UNIT 1 SHIP MANOEUVRING AND SHIP PROPULSION AND CONTROL

Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives

Ship Manoeuvring and Ship Propulsion and Control

1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

Definitions/Terms Used in Ship Handling Theory Factors Affecting Manoeuvring Capabilities/Limitations Introduction to Theoretical Aspects Hull Parameters that Influence Manoeuvrability Froude Number The Coefficient of Wave Making Resistance (CW) Basic Manoeuvring Manoeuvring Information on Board Ship

1.10 Basic Manoeuvring 1.11 Evaluate and to Allow for the Effect of Current 1.12 Manoeuvring Booklet 1.13 Ship Propulsion and Control 1.14 Propulsion Plants 1.15 Power Plants, Horsepower etc. 1.16 Propeller Action 1.17 Steering Gear 1.18 Answers to SAQs

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Many masters develop ship handling as art whereby they instinctively respond and react to the movement of the ship, without the full understanding of the science behind those reactions and reason for their need.

Objectives
While ship handling and manoeuvring appears as an art and skill wherein the experienced ship handler instinctively responds and reacts from the experience to the movement of the ship, there is need to understand the science behind those reactions. Understanding of the science (theory) of ship handling will help ship handler to be more proactive instead of being only reactive. 3

Theory of Ship Manoeuvring

1.2 DEFINITIONS/TERMS USED IN SHIP HANDLING THEORY

Acceleration Drift angle Force Inertia Leverage Mechanical Work Moment Rate of change of velocity change of velocity in unit time expressed as centimetres per second per second. This is the angle between the F & A line and the tangent to the turning circle at the pivot point. That which can alter the state of rest or motion of a body or change direction of body. Tendency of a body to remain at rest or in a state of uniform motion. Mechanical advantage gained by using lever. Work done by force acting on a body. It is the product of the force and the distance moved by a body in the direction of the force. Symbol M. ' A measure of the tendency of a force to rotate the body to which if is applied about point P M = force times the perpendicular distance from P to the line of action of the force (Linear momentum) Symbol p. Is the product of the mass of the body m and its velocity v. p = mv Or it is the quantity of motion measured by mass x velocity. Movement, moving Form of mechanical energy used to drive machinery. Short shaft or pin on which something turns or rotates. Hindrance, impeding or stopping effect. Symbol v. Distance travelled in a given direction in unit time expressed as centimetres per second. It is the rate of change of distance and is a vector quantity.

Momentum

Motion Motive Power Pivot Resistance Velocity

The above terms are expressed in either foot pound seconds units or centimetres grams seconds units. For bigger quantities, these may be expressed in tonnes (e.g. in case of thrust). Relevance of these Definitions/Terms in Ship Handling While ship handling we are concerned with momentum when we want to slow down or stop the ship. We understand the importance of momentum Specially when we dont want to have it, e.g. excessive headway when berthing, picking up pilot, anchoring etc (Longitudinal momentum) or when the ship is setting too fast on to berth while being pushed by the-tugs (Lateral momentum) or swinging too fast (rotational momentum). It will therefore be seen that most of the ship handling efforts are directed in having correct speed in the desired direction and to avoid unnecessary movements. Note this Loaded ship has more momentum than the light ship. Big ship carries more momentum than a small ship. Same ship will carry more momentum at higher speed than at a slower speed.

Effects of inertia make the work of controlling momentum difficult. Initially when starting a ship from a position dead in water, it takes a good effort of propulsion to overcome inertia. Larger ships have relatively low horse powers, they take long time to overcome inertia to come up to desired speed compared to, say container ship with relatively high Horsepower to Dead-weight ratio.

1.3 FACTORS AFFECTING MANOEUVRING CAPABILITIES/LIMITATIONS

1.3.1 Physical Characteristics
Physical Characteristics of ship such as : Length, Breadth, Depth/Draft, Deadweight, Displacement, Block- Coefficient, Coefficient of fineness, Wind Draft, Under Keel Clearance at relevant time Weight-Power Ratio, Horse Power of Engines, Type of Engines, Speed, Number and type of propeller(s), Type of rudder, If fitted with lateral thrusters or not. Type, quantity and disposition of cargo and/or ballast.

Ship Manoeuvring and Ship Propulsion and Control

1.3.2 Environmental Factors

Environmental Factors such as Depth of water, Width of channel, Channel Alignment, Tides, Currents, Winds, Visibility (Rain, Fog) Ice over navigable water

1.3.3 Behaviour and Handling Characteristics

Behaviour and handling characteristics, Stopping distances and turning abilities of ships change on every occasion that the ship is manoeuvred. Note : In studying these modules, we are using the ships manoeuvring characteristics and the manoeuvring booklet. It will help if you can have copies of these handy with you. Manoeuvring as suggested above is both a combination of skill and practice. The skills are gained when you are actually handling a ship. Even a small alteration of course gives you knowledge of some aspects of Manoeuvring only if you watch them and note them.

Theory of Ship Manoeuvring

1.4 INTRODUCTION TO THEORETICAL ASPECTS

1.4.1 Ship Hydrodynamics and Design of Hull
Ships are planned, designed, constructed and operated for carrying out an identified function such as commerce, port operations and maintenance, offshore exploration or defence. Merchant ship designs are influenced by pattern of trade, area of operation and the cargoes to be carried. Except for passenger ships and the special purpose built ships handling characteristics of merchant ships are not primary factors.

1.4.2 Basic Design of the Ship

In finalising the design of a particular ship, many conflicting parameters have to be taken into account. In the first instant, the type of the ship and its trading pattern needs to be identified as these determine the basic dimensions, i.e. Length, Breadth, Depth and Draught. The naval architect now has a complex task to take into account these factors, keep the cost down and to ensure that the ship meets its trading requirements including speed, fuel and water consumption etc. Many of these factors often conflict with each other. Ease of Construction Merchant ships tend to be box shaped for ease of construction and to maximise the earning capacity. Passenger ships and naval ships on the other hand, need speed and have more streamlined hulls. Adequate Transverse Stability Adequate transverse stability (wide/beamy ship) Merchant ships need to cater to varying distribution of loads. Passenger ships and naval ships have a comparatively constant weight disposition. Streamlining Naval ships have finer lines and higher power to weight ratio to provide manoeuvrability and ease of handling. Longitudinal Strength Longitudinal strength is built in to face the rigours of the sea. Economical Power Plant Economical power plant balances power and fuel consumption for a given trade.

1.5 HULL PARAMETERS THAT INFLUENCE MANOEUVRABILITY

As stated in the earlier module, Length, Breadth, depth, draft, trim, block coefficient, lateral area of hull, superstructure dimensions and rudder area are all contributory factors that influence manoeuvrability. Although manoeuvrability is not the main consideration in merchant ships, this aspect cannot be ignored. Manoeuvrability allows : Quick/short turn around time, Safe docking and berthing of ships. Sea-keeping qualities, which influence safety of the ship and the lives on board.

Let us therefore look at the various parameters that affect manoeuvrability. We shall first look at them independently and then collectively. 6

1.5.1 Hydrodynamics
This is the dynamic interactions of the hull with water. Dynamic interactions govern resistance of the hull to steady forward motion. The choice of propulsive power is dependent upon this resistance. These interactions are dependent on the shape and dimension of the hull.

Ship Manoeuvring and Ship Propulsion and Control

1.5.2 Resistance to Steady Forward Motion

Frictional Resistance Friction between the water and the hull surfaces is dependent upon : Water density and viscosity, Area of the hull in contact with water, speed of water relative to the ship (Normally square of the speed), and Friction coefficient.

Thus, it would be possible to reduce this resistance by reducing the area of wetted surface (not possible in practice), and making the wetted surface as smooth as possible. Similarly, friction coefficient is not controllable as it depends upon water density, ships speed, ships length and water viscosity. These values are taken from standardised values given by International Towing Tank Conference. (A body that has developed the methods of testing various characteristics of a ship in the design stage). Residuary Resistance Residuary resistance includes : Wave making resistance, and Eddy making resistance.

Wave Making Resistance Wave making resistance is the larger component. This is the energy expended in creating the wave system caused by the hull. In designing the shape of the hull, this component receives the biggest attention. Wave making resistance increases rapidly as the ships speed. It eventually requires more power to overcome than is practicable to build into ship. Note : For a conventional ship, it is virtually impossible to operate at a speed to length ratio higher than 1.3 (speed in knots/sq. root of water line length in feet). (Water line length means length between perpendiculars.) See Table 1.

1.5.3 Ship-generated Wave

A significant feature of waves generated by the passage of a ship is that they travel at the same speed as the ship and their speed is proportional to the square root of their length. Ship-generated waves originate at different parts of the hull (bow wave, stern wave, shoulder waves etc.) Bulbous bow is designed to produce a wave that will tend to cancel or smoothen the bow wave. Wave-making resistance is a function of : Beam to Length ratio, Displacement, Shape of the hull, and A dimensionless quantity called Froude Number (REF).

Formula : Froude Number = where, V is the speed,

V gl
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Theory of Ship Manoeuvring

g is the acceleration of gravity, and L is the waterline length.

1.6 FROUDE NUMBER

The power required to propel a ship is proportional to its speed times the resistance to its movement. The ability to predict resistance is therefore the essential ingredient in predicting the propulsive power to be required by a prospective ship. For many years, hydrodynamic researchers have sought a method for calculating this resistance from first principles, but so far, they have not produced a generally practicable method. Estimates can be made based on experience with existing ships or standard models, but the favoured way of making a prediction during design is to test a model of the proposed ship. Model testing consists of towing a precisely made model of the hull at a precisely controlled speed, in calm water, while measuring the force required towing it. The essential link between model and ship is obtained by operating the model at the same Froude number as the ship. This number, named after the English naval architect William Froude, is a dimensionless ratio given as V/(gL) 0.5, in which V is the speed, g the acceleration of gravity, and L the waterline length. At this common reference point, the wave patterns developed by the ship and by the model are the same, and residuary resistances per ton of displacement are the same. Steps in model testing to find total resistance are : (a) (b) (c) (d) The total resistance of the model is measured. Frictional resistance of the model is calculated using data and technique given by the international Towing Tank Conference. Residuary resistance for the model is found, which is the same per ton displacement as model. Frictional resistance for the ship is calculated.

Total resistance for the ship is found (c + d) above.

1.7 THE COEFFICIENT OF WAVE MAKING RESISTANCE (CW)

Cw is the coefficient of wave making resistance. A body travelling at or near the surface will create waves. The creation of wave requires energy. Any energy used for making waves represents lost energy, which could have been used to make the ship go faster. Wave making resistance is much less at slow speeds, but becomes the major component of resistance at high speeds.
Divergent stern wave Divergent bow waves First bow crest

Transverse waves
Wave length Wave length

Water line plane

This pattern of waves consists of two types of waves. First, there are the divergent waves which start at the bow and stern, and angle aft. Note that the lines of the wave crests are

not straight, they curve somewhat aft. Next, there are the transverse waves which are originally perpendicular to the ship's line of motion, although the further away from the ship they get the more they tend aft due to friction. Note that a line originating at the bow, heading aft, and at an angle of 19.5 (20 is fine for modelling) to the ships centreline, defines the intersection of all divergent and transverse wave crests. ALL displacement type surface ships, except those operating in very shallow (i.e., ship almost aground) or in very narrow channels, will make this type of wave pattern.

Ship Manoeuvring and Ship Propulsion and Control

1.7.1 Reducing the Coefficient of Wave Making Resistance

A greater length will lower the wave making resistance. One of Froudes earliest observations was that when two similarly shaped bodies of differing lengths are moved through water they both produce the same pattern of waves but at differing speeds. Thus, for example, a 5.5 metre hull will produce the same pattern of waves at 9 knots that a 22 metre hull will produce at 18 knots. Example 1.1 A ship of length 408 feet has 'Hull speed at 1.0 = 20 knots and at 1.3 = 27 knots. Beyond this speed, every knot of speed requires greater horsepower. Another vessel, Length 1045 feet, the hull speed is about.32.23 knots and at 1.3 = 41.7 knots. This ship at 30 knots is in the flat region of its resistance curve. Therefore, an extra knot does not require appreciably higher horsepower. Refer to Table 1. Because of increased wave making resistance at speeds above hull speed, longer ships use proportionately smaller engines to attain the same speed as smaller ships. (It requires less horsepower per ton to make a longer ship steam at 30 knots than it does to make a smaller ship at 30 knots. Only difficulty is overcoming Inertia - starting and stopping! Longer and larger ships with relatively smaller horsepower are difficult to control compared to a smaller ship or a ship with relatively larger horsepower). The graph below is for an actual cargo vessel. It shows the wave-making resistance at various speeds expressed as a force per tonne. Thus at about 20 knots, this particular vessels top cruising speed, one could expect the wave making resistance to equal 25 Newton per tonne, or, as she was a 12500 tonne vessel, a total of 312.5 kN. Notice how rapidly the curve rises so that by 30 knots the drag now equates to 937.5 kN.

1.7.2 Eddy Making Resistance

This is produced by appendages such as rudders, brackets supporting propellers, propeller shafting, bilge keels, etc. They add to the hull resistance to forward motion. This can be minimised by giving them airfoil shapes and suitable orientation so that approaching water will have low angle of attack. Appendages account for 2 to l4% of total resistance.

1.7.3 Aerodynamic Resistance

Aerodynamic Resistance is offered by above water part of the hull including housing, superstructure etc. This component is affected by area and shape of the ship above waterline. It has two components. Air Resistance is due to flow of air over the ship. Wind resistance is due to wind and depends on its velocity and direction. With wind speed exceeding 20 knots, the resistance increases significantly.

Resistance from air and wind may be typically 4 to 8% of total resistance but may be as much as 10% in high-sided ships such as aircraft carriers, passenger ships or container ships. Ships speed. 9

Theory of Ship Manoeuvring

1.7.4 Change in Total Resistance

The change in total resistance is directly proportional to the ship speed. On a practical level, getting from point A to point B in a short time will cost an increasing amount of energy and practical fuel consumption limits the speed of the ship largely.

1.7.5 Components of Total Hull Resistance

The total resistance of a ships hull moving through calm water can be divided into three components as shown in the next equation.

RT = RV + RW + R
where Rv is viscous resistance, Rw is wave-making resistance, and RAA is resistance caused by the air.

AA

Figure shows the variation in the magnitudes of these components with ships speed. At low speeds, viscous resistance dominates; at higher speeds, the curve turns upward drastically as wave making resistance begins to dominate. Ship resistance in air is a function of the surface area of the hull and superstructure above the waterline.

1.7.6 Variation in Components of Ship Resistance with Ship Speed

The hump that occurs on the total resistance curve is a wave making effect. The location of the hump is a function of ship length and ship speed.

1.7.7 Flow of Water

The flow of fluids can be roughly divided into laminar and turbulent flow. Laminar flow is the condition where the fluid flows in layers in an orderly fashion. Turbulent flow is the condition where the flow is chaotic and well mixed. As the water flows from the bow to the stern, the flow undergoes a transition from laminar to turbulent to flow separation. All three-flow types are shown in the figure below. The transverse wave system travels at approximately the same speed as the ship, since the ship is producing the wave. At slow speeds, the waves are short and several crests are seen along the ships length. As the ship speeds up, the length of the transverse wave increases. The wave making resistance increases very rapidly as the length of the transverse wave approaches the length of the ship, The ship in effect must power itself through this wave if it is to go any faster. At this point, the energy expenditure increases more rapidly than the increase in speed. This is the main reason for the dramatic increase in the total resistance as the speed increases.

1.7.8 Residuary Resistance

Wave-making and eddy-making resistance components are often referred to as a single residuary resistance, especially when resistance measurements are extrapolated from model testing. Wave making is usually by far the larger component of residuary resistance; it is therefore given more attention in research and in the designing of a hull. Indeed, wave-making increases so rapidly as ship speed increases that it eventually requires more power to overcome than is practicable to build into a ship. Even a trivial increase in speed, beyond 1.3 hull speed requires a virtually infinite increase in power to fulfill the energy demand of the wave system. Small craft can escape this limitation by planning, but the amount of power required for the transition to a planning mode is beyond practicality for conventional ships.

1.7.9 Hull Speed

The transverse wave created by the ship equals the length of the ship at this speed. Going faster than the hull speed results in a transverse wave longer than the ship, however the crest of the wave is still attached to the bow since the ship is creating the wave. At any faster speed, the ship stops behaving like a displacement ship and starts behaving like a planning craft. 10

If hull speed is to be exceeded, then the power will have to be increased which becomes uneconomical as the fuel consumption also increases at an alarmingly high rate If we assume the speed to square root of LBP ratio to be 1, then the hull speed could be approximated to sq. root of length. Hull Speed for Ships of Different Lengths
Ships LBP In Feet 100 200 300 400 600 800 1000 1100 Square Root of LBP (Hull Speed) 10 knots 14.14 17.32 20 24.49 28.28 31.62 33.16 1.2 Hull Speed 12 knots 16.97 20.8 24 29.38 33.93 37.94 39.8 1.3 Hull Speed 13 knots 18.38 22.51 26 31.38 36.76 41.10 43

Ship Manoeuvring and Ship Propulsion and Control

SAQ 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) Why is it necessary to refer to Froude number when determining the power requirement? What is the difference between a transverse wave and a divergent wave? What measures are taken to reduce the wave resistance? What is hull speed and how is it determined approximately?

1.8 BASIC MANOEUVRING

In manoeuvring and handling involves various aspects. In this module, we are going to look at the effect of the wind and currents on ship handling and ship manoeuvring. International Maritime Organisation recommends the provision and display of manoeuvring data on board ships as set out in the annex to this module. By the end of this module, the student shall be able to appreciate the effect of wind and the currents on ship handling and the process of using the same to their advantage. The student shall be able to visualise diagrammatically (concept), plot (practice) and decide how to take advantage of the wind and currents, whenever the same is feasible. (Application) In particular, the student shall be able to evaluate diagrammatically, the effect of wind in different directions relative to the ships head.

1.9 MANOEUVRING INFORMATION

Pilot Card (see Annex.) (a) The pilot card, wheelhouse poster and manoeuvring booklet shall be provided on all new ships of 100 meters in length and over, and all new chemical tankers and gas carriers regardless of size; and The pilot card, wheelhouse poster and manoeuvring booklet shall be provided on all new ships that may pose a hazard due to unusual dimensions or characteristics. 11

(b)

Note : New ship means a ship the keel of which is laid or which is at a similar stage of construction on or after 1 January 1992.

Theory of Ship Manoeuvring

The manoeuvring information should be amended after any modification or conversion of the ship, which may alter its manoeuvring characteristics or extreme dimensions. The pilot card, to be filled in by the master, is intended to provide information to the pilot, on boarding the ship. This information should describe the current condition of the ship, with regard to its loading, propulsion, manoeuvring equipment and other relevant equipment. Wheelhouse Poster (See Annexure) The wheelhouse poster should be permanently displayed in the wheelhouse. It should contain general particulars and detailed information describing the manoeuvring characteristics of the ship, and be of such a size to ensure ease of use. Note : The manoeuvring characteristics are determined by conducting special manoeuvring drills, by computer simulation techniques, or by estimation. The master should bear in mind that the manoeuvring performance of the ship may differ from that shown on the poster due to environmental, hull and loading conditions. Manoeuvring Booklet The manoeuvring booklet should be available on board and should contain comprehensive details of the ships manoeuvring characteristics and other relevant data. The manoeuvring booklet should include the information shown on the wheelhouse poster together with other available manoeuvring information.

1.10 BASIC MANOEUVRING

Manoeuvring is an essential part of watchkeeping. You shall be required to correct a course, alter course for a ship or alter the course in accordance with the passage plan. In these manoeuvre process you need to know the principles of ship handling. Ensure that you make full use of the information that you have on your ship. Effect of Wind Effect of wind must always be taken into account while carrying out manoeuvres. Passenger ships, container ships and Ro-Ro ships have large areas above water. The area thus exposed to wind is called windage. The effect of wind on such ships is therefore more pronounced than on deep loaded bulk carriers or tankers, which have less windage. The same ship in different loaded conditions viz. light, intermediate draft and full load conditions will be affected differently. A wind force of 3-4 on the Beaufort scale will have same effect in light condition as with wind force of 7-8 when the ship is down to her marks. The wind affects the ship when she is at sea, as well as when she is manoeuvring in port. At slow speeds, finding the direction of the wind is relatively simple, however, at sea it is not so. The direction of the wind perceived when standing on deck is its relative direction. This is the resultant of the true direction of the wind and the course steered by the ship. We do not intend to go into resolution of the relative motion diagrams but shall leave you to work the same out for yourselves. In this module, we are mainly looking at the effect of the wind when manoeuvring a ship. We shall therefore indicate the various conditions and assess its effects. The effect of the wind at sea creates leeway, which needs to be accounted also, and the process has been covered in Chart work. Ship Underway with Wind from Right Ahead 12

Visualise yourself walking against a strong wind! Wind slows you down and may sometimes take you backwards. Ships are no exception. Such wind can be used as excellent brakes as long as the ship is heading into the wind. Now let us visualise a ship in ballast steering a course with the wind 30 on her port bow. The ship in ballast is normally trimmed heavily by the stern. This means her windage forward is larger than her windage in the after section. The wind therefore shall continue to push the ship away from the wind till the wind is almost abaft. Can you now visualise the effect when the ship is loaded, that is her bow is well down and the accommodation in the stern is providing a larger windage area? If such a ship now swings 20 to port, will the bow continue to swing or try and bring her back heading into the wind again? Here we are only considering the effect of wind. You can therefore see that with this knowledge we can use the wind : Caution You will also notice that under certain conditions though steering is easy, the ships head has a tendency to go off course and it is difficult to bring the ships head back on course, particularly in a strong wind. Ship Underway with Wind from Right Astern With the wind from right astern, steering once again is easy but like in the case of head wind, the stern has tendency to pay off on either side. It is difficult to get her back on course again. Can you see the reason for this? This effect is more on a ship where the accommodation is aft. You can also see that the wind in this case has no braking effect. Given a choice between head wind and wind from right astern, the head wind is preferred for berthing. Ship Underway with Wind from Abeam When the ship is underway with the wind from abeam, steering is not affected. However, depending on the strength of the wind, the ship drifts sideways due to leeway and this has to be accounted for. Ship Underway with Wind on the Bow Here again in light condition the effect on the stem being larger the ships head tends to swing away from the wind (leeward), hence continuous weather helm (helm on the side of the wind) is needed to steer. Ship Underway with Wind on Quarter With the wind pushing the stern away to leeward, the stern tends to swing to leeward. The ship is therefore steered towards the wind and the ship requires to be given Lee helm. Vessel Under Sternway When the ship is going astern, it rarely goes at any great speed. When going astern most ships also tend to swing to starboard. The effect of the wind is therefore a little more complex. In ballast condition where the wind catches the bow, which it often does, the stern is pulled into the wind. This effect is quite definite and rapid. Note : This effect must be remembered while manoeuvring for anchoring, berthing etc. As a good brake As a device for making a tight turn. To manoeuvre comparatively easily as long as the wind remains about two to three points on the bow.

Ship Manoeuvring and Ship Propulsion and Control

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Theory of Ship Manoeuvring

All ships turn around a pivoting point. The point is an imaginary point and is fixed from observations of the ship turning around. It is known that when going astern the pivoting point moves aft.

1.11 EVALUATE AND TO ALLOW FOR THE EFFECT OF CURRENT

The effect of the currents, though not dramatic in the open seas, affects safe navigation in the coastal waters and when handling ships in rivers or harbours. Some of the aspects of diagrammatic plotting are dealt with in chart work. In this module, the student is given a general idea of he effects of the currents and the way of counteracting that effect. What are Currents and Tides? Upper layers of water mass are in constant motion w.r.t. seabed. This movement is due to sea, swell, tidal stream or a current. The effect of sea and swell in a horizontal direction is negligible. Strong winds blowing for some time do create a drift, which is not predictable. Tidal streams occur due to tidal phenomenon and so change direction as per the state of the tide. Current is a long-term phenomenon and changes seasonally. For our purpose, we shall call all such movement as currents, for brevity. Currents affect all floating objects equally. Currents actually do not affect ship handling in the open seas because all floating objects move over water in the same direction with the current. The currents however could affect the safety of navigation. Particular Circumstances Off Shore It is because of this reason that the effect of the current shall not be felt when handling a ship in open sea. However the effect of current must be considered when handling ships in waters with on shore winds or near off shore platforms, or when manoeuvring in narrow channels even in open seas or in inland waters or harbours. In harbours or in inland waters if the current is at constant strength and direction, the ship handling becomes considerably easier. Such conditions exist only in the comparatively narrow channels of the rivers. However, we should take into account the following : Different current streams exist over a small area, within which the vessel has to manoeuvre.

Currents with varying different strength or direction may act upon different parts of the ship. Counter current Locks

Flood tide 14

Ship when manoeuvring in the vicinity of fixed objects e.g. a wharf or clearing dangers off shore may be severely affected by the currents. Use of Currents when Manoeuvring Currents do not always hinder movement; they can be used quite effectively. Next time you see a pilot bringing a ship alongside, watch how he slowly uses the currents and the helm and brings the ship alongside very gently. The process he follows is very simple. Let us assume that the wharf you are going alongside is north / south and the current is setting south. You are naturally heading into the current. The pilot brings the ship about 100 meters off the wharf and ensures that the ship has no headway in relation to the wharf. Assuming the wharf to be on your port side he puts the helm at 10 to port. However, the ship has no real headway she is making way through the water and the helm swings the head to port. The current catches the ship on its starboard side and starts pushing it on to the jetty. Gentle slow ahead movements keep the ship's headway through water and the bow creeps towards the wharf. As the bow comes about 10 meters from the jetty the pilot orders dead slow astern which swings the bow to starboard and swings the stern alongside. All that now needs to be done is to send the lines ashore and make fast. In a riverine port, the pilot also makes use of the current to drift astern without having to turn around. He drops an anchor underfoot (i.e. with one shackle in the water) and with judicious use of astern movements he manages to bring the ship astern. The pilots know the details of the currents in their pilotage waters. Even though this information is available in the relevant publications, it becomes difficult to know all the details. We therefore rely on the pilots for their local knowledge. All ships carry a manoeuvring booklet in addition to the wheel house posters. Such booklet would contain the following information. Check the information on your ship.

Ship Manoeuvring and Ship Propulsion and Control

1.12 MANOEUVRING BOOKLET

Manoeuvring booklet contents are as follows. Such booklets are on board all ships and cadets should study the same to understand the basic characteristics. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) General description and Ships and engine particulars. Manoeuvring characteristics in deep water see figure. Stopping and speed control characteristics in deep water. Manoeuvring characteristics in shallow water including squat. Manoeuvring characteristics in wind. Manoeuvring characteristics at low speed.

SAQ 2
(a) (b) (c) (d) What would be the effect of wind on a ship steaming with a strong wind on her port beam? Identify the publications, which provide the information on winds in port and in a particular sea area. Ascertain the relationship between the wind force and state of the sea and swell. Narrate the procedure that your pilot or the berthing master used to bring the ship alongside a jetty. Indicate specifically the use of current. 15

Theory of Ship Manoeuvring

(e)

You are stemming the current (Current is against you). If a 90 turn is to be made around a buoy, indicate with sketches and reason as to which of the following would you prefer? (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Little before usual position as would be in absence of current. Little after usual position as would be in absence of current. At usual position as if there is no current. The current may be ignored, as it would not have any effect. Definitions Used on Turning Circle Test

PILOT CARD Ships name ___________________________________ Date _____________ Call sign _________ Deadweight ___________tonnes. Year built _____________ Draught Aft _______m/_____ft ___in, Displacement _____tonnes SHIPS PARTICULARS Length overall _______m Breadth ________m Moulded breadth _________m Anchor Chain Port ____shackles, Stbd _____shackles Stern _______shackles Bulbous bow Yes/No (1 shackle = _____m/_____fathoms) Forward _____m/_____ft __in,

air draft

draft Parallel body at W/L. Loaded : __________m Ballast : __________m

16

Type of Engine ______________ Maximum Power _____kW (________HP) Manoeuvring Engine Order Full ahead Half ahead Slow ahead Dead slow ahead Dead slow astern Slow astern Half astern Full astern Time limit astern ________min. Full ahead to full astern _____s. Max. Nos. of consec. Starts ____ Minimum RPM ____ ____knots Astern power ______% ahead Rpm/Pitch Speed (knots) Loaded Ballast

Ship Manoeuvring and Ship Propulsion and Control

STEERING PARTICULARS Type of rudder ______________________ Maximum angle ____________ Hard-over to hard-over _______Seconds Rudder angle for neutral effect _____ Thruster Bow________ kW (________HP) Stern ______kW (________HP)

CHECKED IF ABOARD AND READY Anchors Whistle Radar 3 cm Radar 10 cm Y/N ARPA Speed Log Doppler Water speed Y/N Ground speed Dual Axis Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N Y/N VHF Compass system Gyro error +/Y/N Elec. Pos. Fixing system type___ ____________________________ Y/N
o

Y/N Y/N Y/N

various indicators Rudder RPM / Pitch Y/N Rate of Turn Y/N Y/N

Engine telegraph Y/N Steering gear Y/N

Number of power units of steering gear operating 1/2/3/4 Turning circle at full rudder

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Theory of Ship Manoeuvring

18

1.13 SHIP PROPULSION AND CONTROL

Manoeuvring is firstly dependent on the type of the propulsion as well as the steering systems provided. Let us look at the different systems and their advantages and disadvantages. Students are advised that for the explanation of engineering terms they should refer to a textbook on Marine Power plants.

Ship Manoeuvring and Ship Propulsion and Control

1.14 PROPULSION PLANTS

Steam Ships Reciprocating Steam Engines : Single Propeller This was common for most of the merchant ships, naval ships, tugs, and dredgers etc for first half of 20th century. It was simple, reliable and easy to operate. Advantages Advantages from ship handling point of view are: Disadvantages Disadvantages are High cost of maintenance, Needed higher fuel at higher speeds Water, fuel and machinery occupied lot of space. Good response, Could be readily stopped and reversed, and Developed full power in very short time.

These, therefore were not very suitable for larger and higher speed ships (passenger and warships), which preferred steam turbine ships. Twin or multi propeller ships were further variants of steam reciprocating engine ships. Steam Turbine Ships These engines are found on very large vessels where sustained high speeds are required, such as tankers, passenger ships and container ships. Turbines need less maintenance and use of cheaper fuels possible. They can use any fuel in their boilers. On turbine ships, boiler rooms and engine rooms are separate and the engine room remains cleaner. On tankers, turbines are used on larger ships as they have turbo pumps and boilers to run them. Same boilers then can run the propulsion turbines too. The boilers provide the flue gas without the use of a flue gas boiler. Advantages The advantages are : The steam turbine engine is less heavy than its diesel counterpart, It is more reliable, Turbine ship is smooth running and more reliable in the mechanical sense, Needs less maintenance, and Uses economical fuel. 19

Drawbacks of Turbine

Theory of Ship Manoeuvring

Drawbacks of turbine ships from handling point of view are: Turbine ships build up engine revolutions slowly and hence build up speed sluggishly. When going astern the turbine needs to be stopped in its ahead revolution and charged to astern revolution. A separate turbine is therefore introduced for stern power with its output between 60% to 50% of ahead power.

Motor Ships Motor ships (Diesel ships) are perhaps the most common type met at sea now. Up to the 1960s, this type of engine was not available for larger ships (tankers and bulk carriers). Such large ships were mostly equipped with steam turbine. Now the larger ships also have motor engines, as they are less expensive to run. From ship handling point of view, they present advantages over steam turbines. They can be started quickly. They respond to changes and develop power quickly. They have more stern power and consequently stronger transverse thrust than turbine ships. They are therefore easier to turn short turn around to starboard for a right-handed propeller. As compressed air is used for starting the engines, the air supply may get exhausted in case of a number of engine starts. An upper limit on stops and starts of the engine used to be necessary. However now higher capacity compressors are fitted and this is no more a problem. Difficulties may be experienced in reversing the engines from full ahead to full astern. Types of Propulsion
Engine Response Start Stop Steam Reciprocating Fixed Pitch Fair Good Steam Turbine Fixed Pitch Slow Slow Diesel (Motor) Fixed Pitch Good Good Diesel or Turbo Electric Good Good Controllable Pitch Propeller Good Loose steerage, residual speed remains Good

Disadvantages of Diesel Engines

Comparison of Various Propulsion Systems

Changes in speed when manoeuvring Full power ahead changes in speed Stern power

Good

Slow

Good

Good

Good No Good

Slow to develop No Poor but good if provided with astern turbine Necessary For stopping and crash stops

Good No Good

Good Possible Good

Good Possible Good

Precautions

No special precautions

Maintenance

Reciprocating engine needs maintenance

Turbines need only regular monitoring at surveys

For crash stops, number of stops and starts Extensive maintenance needed.

Nil

For stopping and crash stops

Diesel requires maintenance

Routine

Further Developments 20

1.15 POWER PLANTS, HORSEPOWER ETC

One of the important considerations for a naval architect is the propulsion power requirement for a ship. Once the hull form is decided upon, it is necessary to determine the engine power that will enable the ship to meet its operational requirements of speed and fuel consumption. The total resistance of ship cannot be predicted by calculations alone. The complex shape of the ship's hull form forces the naval architect to rely on model tests data to predict : Engine size, Effective horsepower needed to move the hull to a given speed, and Specified consumption.

Ship Manoeuvring and Ship Propulsion and Control

Prime Mover or Main Engine produces the power required to drive the propeller shaft at designed speed. (Horsepower produced at the prime mover stage is known as Brake Horse Power). There are some losses during transmission to the shaft and the power available at the propeller shaft is termed Shaft Horse Power. Further, during the passage of the shaft through bearings, seals and struts if any, there may be further losses and lesser horsepower is delivered to the propeller. This is called Delivered Horse Power. Ultimately, when the propeller operates in its normal environment, what is actually produced is the thrust and this is expressed as Thrust Horse Power. BHP > SHP > DHP > THP The Ship Drive Train
Brake Horsepower (BHP) Prime Mover Shaft Horsepower (SHP) Bearings Seals Strut Reduction Gear Thrust Horsepower (THP) Delivered Horsepower (DHP)

Before ship resistance and power required can be examined in any detail, the definitions and relationships between the power used along the ships drive train must be quantified. Figure above shows a simplified picture of the drive train. Brake Horsepower (BHP) Brake Horsepower (BHP) is the power output at the shaft coming out of the engine before the reduction gears. Sometimes the size of the engine required to satisfy the design criteria is specified in terms of BHP but in most cases Shaft Horsepower (SHP) is used instead. The engine is considered the first element in the drive train and in most merchant ships; the engine will be a diesel engine, or steam turbine. On navy ships gas turbine is also often used Shaft Horsepower (SHP) Shaft Horsepower (SHP) is the power output after any reduction gears. Reduction gears are necessary to convert the high revolutions per minute of the engine to slower revolutions per minute required for efficient screw propeller operation. There is only a few percent loss of efficiency between BHP and SHP-SHP being always smaller value than BHP. NB : The reduction gears can be relatively small components as they are in some gas turbines or extremely large as they are in some steam turbines. Effective Horsepower (EHP) 21

Theory of Ship Manoeuvring

1000 800

POWER CURVE
YARD PATROL CRAFT
Effective Horsepower, EHP (HP)

600

400

200 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Ship Speed, Vs (Knots)

Effective Horsepower (EHP) is defined as follows : The horsepower required to move the ship to a given speed in the absence of propeller action. EHP is determined from model data that is obtained from tow tank experimentation. The model test data is scaled up to find the EHP of the full-scale ship using a technique called a Froude Expansion. By performing this procedure a number of times at different carriage speeds, the EHP for a range of ship speeds can be determined and plotted on a power curve. Figure shows a typical power curve. It is clear to see that the EHP requirement for any ship speed can be found and that the EHP increases exponentially as the speed. Propulsive Coefficient (PC) Having established that the link between THP and EHP is the hull efficiency (CH), it is now possible to establish the BHP requirement for a ship from the magnitude of EHP obtained from the power curve. Figure below displays the block diagram of the various drive train elements and the power at each interface, which can aid this calculation.
Prime Mover
BHP

Reduction SHP Shafting & DHP Propeller THP Gears Bearings

Hull

EHP

Instead of having to deduce the effect of all the separate efficiencies down the ship drive train, the separate efficiencies are often amalgamated into one called the propulsive efficiency (CP) or more often the propulsive coefficient (PC). The propulsive coefficient is the ratio of EHP to SHP. Typically, a well-designed propeller and drive train would produce a propulsive coefficient of about 0.6. Provided the power curve and the propulsive coefficient for a ship are known, it is possible for the prime mover to be sized at an early stage in the ship design process. Example 1.2 Assuming a Patrol Craft has a propulsive coefficient of 0.59; calculate the SHP requirement of its prime mover if it has an operational requirement to reach 14 knots. Solution 22

From Figure on page 16 EHP @ 14 knots is 530 HP PC = SHP =

EHP SHP

Ship Manoeuvring and Ship Propulsion and Control

EHP 530 HP = PC 0.59

SHP = 900 HP

Hull Propeller Interaction In certain hull designs, the flow pattern caused by the hull can reduce the effectiveness of propeller in which case hull efficiency can have a value of < 1. If the hull is designed well, the flow pattern created by the hull can increase the effectiveness of the propeller in which case, the hull efficiency will have a value > 1. Propulsive Coefficient is the ratio of EHP to SHP. Typically, well-designed propellers and drive trains can produce coefficient of about 0.6 Controlling Momentum on Larger Ship Let us take the case of two tankers, one 25,000 tons DWT and other 250,000 tons DWT (10 times bigger than the first one). Now compare their Shaft horsepower (12000 and 31000). Tanker, which is ten times as large (DWT) the first one, has propulsion power 2.58 times only. Sea speed of both the tankers is 16 knots. The momentum at sea speed however will be 25000 16 and 250000 16. Relatively low horsepower of larger ship (VLCC) can give the same speed at sea as that of smaller tanker. Steering these ships poses no special problem at sea as the speed; the rudder area and the hull configuration are matched. However, in restricted waters and shallow waters when vessel has to reduce speed, stop, alter courses or carry out any emergency or sudden manoeuvres that this difference in their power capabilities needs to be kept in mind. Note the differences in respect of this aspect on these types of ships. Table 1
Ship type Tanker DWT Tonnage 25000 50000 100000 250000 380000 Bulk carriers 20000 60000 120000 190000 Container Car Carrier General Cargo 23000 29000 12500 12000 20000 Motor Motor Motor Motor Turbine Engine Motor Shaft Horse Power 12000 16000 22000 31000 45000 9000 15000 23000 24000 30000 26200 10400 11000 17000

23

Theory of Ship Manoeuvring

SAQ 3
(a) (b) (c) Why does a container ship have higher shaft horse power than a similar size tanker? Increase in deadweight does not necessarily need higher horse power. Explain the statement. What is the reason that ships are fitted with steam turbine; e.g. large tankers?

1.16 PROPELLER ACTION

For both ships and aircraft, the principle of propeller propulsion is the same. There are several theories of propeller action/operation. Of these, the momentum theory is simplest and gives insight into the operation of propeller. Rapidly rotating blades develop a lift force having a component in the direction of axis of rotation (Fore and Aft or Longitudinal) that results into thrust in fore and aft direction. The rotating blades cause the water to accelerate in the axial direction, so that the water that has passed through the propeller moves at higher speed than at which it approached the vessel. This increase in momentum of the propelled water equals the propeller thrust. The propeller acts like a pump to increase the pressure of the water flowing through it by an amount p-out minus p-in thereby increasing the speed of flow from forward of propeller to abaft of it in the form of wake. As the flow accelerates, the streamlines converge to preserve the mass of the constant fluid flow rate passing through the propeller. Flow of Water Through the Propeller (a) (b) (c) Cross sectional area along the control volume (see below) decreases (Forward to aft). The speed of water increases as the cross sectional area decreases. The pressure variation of water flowing through the propeller decreases as velocity increases.

Analysis of the Propeller (Water) Flow (a) Let us imagine a controlled Volume of water surrounding the propeller alone. This is the area enclosed by streamlines flowing past the propeller just forward and abaft of it, touching propeller diameter. (See Diagram). Streamlines that pass the propeller tips enclose the water that passes through the propeller. It can be seen that width of this control volume decreases. As the flow of water increases due to reducing cross sectional area, the streamlines converge to preserve the constant mass of water passing through the propeller. When ship is moving forward, the forward side of the blade of the propeller is low-pressure side of the blade. This is also known as the suction face. The after face of the blade is the high-pressure side of the blade. Most of the pressure differences developed across a propeller blade occurs on the low-pressure side.

(b)

(c)

When water is flowing through a propeller, the water which is forward of propeller is accelerated to a high speed as it flows through the propeller. This acceleration creates a low-pressure condition forward of the propeller than surrounding pressure. The water acted upon by the propeller experiences a pressure rise. In the 24

wake region abaft of the propeller, as the pressure falls compared to that of surrounding water the water accelerates to even higher speeds. The Screw Propeller Definitions The theory behind the design of screw propellers is very complicated and a whole subject in itself. However, a few definitions and screw propeller characteristics should be known. Diameter (D) Twice the distance from the propeller axis to the blade tip. Hub The connection between the blades and the propeller shaft. Blade Tip The furthest point on the blade from the propeller hub. Blade Root The point where the blade meets the propeller hub. Pitch (P) The horizontal distance that would be travelled ideally if the screw advanced one revolution like a sheet metal screw. Pitch Angle The pitch can also be quantified as a pitch angle, which is the angle of the blade from perpendicular to the flow.
Pitch P C B
R

Ship Manoeuvring and Ship Propulsion and Control

C B A

Speed of Advance (VA) As a ship moves through the water, it drags the surrounding water with it. At the stern of the ship, this causes the wake to follow the ship with a wake speed (VW). Consequently, the screw propeller is experiencing a flow speed less than the ship speed (VS). The flow speed the propeller is experiencing is called the speed of advance (VA). VA = VS VW Example 1.3 What is the speed of advance of a ship travelling at 22 knots that is creating a wake with a wake speed of 3.2 knots? Solution

V A = VS VW = 22.0 3.2 = VA = 18.8 knots

Transverse Thrust of a Propeller 25

Theory of Ship Manoeuvring

(a)

Working of a Screw Propeller Under the action of a propeller, as the ship moves forward, some water flows aft to create Wake. The propeller operates in this flow and accelerates water aft to propel the vessel. The propeller works more effectively in this wake flow (compared to when engines/propeller is working astern) and this is the reason for preferring single screw ship to twin screw ship as with single screw ship a greater proportion of the wake flows through the propeller. Though the popular concept of propeller action is that of pushing the vessel forward because of high pressure induced on the down stream faces of the blade, in fact, almost two thirds of the thrust force arises from low-pressure acting on the backs or upstream faces of the blades.

(b)

Transverse Thrust Transverse thrust is a phenomenon, which is particularly noticeable when starting from rest until there is wake flow through the propeller. This is because the forces generated by the propeller have a large athwart ships component; the result of this is wheeling effect in the direction of rotation of propeller. A right handed propeller when going ahead will turn the stern to starboard and the bow to port. When engines are reversed (going astern) the bow will swing to starboard and stern to port. Transverse thrust is also known as Starting Bias and Wheeling Effect or Paddle Wheel Effect.

(c)

Because the wake flow moves best over the hull shape when engine is going ahead, the bias reduces as ship increases speed and rudder becomes effective. When going astern, there is little wake strength at the propeller and it may not be possible to correct the bias and steer astern. The thrust of upper blades against the rudder may produce a somewhat greater transverse force than the thrust of the lower blades as the lower blades encounter more resistance. The maximum effect is on a ship starting from dead in the water when the initial pivot point is forward and the transverse thrust has maximum leverage. Under headway, this effect can be corrected by small correcting rudder.

(d)

(e)

The propeller working astern produces a strong transverse thrust because helical discharge is directed against the stern where it hits the hull, in part, almost at right angles. Large diameter propeller of low revolution push back greater amount of water under steeper angle against the stern and produce a strong transverse thrust when working astern. The effect of transverse thrust of propeller working astern is greater when pivot point is forward i.e. when ship is under forward motion. The transverse thrust loses out in leverage when pivot point moves aft when ship gathers sternway propeller with duct. A propeller duct prevents water from reaching the stern under a steep angle, thus producing less transverse thrust. Comparatively, the effect of Transverse thrust while moving ahead is less noticeable than thrust produced when going astern.

(f)

(g)

Action of Propeller Transverse Thrust Right Handed Propeller 26

Moving Ahead The helical discharge from the propeller creates a larger pressure on the port side of the rudder. A slight upward flow from the hull into the propeller area puts slightly more pressure on the down sweeping blades (Stbd side). The speed or the flow of water into propeller is uneven velocity. The net tendency for a right-handed propeller is to give a small swing to port when going ahead.

Moving Astern The helical discharge splits and passes towards either side of the hull and on port quarter it is inclined down and away from the hull.Whilst on starboard quarter. It is directed up and on the hull. This flow of water striking the starboard quarter can be a substantial force (in tonnes) that is capable of swinging stern to port giving the classic 'Kick round'.

Ship Manoeuvring and Ship Propulsion and Control

Controllable Pitch Propeller Conventional Fixed Pitch Propeller On a ship with conventional fixed pitch propeller, going ahead, stopping and going astern are distinct operation as the change of direction of rotation of propeller shaft is involved. Time lag in the changes is significant. Stopping also takes time. Number of starts and stops on motor ships may be limited and astern power may be less than ahead power. Speeds can be increased in steps only i.e. dead slow, slow, half and full. (Intermediate speeds fine tuning is difficult). On some ships minimum speed - dead slow ahead is 5 to 6 knots, which is far in excess of speed necessary for maintaining just steerage way. These disadvantages of Fixed Pitch Propeller are largely reduced/ eliminated by use of Controllable Pitch Propellers. Controllable Pitch Propeller (CPP) rotates continuously in the same direction irrespective of the direction the ship is required to travel (ahead or astern). Only the pitch angle of the blades is changed to control the direction and speed of travel or to stop the ship. The main engine is set and operated at-normal speeds and is clutched in to propeller shaft which thus keeps turning at constant (high) speed continuously. A mechanism called combinator automatically balances engine revolutions against propeller pitch so that it is not necessary to run the engines continuously at excessively high speed. The blades of these propellers can be altered to set whatever pitch is required across the whole power band from full ahead to full astern- this is achieved by hydraulic pumps or pistons. The hydraulic pumps are activated by an electric motor operated when bridge controls are activated. Advantages (a) A ship with CPP is not restricted to step by step speed increases (dead slow-slow-half-full). Any intermediate speed can be selected and operated immediately and maintained. Even at extremely slow speed, it is possible to have steerage. Fixed pitch propellers do not permit such slow speeds. It is possible to turn a CPP ship (Left hand turning propeller) short round to port, using the port cant when going astern (as opposed to starboard cant of FPP- right handed propeller- to starboard) as many of the CPP shafts rotate anticlockwise (left handed)

(b) (c)

Caution On a CPP ship at very low speeds or even at Stop, the blades of CPP are set with a very fine angle and pitch. They appear like fan blades when viewed from astern and the propeller looks like closed disc or wheel. Due to Disc shape of the propeller if ships speed is too high and does not match the propeller speed (low), the flow of water is restricted and turbulence develops behind the propeller, which will adversely affect the rudder functioning. (See the figure). The rudder gets shielded and steering becomes erratic. Of

27

Theory of Ship Manoeuvring

course, against this it may be remembered that CPP is instantly available for corrective action without the necessity of starts or stops. Transverse Thrust of CPP CP Propellers normally turn in a left-handed (anti clock wise) direction continuously when going ahead or astern. Therefore, when a CPP is set for astern movement the bow will cant to starboard like conventional ship but going ahead. It may not turn to port. (If CPP turns clockwise, opposite effect may take place and ships head may cant to port when CPP is moving astern. Transverse thrust of CPP may therefore be weak or unreliable). Maximum stern power and its effect of a CPP ship may not be as much as that of conventional FPP ship. Due to poor maintenance or wrong operation, when control mechanism on bridge is set for stop with zero pitch, the propeller may not be aligned to zero pitch and some residual thrust may exist. Ship may still creep ahead or astern when stop is ordered. If along side, the ropes must be kept tight. Resulting wash may also disturb moorings of ships in adjoining berths. Wash may also get in between the hull and the berth and brining the ship alongside may be difficult while berthing. Care is also necessary to ensure that tugs and mooring boats are warned to take precautions while coming near the propeller to take stern ropes. CPP ships are provided an emergency 'stop' control on the bridge which should either declutch the propeller or stop the engine in an emergency particularly when propeller pitch at high ahead or astern mode gets out of control.

SAQ 4
(a) (b) (c) (d) Describe the flow water past the propeller pushes the ship ahead. What is speed of advance and the wake speed? What is the effect of the transverse thrust on ship manoeuvring? What are the advantages of a CPP?

1.17 STEERING GEAR

Rudder as we all know is part of the mechanism that we call steering gear. It is a device to maintain a course or to change it at command. A device for directional control. It is a passive control device and provides a force only when a flow of water passes over the rudder surface and when it is moved out of the fore and aft alignment. Description Rudder is an appendage that has cross section much like an airfoil that develops a lift when it is turned to produce non-zero angle of attack relative to water. The lift produces a turning moment some where along the mid length of the hull. By deflecting the propeller thrust, the rudder extends a force at after end of ship. For a given angle of attack, rudder lift is proportional to the square of the water velocity relative to the rudder. Therefore, the rudder is positioned within the high velocity flow generated by propeller(s). The turning properties of a ship depend upon the size, shape and the position of the rudder. The relationship between the rudder and propeller is important because each is affected by the position of the other. Limitations on Rudder Angle 28 In most of the ships, the maximum possible angle is 35 on either side, which gives optimum range of manoeuvring capabilities without overstressing the rudder and

the rudderstock. Some specially designed ships can give 45 of rudder angle, which gives faster rate of turn. On sea passages, rudder is in operation with successions of small angles needed for course keeping. At moderate speeds, large alterations of courses are easily achieved by helm of 15 to 20. Very large alterations required for manoeuvring in port or in emergency at sea would need the use of hard over helm. The rudder is not hydrodynamically efficient beyond 35. At slow speeds and confined areas 35 is less effective for rnanoeuvering purposes. At any stage, up to the designed maximum angle, the rudder retains smooth flow across both the faces and this creates positive pressure on one side and equally important, negative pressure on the opposite side. This gives the rudder its lateral lift. At any angle exceeding the maximum angle the water flow across the rudder, particularly on low pressure side becomes more turbulent and rudder becomes ineffective.
Stall

Ship Manoeuvring and Ship Propulsion and Control

Lift Coefficient CL

Stall Angle

30

15

45

Rudder Types Definitions and Explanatory Terms Simple rudder is a rudder plate hinged around the rudderpost. All the area of the rudder is abaft the rudderpost and stock whether a rudder is balanced or not is dependent upon the relationship of the center of pressure of the rudder and the position of the rudder stock. When they are vertically aligned, the rudder is fully balanced. This arrangement greatly reduces the torque required by the tiller mechanism to turn the rudder. When the rudder stock is at the leading edge, the rudder is unbalanced as in Figure (a). This is a common arrangement in merchant ships where rudder forces are not excessive. The spade rudder in Figure is semi-balanced. This is a sensible arrangement as it limits the amount of torque required by the tiller mechanism yet should ensure the rudder returns to midships after the occurrence of a tiller mechanism failure. The Chord Fore and aft (maximum) length of the rudder. It is limited by the position of the propeller and the edge of the stern. The Span Vertical height (and clearance above the keel) is limited by the hull and the need to remain above the keel level to avoid grounding damage. 29

Theory of Ship Manoeuvring

Roof Section E Roof Chord Hull Lin

e

Stock

Sweep Back Angle 1/4 Chord Line Mean Geometric Chord cg Leading Edge

Mean Span

Trailing Edge

The Chord

Aspect Ratio It is the ratio of rudder span (Rudder height) to the chord length (maximum) rudder length in fore and aft direction. If the rudder is tall i.e. height is large in comparison to its length, then the aspect ratio will be greater than the gradient of lift curve. Lift coefficient versus angle of attack depends mainly on the aspect ratio. Stall (angle) occurs earlier when aspect ratio increases above a certain value. The most common rudder type for merchant ships is semi spade type with an aspect ratio of 1.5. Earlier merchant ships had simple plate rudder with higher aspect ratio. Navy vessels and high-speed craft use spade rudder with aspect ratio of around 1. Section shape of rudder: This also influences the rudder performance. It is described as ratio of: thickness of rudder / chord length. The values vary between 0.005 for a plate rudder to 0.15 to 0.25 for spade types. Rudder dimensions and therefore aspect ratio, section, shape and ratio) depends upon various factors such as : Propeller type, Dimensions, Its height above the keel, Type of the stern, and The particular requirement (service the ship is in).

Bow Thrusters and Their Use Lateral thrusters can be fitted in the bow or the stern. Lateral thrusters are most effective when a ship has neither headway nor sternway. They create a turning effect by providing a side force at their location. Their effectiveness will depend upon the distance between the thruster and ships pivot point. When berthing a ship that has a single bow thruster, and no stern thruster, it is important not to become too focused on the bow, because this can be controlled with the thruster. Plan to get the stern alongside as a priority. Remember that pure rotation can only be induced by two lateral thrusters, one forward and one aft, opposing each other, and that a tug may be needed to control the stern of a large ship. Bow thrusters are used when it is required to breast on to or off a berth or to move the ships head from a jetty. Modern ships fitted with a bow thruster will often berth without tug assistance. However, a bow thruster will lose its effectiveness as a ships speed increases. Depending on the hull and thrust tunnel design, thrust effectiveness can be lost at between 2 and 5 knots. The reason for this is the merging of the slipstream from the thruster with the general flow around

30

a forward moving hull. When speed increases above two knots, local loss of pressure over the hull, downstream from the thruster, creates a turning moment opposite to the moment produced by the thruster. The thruster may become ineffective. Thrusting when Stopped When stopped and thrusting, a ships pivot point is likely to be aft. If a bow thruster is put to starboard on a stopped ship, the ship will turn to starboard. Thrusting with Headway The pivot point will be forward, so thrusting will not be very effective, especially at high speeds. Thrusting with Sternway The pivot point is aft and when the bow thruster is put to starboard, the ships bow will swing to starboard. The thruster will be effective, and will act as a form of rudder. Rudder Response The time it takes for the rudder to respond to a helm order will determine how rapidly a ship gets into a turn. The quicker the rudder responds, the sooner the ship will begin to turn. Single Rudders and Twin-screw Ships Manoeuvring characteristics at low speeds will generally be poor on twin screw ships fitted with a single centre line rudder. This is because the single centre line rudder may have to be moved to large angles before any part of it becomes immersed in the slipstream of one of the propellers. When not immersed, the lift produced by the rudder at low speeds will be very small, resulting in large turning circles and poor response to helm.

Ship Manoeuvring and Ship Propulsion and Control

RUDDER

POST

(a)

(b) COMPOUND; BUTT

SIMPLE TYPE; RUDDER POST

Figures (a) and (b) above show simple type of rudder- older conventional type (not balanced). Here all the rudder area is abaft its axis of rotation (rudder shaft). The rudder is supported by and hinged on rudderpost and by sole piece/heel pintle and bearing. In some ships in place of rudderpost, there may be solid butt (Figure b). There may be in the closed stern type of ships balanced rudders also where rudder shaft/stock rests on ships structure i.e. on sole piece with heel pintle and stern pintle on top or balanced rudder resting on fixed structure abaft the propeller. Or the rudder may be under hung on deep horn or under hung on shallow horn.

SAQ 5
(a) (b) (c) (d) Inspect and sketch your rudder and describe its main features. Describe the actions which cause the ship to change course when the rudder is moved a few degrees. Why are ruder angles limited to 35o? What is aspect ratio in a rudder?

1.18 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1 31

BUTT

RUDDER

Theory of Ship Manoeuvring

(a)

Froude number is an approximation of the resistance force experienced by the ship arrived at by the ship model testing. It is a dimensionless ratio given below in which V is the speed, g the acceleration of gravity, and L the waterline length. The divergent waves which start at the bow and stern, and angle aft. See figure, the lines of the wave crests are not straight, they curve somewhat aft. Next, there are the transverse waves which are originally perpendicular to the ships line of motion, although the further away from the ship they get the more they tend aft due to friction. Wake resistance can be reduced by building a bulbous bow which changes the pattern of waves. Reduction of the Displacement/Length ratios and narrow beams also improves wake resistance. Hull speed is the limit to which the ship could move through water. It is approximated as the square root of the length but other factors such as the hull hydrodynamics, resistance and the streamlines also play an important part. There would be two components, the ship would drift bodily to starboard and as the accommodation is normally aft the head shall tend to swing into the wind. The sailing directions and port information books give this information in addition to the climatic charts for the areas. The sea is generated by the local winds while the swell is generated by winds at distances far from the current position. The ship is heading the current and is brought abreast of the jetty at a distance of about 50 meters. The ship maintains just enough steerage and passes the head line. As the headline is hove tight, the helm is put on the other side of the jetty and the ship shall mode bodily alongside. This manoeuvre is possible only if there is no substantial wind. In order to allow for the current it would be advisable to alter course little after the alteration course point which was planned without the current Container ships are faster ships and hence they need more power than a tanker, which does not need high speeds. The propulsion power is provided to get over the friction and the friction does not increase in relation to the tonnage. Friction is dependent on many factors such as ships shape underwater, its length and smoothness of the hull. Tankers use steam turbines for propulsion because cargo pumps need boilers to operate turbine cargo pumps and the same boilers can provide steam at sea and the flue gas when needed. The boilers can burn cheaper fuels and therefore are economical. Rapidly rotating blades develop a lift force having a component in the direction of axis of rotation (Fore and Aft or Longitudinal) that results into thrust in fore and aft direction. The rotating blades cause the water to accelerate in the axial direction, so that the water that has passed through the propeller moves at higher speed than at which it approached the vessel. This increase in momentum of the propelled water equals the propeller thrust. As a ship moves through the water, it drags the surrounding water with it. At the stern of the ship, this causes the wake to follow the ship with a wake

(b)

(c)

(d)

SAQ 2 (a)

(b) (c) (d)

(e) SAQ 3 (a) (b)

(c)

SAQ 4 (a)

(b) 32

speed (VW). Consequently, the screw propeller is experiencing a flow speed less than the ship speed (VS). The flow speed of flow experienced by the propeller is called the speed of advance (VA). VA = VS VW (c) Transverse Thrust is a phenomenon, which is particularly noticeable when starting from rest until there is wake flow through the propeller. This is because the forces generated by the propeller have a large athwart ships component; the result of this is a wheeling effect in the direction of rotation of propeller. A right handed propeller when going ahead will turn the stern to starboard and the bow to port. (d) Advantages of CPP : A ship with CPP is not restricted to step by step speed increases (dead slow- slow- half- full). Any intermediate speed can be selected and operated immediately and maintained. Even extremely slow speed, which is useful/necessary to have steerage, is possible. Fixed pitch propellers do not permit such slow speeds. It is possible to turn a CPP ship (Left hand turning propeller) short round to port, using the port cant when going astern (as opposed to starboard cant of FPP right handed propeller to starboard) as many of the CPP shafts rotate anticlockwise (left handed)

Ship Manoeuvring and Ship Propulsion and Control

SAQ 5 (a) (b) To be answered by the students. Rudder is a device to maintain a course or to change it at command a device for directional control. It is a passive control device and provides a force only when a flow of water passes over the rudder surface and when it is moved out of the fore and aft alignment. Rudder is an appendage that has cross section much like an airfoil that develops a 'lift' when it is turned to produce non-zero angle of attack relative to water. The lift produces a turning moment some where along the mid length of the hull. By deflecting the propeller thrust, the rudder extends a force at after end of ship. For a given angle of attack, rudder lift is proportional to the square of the water velocity relative to the rudder. Therefore, the rudder is positioned within the high velocity flow generated by propeller(s). In most of the ships, the maximum possible angle is 35 on either side, which gives optimum range of manoeuvring capabilities without overstressing the rudder and the rudderstock. Some specially designed ships can give 45 of rudder angle, which gives faster rate of turn. Aspect Ratio : It is the ratio of rudder span (Rudder height) to the chord length (maximum) rudder length in fore and aft direction.

(c)

(d)

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