SEMINAR-II Course No : 699 Date : 07/07/2011

Topic
SOIL COMPACTION- ITS CAUSES, EFFECTS AND REMEDIES

SPEAKER: ARINDAM SARKAR CHAIRMAN: Dr. P.K. BANDYOPADHYAY SEMINAR LEADER: Prof. B. MONDAL

Department of Agril. Chemistry & Soil Science

Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya

Mohanpur, Dist.-Nadia, West Bengal

INDEX
1) INTRODUCTION 2) DEFINITION OF SOIL COMPACTION 3) TYPES OF SOIL COMPACTION 4) VISIBLE SYMPTOMS OF SOIL COMPACTION 5) PLANT SYMPTOMS OF SOIL COMPACTION 6) METHODS OF DETERMINING SOIL COMPACTION 7) CAUSES OF SOIL COMPACTION 8) EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND AXLE LOAD ON COMPACTION 9) EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 10) EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON CROP 11) EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON PLANT GROWTH 12) SOIL COMPACTION AND EROSION 13) TECHNIQUES TO MINIMIZE SOIL COMPACTION 14) CONCLUSION 15) REFERENCE

INTRODUCTION
One hundred years ago, Wollny (1898) described the positive effect of a favorable soil structure on root growth, water availability, gas transport and soil strength. He stressed that the mechanisms involved in the relationships between soil structure, plant growth and crop yield should be investigated, not only to achieve higher crop yields but also to further improve relevant soil properties. At that time, scientists generally were concerned with research aimed at the optimization of crop yields and they were not obliged to care about environmental problems. However, even in 1898, it was well known that, under given environmental conditions, a favorable soil structure results in consistent crop yields and it was recognized that, under the same conditions, soil compaction usually will have negative effects on crop growth and/or yield, Throughout the decades, this knowledge has repeatedly been confirmed by the results of field experiments on the effects of soil compaction and, sometimes, also causes and effects of compactive processes were established (Soane and Van Ouwerkerk, 1994). Besides having intended positive effects, the interference of man with the natural environment also causes changes which may unfavorably affect both the farm economy and the environment. These phenomena are recognized as an effect of industrial production but they are also considered to be related to agricultural practices, which embrace incomparably larger areas. At present, increasing attention is being paid to the factors causing degradation of agricultural areas, including the agricultural activity itself as a soil degrading factor. The importance of this factor depends mainly on the type of farming and the intensity of agricultural production, including the level of fertilization, degree of mechanization, the soil water status during field operations, tillage and harvesting technologies, etc. (Domial et al., 1992). According to Miller ( 1990) the maintenance of soil productivity is particularly hampered by water erosion, soil structure degradation and compaction, phosphorus losses due to runoff from agricultural areas and the leaching of nitrate compounds and pesticides to the ground water.

Soil compaction caused by traffic of heavy vehicles and machinery results in soil structure deterioration, both in the topsoil and in the subsoil (Slowinska and Domial, 1991a,b). In soil compaction, not only pure static stresses, but also dynamic forces play a role, caused by vibration of the engine and the attached implements and by wheel slip. Owing to dynamic loading, soil physical properties such as pore size distribution and pore continuity are negatively affected, which entails decreases in air and water permeability and results in increased soil strength or, in the presence of excess soil water, decreased soil strength due to kneading. These changes may have a negative effect on the soil biota, on physical-chemical equilibria and redox potential, on the soils filtering and buffering capacity, on ground water recharge and, finally, on crop yield (Domial and Hodara, 1992; Domial et al., 1992; Horn et al., 1994). Meanwhile, agricultural engineers developed much site-specific machinery but until now they were not very successful in the prevention or long-lasting repair of compaction-induced soil degradation. In order to analyze soil degradation due to soil compaction in detail, the relationships between internal soil strength and applied stress, the kind and intensity of stress application and relevant soil parameters must be considered (Horn, 1988).

WHAT IS SOIL COMPACTION?

Soil compaction refers to the compression of unsaturated soil, during which the density of the soil body increases and there is a simultaneous reduction in fractional air volume. In other words, the effect of compaction on a soil body is a change in its structure. That is why soil compaction is often described by the measures of bulk density, void ratio, or total porosity, parameters that grossly quantify soil structure. Other parameters used to describe soil compaction include applied force or applied stress. Soil compaction occurs when soil particles are pressed together, reducing pore space between them (Figure 1). Heavily compacted soils contain few large pores and have a reduced rate of both water infiltration and drainage from the compacted layer. This occurs because large pores are the most effective in moving water through the soil

when it is saturated. In addition, the exchange of gases slows down in compacted soils, causing an increase in the likelihood of aeration-related problems. Finally, while soil compaction increases soil strength-the ability of soil to resist being moved by an applied force-a compacted soil also means that roots must exert greater force to penetrate the compacted layer. Soil compaction changes pore space size, distribution, and soil strength. One way to quantify the change is by measuring the bulk density. As the pore space is decreased within a soil, the bulk density is increased. Soils with a higher percentage of clay and silt, which naturally have more pore space, have a lower bulk density than sandier soils.

FIGURE 1- Effects Of Compaction On Pore Space. There is an increased concern regarding the effect of compaction on crop production in mechanized agriculture. Compaction effects on crop yield are due to changes in soil physical, chemical, and biological processes that in turn are dependent upon the structure of the soil. To separate beneficial from harmful compaction and to provide guidelines on the range of applied stresses and water contents not conducive to excessive compaction, we need to understand and quantify changes in soil structure upon compaction (Gupta and Allmaras, 1987).

FIGURE 2- Relationships Between Soil Compaction And Root Health; A Diagrammatic Guide. SOURCE- Allmaras et al.., 1993.

TYPES OF SOIL COMPACTION:

Generally soil compaction affects the top 24 of the soil. Different types of compaction may be cited as following Surface Crusting restricts seedling emergence and water infiltration, caused by raindrops on weak soil aggregates. Soils with cover crops or high-residue cover are less likely to form crusts. Surface Compaction can occur from surface down to normal tillage depth, and can be loosened by normal tillage, root growth and biological activity. Tillage Pan a compacted layer several inches thick beneath the normal tillage depth and develops when the depth of tillage is the same year after year. Deep Compaction occurs beneath the level of tillage. Ground contact pressure and total weight on the tire from the axle load significantly affect the amount of subsoil compaction. It is difficult to eliminate and may permanently change soil structure. Inherent Hardpans can form because of variations in soil particle size, consolidation of particles by rainfall, and certain organo-chemical factors. These pans are aggravated by tillage and traffic.

WHAT DOES COMPACTION LOOK LIKE?

Recent construction sites, farm fields, and soils with high clay content are most commonly affected by compaction. Unfortunately, soil compaction can be difficult to detect in the landscape because its symptoms can be caused by other site problems. Some indicators include: Standing water that implies a drainage problem Physically dense soil that is hard to dig whether wet or dry (massive and platy like structures) Dark streaks in wheel tracks caused by moisture remaining for a longer time above the compacted zone. Increased runoff and soil erosion from water that cannot penetrate the soil. Increased load on engine or need to gear down in portions of the field to maintain speed. Uneven plant stands and reduced plant height, especially in wheel tracks. Difficulty in penetrating the soil with a firm wire (survey flag) or welding rod (18 long). Soil scientists measure compaction with a device called a soil penetrometer. The easiest way for a homeowner to test for soil compaction is to plunge a soil probe (or hollow metal pipe) into the soil. If the probe barely enters, the soil is compacted.

PLANT SYMPTOMS OF COMPACTION

Compacted soils will affect crop production, because compacted soils are an inferior medium for plant growth. The following symptoms can be caused by disease and other plant stresses, but compaction is often the culprit. Slow or poor plant emergence and thin stands can result from compacted soils with increased strength. Often, the surface structure is broken down and a surface crust develops. Seedlings have a difficult time penetrating the soil. As a result, root growth and elongation can be constricted. Generally, this is the result of over-preparation of the seedbed.

 Uneven early growth in the form of tall and short plants in adjacent rows can suggest uneven compaction. It also may reflect restricted root growth due to compacted layers or not enough oxygen for root respiration and soil microorganism activity. Off-colored leaves may reflect nutrient deficiencies brought on by compacted soil, restricting root growth, and water movement. Nitrogen starvation is one of the most common symptoms. Abnormal rooting patterns can suggest compaction. A shallow, fibrous root system running horizontally above a compacted layer is a frequent symptom. Roots in compacted soils are often flattened. Premature drought stress often indicates a compaction problem. A shallow, restricted root system cannot utilize stored subsoil moisture or plant nutrients below a compacted layer.

METHODS O DETERMINING SOIL COMPACTION

There are several methods available when determining soil compaction. Some possibilities are listed below: Knife blade penetration when soil is dry. Dig a hole in the suspected area at least two feet deep. Leave one side of the hole free of shovel marks. Press a knife blade into the undisturbed side every inch or two, starting at the top. Any difficulty penetrating the soil is probably evidence of compaction. Plant rooting patterns. Observe the side of the hole for the location and predominance of roots at different depths. Look for masses of roots running horizontal and the absence of roots below certain depths. This is also good evidence of compaction. Soil sampling tube or steel rod. Simply push the tube into the soil and note resistance. Penetrometer. This is a pointed steel rod with a gauge that records the pressure needed to penetrate the soil. It provides specific readings, but requires adjustments for moisture. Its reading must be carefully interpreted.

WHAT CAUSES SOIL COMPACTION?

There are several forces, natural and man-induced, that compact a soil. This force can be great, such as from a tractor, combine or tillage implement, or it can come

from something as small as a raindrop. Listed below are several causes of soil compaction. Raindrop Impact - This is certainly a natural cause of compaction, and we see it as a soil crust (usually less than 1/2 inch thick at the soil surface) that may prevent seedling emergence. Rotary hoeing can often alleviate this problem. Tillage Operations - Continuous moldboard plowing or disking at the same depth will cause serious tillage pans (compacted layers) just below the depth of tillage in some soils. This tillage pan is generally relatively thin (1-2 inches thick), may not have a significant effect on crop production, and can be alleviated by varying depth of tillage over time or by special tillage operations. Wheel Traffic - This is without a doubt the major cause of soil compaction. With increasing farm size, the window of time in which to get these operations done in a timely manner is often limited. The weight of tractors has increased from less than 3 tons in the 1940's to approximately 20 tons today for the big four-wheel-drive units. This is of special concern because spring planting is often done before the soil is dry enough to support the heavy planting equipment. Minimal Crop Rotation - The trend towards a limited crop rotation has had two effects: 1.) Limiting different rooting systems and their beneficial effects on breaking subsoil compaction, and 2.) Increased potential for compaction early in the cropping season, due to more tillage activity and field traffic.

FIGURE 3- Reduced Root Growth Due To Compaction From Raindrop Impact, Tillage, And Wheel Tracks. SOURCE- Compaction-Soil Management Series 2. University of Minnesota Extension Service, BU-7400.

FIGURE 4- Soil Compaction Produced By Primary Tillage Tools In a Long-term Tillage System And Measured With a Cone Penetromete (after). SOURCE- Swan et al., 1987.

EFFECT OF SOIL MOISTURE AND AXLE LOAD ON DEPTH OF COMPACTION

Greater axle loads and wet soil conditions increases the depth of compaction in the soil profile. Compaction caused by heavy axle loads (greater than 10 tons per axle) on wet soils can extend to depths of two feet or more (Figure 5 and 6). Since this is well below the depth of normal tillage, the compaction is more likely to persist compared to shallow compaction that can be largely removed by tillage.

(Tire pressure remained at 12 psi for all tire sizes)

(Tire size 11 x 28, load 1,650 lbs, pressure 12 psi)

FIGURES 5 and 6- Depth Of Compaction As (5) Axle Load And (6) Soil moisture Increases. SOURCE- Unger et al., 1982.

Total axle load, as well as contact pressure between the tire and soil, affects subsoil compaction. Historically, as equipment weight increases, tire size also increases. This avoids drastic increases in contact pressure (pounds per square inch (psi) of pressure exerted by the tire on the soil surface).

EFFECT OF SOIL COMPACTION ON SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Depending upon the experimental objectives, soil properties in the literature could be grouped into those describing (1) pore geometry or (2) soil matrix. Scientists concerned with water, solute, and gas movement have characterized soil structure in terms of pore geometry, i.e., pore size distribution and pore continuity. Soil morphologists and scientists working in soil erosion research have concentrated on the understanding of soil matrix, i.e., aggregate size distribution and aggregate strength.

A. PORE GEOMETRY
Measurements that describe pore geometry include the water retention characteristic curve, permeability/infiltration rate, soil-water diffusivity, sorptivity, air permeability, and gas diffusion. 1 . Water Retention Characteristic Curve The water retention characteristic (WRC) curve is the relationship between the quantity of water in soil pores to the energy with which this water is held in these pores. Soil structure greatly affects the water retention characteristics of soils. Aggregated soils generally retain more water than sands at a given soil matric potential. In aggregated soils, a large proportion of soil water at high matric potential is in the voids formed by aggregates, whereas soil at low matric potential is in voids formed by soil particles. Since soil compaction alters the aggregate size distribution, we expect a shift in the proportion of inter- and intra-aggregate voids during compaction. Thus, the shape of the WRC curve is a good indicator of alterations in soil structure or soil pore geometry due to compaction. As reported by Assouline et al. (1997) for matric potential 100 MPa, the volumetric water content in the compacted soils is somewhat lower and

can be attributed to the reduced potential of surfaces. Some studies indicated that an increase in soil compaction results in lower gravimetric water content at high matric potential range (from 0 to approximately 16 kPa) and higherat low values of the potentials (from 50 to 1550 kPa) (Walczak, 1977 and Domzal, 1983). Only a slight effect occurred at the intermediate potential range. These are reflected in flattening of soil water retention curve (SWRC) and they are indicators that as the proportion of large pores decreases, the proportion of small pores increases (Van Dijck and Van Asch, 2002). Changes in volumetric water contents at given potentials affect the hydraulic conductivity.

FIGURE. 7- Relationships Between Suction And Water Content For A Silty Sand At Two Densities. SOURCE- Croney and Coleman, 1954.

FIGURE 8- Soil Matric Water Potential As A Function Of Days After Planting. SOURCE- Lipiec et al., 2003.

TABLE 1- Pore Size Distribution In A Nicollet Clay Loam At Four Levels Of Soil Compaction

SOURCE- Vorhees, 1992. 2. Permeability/Infiltration Rate Laliberte and Brooks (1967) measured the effect of compaction on permeability of three soil materials. Relative permeability is defined as the ratio of permeability to saturated permeability. A soil at a given bulk density can have several different pore geometries, depending upon the water content and the applied stresses at the time of compaction. In addition to these two factors, methods of soil compaction also have important effects on the changes in soil pore geometry. Davies et al. (1973) measured the effects of normal applied loads versus wheelslip on infiltration rates in Boxworth clay loam. The reduction in the infiltration rate was much greater due to wheel slippage than to an increased load. Decrease in the water entry rate due to wheel slippage is a result of increased compaction by realignment of particles in an orientation parallel to the direction of shear forces.

FIGURE 8- Effect Of Soil Compaction On Permeability SOURCE- Vorhees, 1992.

3. Saturated Flow
Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) is often used to characterize the effect of soil compaction on water flow. A drastic reduction of Ksat with increasing compaction has been reported in many studies (Dawidowski and Koolen, 1987). The ratio of Ksat or water infiltration rate of loose and compacted soil range from several (Young and Voorhees, 1982) to several hundreds (Arvidsson, 1997). A reduced Ksat will enhance runoff and soil erosion (Fleige and Horn, 2000). The critical limit for adequate Ksat (as measured with a constant head method) for poorly drained fine-textured soils in cropping systems was established at 1.0106 m s1 (McQueen and Shepherd, 2002). However, in highly permeable and conducive-toleaching sandy soils, reduced Ksat conductivity may improve their water status (Lipiec et al.,1996) and reduce NO3N leaching losses (Agraval, 1991). The effect of soil compaction on saturated water flow is largely governed by larger pores (preferential flow) (Lipiec et al., 1996), which are negatively related to soil compaction (Carter, 1990). Research indicates that compaction may reduce not only the volume of macropores but also their continuity.

FIGURE. 9. Percent Of Stained Areal Porosity Relative To Total Area And Number Of Stained Pores In Horizontal Sections (0.036 m2) In The Silty Loam At Various Tractor-Wheel Traffic. SOURCE- Lipiec and Hkansson, 2000.

4. Unsaturated Flow
Unsaturated flow largely affects the dynamic processes of water and solute movement in the vadose zone. Experimental data relating the effect of soil compaction on unsaturated flow is very limited. It has been reported (Horton et al., 1994) that hydraulic conductivity, as a function of soil wetness, generally decreases with compaction; however, at some compaction range and low water potentials, the conductivity is higher in compacted versus non-compacted soil. Analysis of the relations between hydraulic conductivity and water ratio indicates the effect of soil compaction on hydraulic conductivity by increasing the contact surface between aggregates and by formation of the relict structural pores that do not contribute to water movement (Richard et al., 1999). The effect of soil compaction on unsaturated hydraulic conductivity in undisturbed soil cores can be well characterized using the instantaneous profiles of moisture and matric potentials in the tensiometric range (Walczak et al., 1996). Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, together with root length density, is the main factor affecting hydraulic resistance in unsaturated compacted soil (Lipiec and Tarkiewicz, 1988).

5. Soil Water Diffusivity

The soil-water diffusivity versus soil-water content relationship is often needed to describe non-steady state water movement in soils. Soil-water diffusivity as a soilwater transmission property reflects the pore size distribution of soil. Jackson (1963) studied the effect of compaction on the soil-water diffusivity function of various soil and concluded that high-clay soils showed greater change in soil water diffusivity due to compaction than low-clay soils like.

FIGURE 10- Soil-Water Diffusivity Versus Relative Water Content Of Adelanto Loam, Pachappa Loam, And Pine Silty Clay At Three Bulk Densities. SOURCE- Jackson, 1963.

6. Sorptivity
Sorptivity is a measure of the uptake of water by soil without gravitational effects (Philip, 1957). Sorptivity values depend upon the structure and the antecedent water content of the soil. Figures 11 show the changes in sorptivity as influenced by different levels of applied stress and antecedent soil water contents. Starting from a dry condition, sorptivity increased with increasing soil water content, reached a peak, and then decreased. Sorptivity can be a useful index that measures the combined effect of applied stress and water content on pore geometry.

FIGURE 11- Sorptivity As A Function Of Soil-Water Content At Various Levels Of Applied Static Pressure. SOURCE- Walker and Chong, 1986.

7. Air Permeability And Gas Diffusion

The response of air permeability, being a measure of the ability to transport gas by convection, to compaction is related to soil structure and pore size and pore continuity. Air permeability reflects the size and continuity of air filled pores. At the same level of compactness, air permeability was greater for coarse structure (48 mm peds) compared to fine structure (<2 mm peds) (Lipiec, 1992). However, high air permeability is indicative of presence of inter-aggregated pores vulnerable to compaction (Stepniewski et al., 1994 and Gysi et al., 1999). Figure 13 shows the effect of compaction on air permeability. The ratio of air permeability and macropore volume (Carter et al., 1994) or air permeability and air-filled porosity (Ball et al., 1994) is considered as a measure of pore continuity and pore organisation. Lower values of the ratio well reflected reduced pore continuity due to compaction (Munkholm et al., 2002). Relative gas diffusion coefficient (D/Do), being a ratio of the gas diffusion coefficient in soil (D) and the diffusion coefficient of the same gas in atmospheric air (Do), is indicative of continuity and tortuosity of the pores. This coefficient decreases with increasing soil compactness, particularly in wet soil ((McAfee et al., 1989), (Figure 12). This reflected a shift in the proportion of large (inter=aggregate) to small (intraaggregate) pores during compaction. The rate of oxygen supply from the soil air to the roots can be characterized by the oxygen diffusion rate (ODR) and decreases with compaction level (Dexter and Czyz, 2000). An ODR of approximately 25 g m2 s1 is generally regarded as the lower limit, below which root growth is negligible.

FIGURE 12- Relationship Of D/Do Versus Air Content Of 1-2-mm Soil Aggregates At Five Levels Of Compaction. SOURCE - Lipiec and Hkansson, 2000.

FIGURE 13- Air Permeability Versus Moisture Content For a Ruston Fine Loamy Sand. SOURCE- Bowen, I966.

B. SOIL MATRIX
Effects of soil compaction on soil solid-solid interaction have been characterized in terms of aggregate size distribution, aggregate density, and wet and dry aggregate stabilities.

1 . Aggregate Size Distribution

Voorhees et al. (1979) studied the effect of field traffic (compaction) on aggregate size distribution and random roughness following tillage. Figure 14 shows the aggregate size distribution following tillage in wheel-tracked and non-tracked areas of a Nicollet silty clay loam and indicate an increase in the proportion of large aggregates when compacted Nicollet silty clay loam soil was subsequently tilled.

FIGURE 14- Aggregate Size Distribution Of Subsequently Tilled Non-Tracked And Wheel Tracked Nicollet Silty Clay Loam, After Planting, May 1975. SOURCE- Voorhees et al., 1979.

TABLE 2 -Clod Density As Affected By Wheel Traffic.

SOURCE- Voorhees et al., 1979.

2. Aggregate Stability
Power and Skidmore (1984) studied the effect of compaction on wet and dry aggregate stability. They defined dry aggregate stability as the energy needed to crush the compacted sample between two parallel plates. Wet stability is defined as the amount of soil left on a 0.25-mm sieve (60-mesh) after a sample has been lowered and raised through a distance of 27mm, 25 times per minute, in a tank of water. TABLE 3- Physical Properties Of Yolo Fine Sandy Loam As Influenced By Compaction Treatment

SOURCE- Flocker et al., 1958. Table 4 shows that dry aggregate stability of Reading silt loam increased as a result of compaction for both cultivated and uncultivated samples. Differences in soilwater content (m = - 33 and - 100 kPa) at the time of compaction had a minimal effect on dry aggregate stability. Power and Skidmore (1984) attributed the increase in dry aggregate stability of compacted soils to an increase in bonding of particles because these particles were forced into closer proximity during compaction.

TABLE 4- Dry And Wet Aggregate Stabilities Of Uncompressed And Compressed Readings Silt Loam

SOURCE- Powers and Skidmore (1984).

3. Structural Arrangement
Measurements of pore space are increasingly used to quantify the effects of soil compaction on the soil structure (Douglas and Koppi, 1997). To evaluate the soil compaction effects on pore and aggregate structure, images of resin-impregnated soil are used (Lipiec et al., 1996). Morphological analysis of the images revealed that compaction of loamy soil by tractor pass reduced larger pores, but mainly the elongated and continuous transmission pores (50500 m) and to lesser extent those <50 m (Pagliai et al., 2000). Transmission pores were reduced more by rubber-tracked tractor than by wheeled tractor, and this was reflected in lower infiltration (Servadio et al., 2001). In sandy soils, reduced infiltration due to compaction was attributed to packing pores corresponding to the fabric of the elementary particles (Coulon and Bruand, 1989). Compaction decreases the diversity of structure of larger pores and makes the soil less heterogeneous. However, the diversity of soil structure at the cluster or grain scales may increase in compacted soil due to shearing effect (Warkentin, 2000). The response of pores less than 50 m to compaction (or management) is quantified by mercury intrusion porosimetry (Pagliai et al., 2000).

EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON CROP

Fontaine (1959) has pointed out that productivity of compacted soils is affected by the increased mechanical impedance, reduced aeration, altered moisture availability and heat flux which follow from increased soil density and reduced pore space. At any one time one or more of these factors may become critical for the growth of plants. Which of the factors actually does become critical will depend upon the soil type, the climatic conditions, the plant species, and possibly upon the stage of development of the plant when its roots encounter compact soil conditions. Whether a given density increment will hamper or improve plant growth depends then upon whether the soil is looser than, at, or more compact than, the optimal density for the season and stage of growth of the crop growing in the soil. Plant response has, however, been related to specific soil physical phenomena that arise as the result of soil compaction.

1. Mechanical Impedance To Root

A common response of root system to increasing compaction level is decreased root size, retarded root penetration and smaller rooting depth (Glinski and Lipiec, 1990). This is mostly due to excessive mechanical impedance and insufficient aeration depending on soil wetness. Decreased root size results in greater distances between the neighboring roots and affects water and nutrient uptake. However, absorption of water and nutrients usually takes place in the soil adjacent to the root surface from 2 to 8 mm, depending on soil and nutrient types (Yamaguchi and Tanaka, 1989). This leads to reduced water and nutrient uptake, oxygen deficiency and crop yield. TABLE 5 - Average Minimum Bulk Densities That Restrict Root Penetration In Soils Of Various Textures.

SOURCE- http://osufacts.okstate.edu

FIGURE 15 - Effect Of Compaction On Root Density SOURCE - http://osufacts.okstate.edu

2. Soil Moisture
A comprehensive review of the interrelationships of soil moisture and plant growth has been given by Richards and Wadleigh (1952). Baver (1938) demonstrated that compaction of a soil causes an increase in the percentage of moisture at any suction greater than approximately 60 millibars. Heinonen ( 1954) has remarked that bulk density (over a relatively small range in natural soils) is positively correlated with the available water of sands and silts and negatively correlated with other textures. On the other hand, at extreme bulk densities a diminution of the capillary pore space may occur to such extent as to decrease the available water content of a soil. Such a condition was described by Veihmeyer and Hendrickson (1946).

3. Heat Transport
High thermal conductivity and heat capacity characterize solid and water phases in contrast to air phase of soil. Therefore, any soil management practice affecting soil compactness and thus relative proportion of each phase will have an effect on the thermal properties and propagation of heat (Usowicz et al., 1996). As can be seen in Fig. 16, the thermal conductivity, heat capacity and thermal diffusivity (ratio of the thermal conductivity and volume heat capacity) increase with increasing soil compaction to higher extent in wetter soil. Guerif et al. (2001) reported a

similar effect of compaction on thermal properties. Increase in soil thermal properties with compaction is attributed to mostly improved contact between soil particles. Alterations in the thermal properties due to compaction affect the soil temperature and its temporal and spatial variability. The effect of compaction was reflected in the lower rate of warming and cooling, the daily temperature fluctuations and the values of the noon temperature in the topsoil (Boone and Veen, 1994). Soil with high thermal conductivity compared to low thermal conductivity can exhibit lower surface temperature amplitudes under equal heat flux densities (Abu-Hamdeh, 2000). At greater depths, however, a higher temperature was noted in compacted soil. The differences can be attributed to greater volumetric heat capacity and thermal conductivity in compacted soil at similar soil water content (Lipiec et al., 1996). Relatively large wetness and associated evaporation from the compacted soil (Nassar and Horton, 1999) will enhance this effect on topsoil temperature. When soil temperature decreases with depth, a commonly deeper root system in loose soil may experience a lower temperature than a shallow root system in compacted soil.

FIGURE. 16- Thermal Properties And Coefficient Of Variation (CV) Of Loamy Sand As Affected By Tractor Passes. SOURCE- Usowicz et al., 1996.

4. WATER AND NUTRIENT UPTAKE Reduced and unevenly distributed roots in compacted soil affect uptake rate (per unit of root) and total uptake of water and nutrients. Increased water uptake rate in compacted soil was reported for bean (Smucker and Aiken, 1992), maize (Veen et al., 1992), barley (Lipiec et al.,1996) and rice (Glinski and Lipiec, 1990). This increase was mostly attributed to a greater rootsoil contact and to a higher unsaturated hydraulic conductivity and a greater water movement towards the roots. The increased root water uptake rate of Kentucky Bluegrass in poorly aerated compacted soil was linked to higher root porosity and thus increased root permeability (Agnew and Carrow, 1985). In most experiments, however, increased water uptake rate was not sufficient to compensate entirely for the reduction in total root length and resulted in reduced total water uptake. Similarly, greater nutrient inflow rate per unit length and root soil contact area without additional nutrient application were not sufficient to compensate for reduced root size (Lipiec and Stepniewski, 1995). 5. STOMATA DIFFUSIVE RESISTANCE Root systems grown in compacted soil are often subjected to wetting and drying which influence the stomata functioning. An experimental system using water-filled ceramic tubes under controlled pressure below atmospheric for controlling soil water potentials (over the tensiometric range) has been found to be useful for studying stomata behavior in response to varying water status in variously compacted soil (Lipiec et al., 1996). Fig. 17 shows that with transient wetting, the stomata resistance and its variation over the growth period were considerably higher in a severely compacted soil than in low or medium compacted soil. A substantial increase of stomata resistance in most compacted soil occurred when soil matric potential increased from 415 to 220 hPa due to poor aeration. The highest stomata diffusive resistance in most compacted soil has also been reported in droughty period. (Ali et al., 1999) reported that the

increased leaf stomata resistance occurred even before a measurable change in leaf water potential.

FIGURE 17- Stomata Resistance In Maize SOURCE- Lipiec et al., 1996.

EFFECT OF SOIL COMPACTION ON PLANT GROWTH

Soil compaction can have both desirable and undesirable effects on plant growth.

Desirable EffectsSlightly compacted soil can speed up the rate of seed germination because it promotes good contact between the seed and soil. In addition, moderate compaction may reduce water loss from the soil due to evaporation and, therefore, prevent the soil around the growing seed from drying out. Corn planters have been designed specifically to provide moderate compaction with planter mounted packer wheels that follow seed placement. A medium-textured soil, having a bulk density of 1.2 grams per cubic centimeter (74 pounds per cubic foot), is generally favorable for root growth. (Note: a soil bulk density of 1.2 grams per cubic centimeters is comparable to a non-tracked soil after a secondary tillage operation.) However, roots growing through a medium-textured soil with a bulk density near 1.2 grams per cubic centimeter will probably not have a high degree of branching or secondary root formation. In this case, a moderate amount of

compaction can increase root branching and secondary root formation, allowing roots to more thoroughly explore the soil for nutrients. This is especially important for plant uptake of non-mobile nutrients such as phosphorus.

Undesirable EffectsExcessive soil compaction impedes root growth and therefore limits the amount of soil explored by roots. This, in turn, can decrease the plant's ability to take up nutrients and water. From the standpoint of crop production, the adverse effect of soil compaction on water flow and storage may be more serious than the direct effect of soil compaction on root growth. In dry years, soil compaction can lead to stunted, drought stressed plants due to decreased root growth. Without timely rains and well-placed fertilizers, yield reductions will occur. Soil compaction in wet years decreases soil aeration. This results in increased denitrification (loss of nitrate-nitrogen to the atmosphere). There can also be a soil compaction induced nitrogen and potassium deficiency (Figures 17 and 18). Plants need to spend energy to take up potassium. Reduced soil aeration affects root metabolism. There can also be increased risk of crop disease. All of these factors result in added stress to the crop and, ultimately, yield loss. In a dry year, at very low bulk densities, yields gradually increase with an increase in soil compaction. Soon, yields reach a maximum level at which soil compaction is also optimal for the specific soil, crop, and climatic conditions. However, as soil compaction continues to increase beyond optimum, yields begin to decline. With wet weather, yields are decreased with any increase in compaction.

Figure 18 and 19- Nitrogen And Potassium Deficiency Symptoms In Corn. Now the desirable and undesirable effect can be shown in a graph (figure 20).

FIGURE 20. Effects Of weather On Crop Yield Response To Compaction Level SOURCE- Ali et al., 1999.

FIGURE 21- Effect of Compaction on Seed Germination. SOURCE- Ali et al., 1999.

FIGURE 22 - Effects Of Compaction In The Topsoil (a) and Upper Part Of The Subsoil (b) Are Temporary, Whereas Deep Subsoil Compaction (c) Is Virtually Permanent. SOURCE- Voorhees et al.. 1979. TABLE 6- Effect Of Soil Compaction On Sugarbeet And Total Recoverable Sugar Yields.
Soil Probe Properties Resistance 1990* and 1991 Average Tons/Acre Beets Compacted Non compacted 133 78 11.5 10.5 Sugar 1.53 1.42

(lbs/inch2)

*Compaction

increased yields because of a higher final stand (108 vs. 79 beets/100 ft. of

row for compacted and non-compacted treatments respectively). SOURCE- Lipiec, 1992.

SOIL COMPACTION AND EROSION

Soil compaction in the surface layer can increase runoff, thus increasing soil and water losses. However, when the compacted layer is tilled with a moldboard or chisel plow, the resulting rough, cloddy surface can decrease runoff and erosion. While it sounds contradictory, both effects are possible, depending on the soil and soil conditions encountered.

FIGURE 23 - Reduced Water Infiltration In Wheel Tracks.

TECHNIQUES TO MINIMISE SOIL COMPACTION

1) Addition of Organic Matter Ideally, cultivate organic soil amendments into the top six to eight inches of the soil. On compacted /clayey soils, anything less can lead to a shallow rooting system with reduced plant growth, lower vigor, and lower stress tolerance. General application rate for organic soil amendments is based on the type of product and the salt content. Do not leave compost in chunks, as this will interfere with root growth and soil water movement. As the soil organic content builds in a garden soil, the application rate should be reduced to prevent ground water contamination issues. Five ways soil organic matter resists soil compaction Surface residue resists compaction. Acts like a sponge to absorb weight and water. Organic residues are less dense (0.3-0.6 g/cm3) than soil particles (1.4-1.6 g/cm3). Roots create voids and and spaces for air and water. Roots act like a biological valve to control oxygen in the soil. Roots supply exudates to glue soil particles together to form macro-aggregates and supply food for microbes. 2) Manage Traffic Flow Traffic over the soil is the major contributor to soil compaction. For example a moist soil could reach 75% maximum compaction the first time it is stepped on, and

90% by the forth time it is stepped on. Raised bed gardening techniques, with established walkways, eliminate compaction in the growing bed. On fine-textured clayey soils, limit routine traffic flow to selected paths. Soils are more prone to compaction when wet. Soil water acts as a lubricant allowing the soil particles to readily slide together reducing large pore space. 3) Use Mulches Some types of mulch effectively reduce the compaction forces of traffic. For example, three to four inches of wood or bark chip will minimize the effect of foot traffic. Mulch minimizes the compaction forces of rainfall and sprinkler irrigation. On fine-textured clayey soil, keep garden beds mulched year round to minimize the compaction forces of summer and winter storms. Organic mulches create an ideal home for beneficial earthworms and soil microorganisms, which play a key role in improving soil tilth. 4) Soil Aeration In areas, where organic matter cannot be cultivated into the soil, reduce compaction with soil aeration. Make enough passes with the aerator to have plugs at two-inch intervals. 5) Avoid Excessive Cultivation Avoid cultivating fine-textured clayey soils except to incorporate organic matter and fertilizer, and to prepare a seedbed. Use mulches to help manage weeds. 6) Avoid Cultivating Overly Wet or Dry Soils Never cultivate a clayey soil when wet since this will destroy soil structure; the dirt clods created by tilling wet clay may last for years. To check dryness, take a handful of soil and gently squeeze it into a ball. If the soil is dry enough to crumble, it may be cultivated. If the ball only reshapes with pressure, it is too wet for cultivation. On some clayey soils, there may be only a few days (or even hours) between the time when the

soil is too wet and too dry (too hard) to cultivate. In years when frequent spring rains prevent the soil from drying, planting will be significantly delayed. 7) Avoid Fill Over Compacted Soil Adding a thin layer of topsoil over compacted soil is a common practice that leads to future landscape management problems. It is often justified as a way to get plants established. However, root growth into the compacted layer will be restricted or even minimal. Do not create a layer with added topsoil that is of a different texture than the soil below. This change in texture (actually pore space) interferes with water movement and root spread. Where additional fill is desirable, lightly mix the fill with the soil beneath. 8) Reduction of Stresses (e.g. enlarged tire width, reduced machine weight or reduced bunker filling under wet soil conditions) 9) Improvement of Soil Stability (e.g. by reduced tillage, no tillage or conservation tillage) 10) Further Development of Techniques (e.g. regulation of tire inflation pressure, lowpressure tires) 11) Adaptation of Farming Procedures (e.g. the adaptation of row width to enlarged tire width)

CONCLUSION
There is increased concern regarding the effect of compaction on crop production in mechanized agriculture. Compaction effects on crop yield are due to changes in soil physical, chemical, and biological processes. These processes, in turn, are dependent on the soil structure. In order to provide guidelines for appropriate soil management, we need to understand and quantify changes in soil structure due to compaction. Soil compaction processes and the corresponding changes in soil physical properties may be described by the value of the precompression stress, the type and intensity of stress application and the resulting changes in soil strength. Repeated

wheeling causes the consecutive destruction of the inter- and intra-aggregate pores, which results in the formation of a massive, dense pore system and/or in a loss of soil strength. It further results in reduced aeration, water infiltration and root development and in a drastic decline in soil strength and worsening of pore functions, such as filtering and buffering capacities. The formation of dense, platy aggregates due to repeated wheeling may induce a more pronounced horizontal flux of water, which may cause soil erosion. Compaction-induced soil degradation is still more severe if, due to dynamic forces influencing the matric potential, additional soil swelling occurs. This does not only result in a complete loss of soil strength but it also worsens the ecological parameters. These phenomena occur especially in silt and clay soils, which are most susceptible to compaction processes. Only if the soil aggregates and the total soil structure are strong enough to withstand applied soil stresses, will soil physical properties remain unchanged. Therefore, soil loading should be limited in accordance with the internal strength of the weakest horizon of the soil profile.

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