branches on the scale of atmospheric phenomenon will be explained further as follows; Micro Climatology: Microclimatology, the scientific study of microclimates, is concerned with the atmospheric layer that extends from the surface of the Earth to a height where the effects of the features of the underlying surface can no longer be distinguished from the local climate (American Meteorological Society, 2000). It is usually less than 100meters across. Mesoclimatology: In mesoclimatology the configuration of the ground, type of soil, and its vegetation cover are considered as features of the locality, which are subject to only slow changes over time, and determine the climate that prevails in a particular place and can be called local climate. The horizontal extent of this type of phenomena (mesoscale feature) is of the order of hundreds of kilometers. The concept of topoclimate proposed by Thornthwaite (1953) serves as an intermediate position between macro- and micro-climates; but Scaetta (1935) argued that the word topoclimate should be changed to mesoclimate, and Utaaker (1974) felt that the term topoclimate is more appropriate for local or mesoclimates since the topography of the land is the main causal factor responsible for local climatic peculiarities. In the opinion of Konstantinov et al. (1974), the formation of microclimate and local climate occurs under the influence of the underlying surface. Barrett (1974, p. 9) described the mesoscale phenomena as local embroideries upon a larger, more generalized climatic picture.

 Macro Climatology: This is concerned with broad features of the climates of substantial parts of the globe or most of a continent that are governed by the large-scale atmospheric circulation systems. It involves consideration of mean weather belts on a global basis. Large-scale disturbances of the order of thousands of kilometers, including the moving cyclones and anticyclones, define macroclimatic features of a continent. Regional macroclimatology deals not only with the variations in the amount, intensity, and seasonal distribution of the climatic elements but also the general tendency of synoptic weather features. The high relief partly produces changes in the geographical distribution of a meteorological phenomenon. The subdivision of climatology based on the topic it emphasized provides a basis for dividing climatology into several branches, which includes the following; 1. Physical climatology 2. Synoptic climatology 3. Dynamic climatology 4. Statistical climatology 5. Local climatology 6. Regional climatology 7. Paleoclimatology 8. Applied climatology: the following listed branches are considered to be a subsection under applied climatology as it is regarded as interdisciplinary branch itself. 9. Agroclimatology 10. Air pollution climatology 11. Cloud climatology 12. Cultural climatology 13. Hydroclimatology 14. Energy budget climatology 15. Bioclimatology 16. Urban climatology

17. Archeoclimatology 18. Architect and climatology Each of these branches will then be examined as follows; 1. Physical Climatology: It involves investigating the behaviour of weather elements or processes in the atmosphere in terms of physical principles. Emphasis is on global energy and water balance regimes of the earth and the atmosphere. 2. Synoptic Climatology: Synoptic is used by meteorologists to denote the synchronous weather conditions typically depicted on a synoptic weather map. By extension, because large-scale atmospheric circulation systems such as cyclones and anticyclones are analyzed from such weather charts, features with a horizontal dimension of ca. 1000 km and a lifespan of about 57 days are called synoptic scale systems. In a broad sense, therefore, synoptic climatology is the study of local and regional climates in terms of the properties and behavior of the atmosphere over and around a given area; the information used in such studies is primarily that shown on synoptic weather maps (Barry and Carleton, 2001; Yarnal, 1993; Court, 1957; Hare, 1955; Jacobs, 1946). 3. Dynamic Climatology: Dynamic climatology, now frequently termed climate dynamics, is an attempt to study and explain atmospheric circulation over a large part of the Earth in terms of the available sources and transformations of energy (Court, 1957). Hare (1957) notes that dynamic climatology is the prime approach for explanation of world climates as integrations of atmospheric circulation and disturbances. It also attempts to derive circulation types at the regional scale. 4. Statistical Climatology: Given the vast quantity of climatic data, statistical methods have wide applicability and utility in the study of past, present, and future climates. The data are a testament to the efforts of countless scientists and volunteer observers all over the world, and make statistical climatology both possible and powerful. Still, climatic processes and phenomena are not observed everywhere at all times and it is often difficult to detect meaningful climatic

signals amidst substantial variability in both space and time. By using both traditional and innovative statistical methods, however, climatologists are able to detect and quantify rates of climatic change, estimate the probability of extreme events, and reveal uncertainties in our current understanding of climatic processes and models. 5. Local Climatology: The first use of the term local climate is unknown; however, German climatologists began to use it frequently as a synonym for Kleinklima (small climate) in the early 1930s. Since then local climate has appeared in many monographs and textbooks (Fukui, 1938; Landsberg, 1941; Sapozhnikova, 1950; Yoshino, 1961, 1975; Bernyi, 1967; Barry, 1981). However, R. Geiger, a founder of microclimatology, did not use the term local climate; instead, he used orographisches Mikroklima (orographical microclimate) and Kleinklima (small climate) in his early works (Geiger, 1927, 1929). He continued to use these terms in the revised editions of his book (Geiger, 1961, 1965). These terms are now used as synonyms for microclimate, topoclimate and mesoclimate. 6. Regional Climatology: As its name implies, this concerns the climate of regions. The size of the region can vary but is often synonymous with identified geographic regions; the Great Plains, the Paris Basin, Southern China, providing apt examples. The manner in which the climatology is presented can range from highly descriptive, such as in the classic climatography of the early twentieth century, or can be based purely upon derived climatic indices, such as in component analysis. 7. Paleoclimatology: Climate has changed through geological time, and paleoclimatology is the study of such changes (Frakes, 1978; Ruddiman, 2001). The changes have taken place at a variety of scales, and range from minor fluctuations within the instrumental record (with durations of the order of a decade or decades) to major geological periods (with durations of many millions of years). The shorter-term changes include events such as the period of warming that took place in the first decades of the twentieth century. The changes with durations of hundreds of years were characteristic of the Holocene and include

various phases of glacial advance and retreat such as the Little Ice Age between 1500 and 1850. The fluctuations within the Pleistocene Ice Age (Bowen, 1978), consisting of major glacials and interglacials, lasted for 10 000100 000 years, whereas the Pleistocene itself, termed a minor geological variation, consisted of a group of glacial and interglacial events that lasted in total approximately 2 million years. 8. Applied Climatology: Applied climatology has been the foundation upon which the worlds weather-sensitive activities and infrastructure have been developed. Applications of climate data and information have likely contributed more to the development of most nations than any other function of the atmospheric sciences. Today weather forecasts are very useful and important but these only became available in the twentieth century, more than 150 years after applied climatology had been in service to the nation. What is applied climatology? The answer may seem obvious, but the definition of applied climatology is elusive for several reasons. Activities falling under the umbrella of applied climatology are spread among many disciplines. The activities also have interfaces with many parts of the atmospheric sciences, forming a myriad number of interactions. The field is truly interdisciplinary, embracing climatologists and those of other disciplines including hydrology, agriculture, engineering, and business. The following discipline are also branches of applied climatology; 9. Agroclimatology: Agroclimatology, often also referred to as agricultural climatology, is a field in the interdisciplinary science of agrometeorology, in which principles of climatology are applied to agricultural systems. Its origins relate to the foremost role that climate plays in plant and animal production. Formal references to the terms agrometeorology and agroclimatology date to the beginning of the twentieth century, but use of empirical knowledge can be traced back at least 2000 years (Monteith, 2000). Agroclimatology is sometimes used interchangeably with agrometeorology, but the former refers specifically to the interaction between long-term meteorological variables (i.e. climate) and agriculture. As such, they share common fundamental principles, methods and tools, but specific concepts are applied as described here.

10. Air Pollution Climatology: Air pollution is defined as an atmospheric condition in which substances (air pollutants) are present at concentrations higher than their normal ambient (clean atmosphere) levels to produce measurable adverse effects on humans, animals, vegetation, or materials (Seinfeld, 1986). Polluting substances can be noxious or benign, and can be released by natural and anthropogenic (human-made) sources. According to the World Health Organization an estimated 3 million people die each year because of exposure to air pollution (WHO, 2000). Air pollution climatology is concerned with the study of atmospheric phenomena and conditions that lead to occurrence of large concentrations of air pollutants and with their effects on the environment. Air pollutants are typically classified into three categories: suspended particulate matter (SPM), gaseous pollutants (gases and vapors) and odors. SPM in the air includes PM10 (particulate matter with median diameter less than 10m), PM2.5 (particulate matter with median diameter less than 2.5m), diesel exhaust, coal flyash, mineral dusts (e.g. asbestos, limestone, cement), paint pigments, carbon black and many others. Gaseous pollutants include sulfur compounds (e.g. sulfur dioxide (SO2)), nitrogen compounds (e.g. nitric oxide (NO), ammonia (NH3)), organic compounds (e.g. hydrocarbons (HC), volatile organic compounds (VOC) and polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAH), etc.). 11. Cloud Climatology: A cloud is an assemblage of liquid water particles and/or ice particles in the atmosphere. Almost all clouds form when moist air is cooled until it becomes supersaturated, i.e. the relative humidity is above 100%. If the temperature is above freezing, supersaturated water vapor then condenses onto cloud condensation nuclei to produce liquid particles. If the temperature is below freezing, the supersaturated water vapor deposits on ice nuclei to form ice particles. If there are not enough ice nuclei present, supercooled liquid particles will form even though the temperature is below 0C. When the temperature is below 40C, ice particles will form without ice nuclei and supercooled liquid particles will spontaneously freeze. Under certain conditions cloud particles will combine and/or grow large enough to fall as precipitation. Clouds play a key role

in the climate system. They are intimately connected to precipitation and have a large influence on the transfer of energy within the atmosphere. 12. Cultural Climatology: Climate and life are intimately linked. Without life the composition of the Earths atmosphere today would be totally different and the climate of the Earth would be more like that of Venus the Earths atmosphere would be 98% CO2 (Morrison and Owen, 1996). This intimate link between life and the atmosphere on Earth has led to claims that the atmosphere is effectively managed by the biosphere, leading to the Gaia hypothesis (Lovelock, 1979). No-one is sure how life developed on Earth about 3850 million years ago, but after continuous evolution humans emerged about 5 million years ago, and civilization and society as we know it began about 5000 years ago. Hence it is impossible to study climate in isolation from the biosphere and society, and any changes to the Earths atmosphere caused directly or indirectly by society should be firmly within the remit of climatology. 13. Hydroclimatology: Hydroclimatology was defined by Langbein (1967) as the study of the influence of climate upon the waters of the land. It includes hydrometeorology as well as the surface and nearsurface water processes of evaporation, runoff, groundwater recharge, and interception. The total hydrologic cycle, then, is the basis for a discussion of hydroclimatology. 14. Energy Budget Climatology: The energy budget of a surface or an object is the amount of heat energy, in any form, that arrives at or departs from the surface of the object in a specified time period. Energy budget climatology most commonly is the climatology of the energy budgets of the Earths surface that are studied at a variety of scales. The term may also be broadened to include the energy budget of the atmosphere as a whole or any part of it. We will concentrate here mainly on the energy budget climatology of the Earths surface. The energy budget of a surface is an application of the law of conservation of energy for the Earths surface. The simplest form of the law may be expressed as: Q* H + LE + G where Q* is net radiation, H is sensible heat (enthalpy), LE is latent heat (L

being the latent heat of vaporization of water and E the amount of water evaporated), and G is the flow into or from the sub medium. 15. Bioclimatology: Bioclimatology (biometeorology) is the study of the relationships between climate (weather) and living organisms. The field is vast and brings together scientists from many disciplines. Bioclimatology is frequently divided into human, plant (agricultural and forest), and animal bioclimatology. Other subdivisions include aerobiology (the behavior of airborne living material), phenology, urban bioclimatology, air pollution bioclimatology, tourism and recreation bioclimatology, mountain bioclimatology, electromagnetic and ionization bioclimatology, and bioclimatological rhythms. However, no single classification system has been adopted universally. The American Meteorological Society, for example, has several committees with bioclimatological involvements: Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, Applied Climatology, Biometeorology and Aerobiology, and Meteorological Aspects of Air Pollution. The time intervals studied range from the daily cycle to geological times. 16. Urban Climatology: The process of urbanization significantly alters natural surface and atmospheric conditions. Oke, in Thompson and Perry (1997), suggests that urban atmospheres demonstrate the strongest evidence we have of the potential for human activities to change climate. In the twentieth century rapid urbanization has occurred on a worldwide scale and the majority of the worlds population lives in cities. Rapid expansion of cities has produced concurrent alterations in the urban climatic environment (Landsberg, 1981). In general there are many apparent anthropogenic impacts on our atmospheric environment (Changnon, 1983). These range from microscale (e.g. replacing trees with a parking lot) to macroscale (e.g. carbon dioxide effects on global climate by fossil fuel combustion and emissions). This discussion focuses on the causes of alterations in climate in urban areas. 17. Archeoclimatology: The term archeoclimatology was coined by Reid A. and Robert U. Bryson, about 1990, to designate a particular approach to the

estimation of past climates on the time and spatial scales appropriate for the use of archeologists (Bryson and Bryson, 1994). Because cultures change on less than the millennial scale, and because people live in relatively restricted areas, whatever data or model is used must be nearly site-specific and of high timeresolution. Ideally the method should be rather economical, since archaeology tends to be funded at a low level. This subspecialty of paleoclimatology is largely concerned with bringing together various sources of estimation of past climates, models and proxy estimates from field studies, to provide the most consistent estimates of the past climatic environment at particular places and times. 18. Architect and Climate: There are dramatic new building forms emerging around the world that have been generated by a growing understanding of climate and its importance to sustainability. From England to the US, from Malaysia to Malta, emerging architecture demonstrates the power of sun, wind, light, moisture and diurnal swing to generate innovative building forms, material detailing and systems integration for sustainability. In an era of rediscovery, a growing number of architects and engineers begin their design efforts with regional climate graphics, study indigenous responses to climate, use climate driven computer simulation tools for design development and specifications, and celebrate climatic variability through unique architectural results. These professionals will increasingly need accessible and consistent climate data worldwide, field testing of regional performance of climate-responsive buildings, regional design guidelines, and design simulation and modeling tools.

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