ANALOG & DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

DIGITAL MODULATION
LONG C
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Modulating a digital signal
Eg. Sending computer data through public telephone line
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Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Process of changing one of the characteristics of an analog signal based on
the information in digital signals (0s and 1s).
Modulation involved switching (known as keying) between short bursts of
different signals to transmit the encoded message.
A general carrier wave may be written:
Modulation methods based on varying the amplitude, A, frequency, f and
( ) ( ) + = ft A t C 2 sin
3
B Mbps B MHz
Modulation methods based on varying the amplitude, A, frequency, f and
phase, to transmit digital data is known as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK),
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) and Phase Shift Keying (PSK) respectively.
Example Tx of digital data over telephone wire (modem)
Information Capacity, Bits, Bit Rate, Baud
and M-ary Encoding.
Information Capacity is a measure of how much information can
be propagated through a communications system and is a function
of BW and Tx line.
It represents the number of independent symbols that can be carried
through a system in a given unit of time. through a system in a given unit of time.
Hartleys law is
I B x t
Where I = information capacity (bps)
B = bandwidth (hertz)
t = transmission time (sec)
M-ary Encoding
M-ary is a term derived from the word binary.
M simply represents a digit that corresponds to the number of condition, levels
or combinations possible for a given number of binary variables.
For example, a digital signal with four possible conditions is an M-ary system
where M = 4.
The number of bits necessary to produce a given number of condition is
expressed mathematically as expressed mathematically as
N = log
2
M
Where N = number of bits necessary
M = Number of conditions, levels or combination possible with N bits
Rearranged the equation to express the number of conditions possible with N
bits as
2
N
= M
Example, with one bit, only 2
1
= 2 conditions are possible, with two bits, 2
2
= 4
conditions are possible etc..
Bit Rate, Baud Rate and Minimum BW
Two basic aspects of digital-to-analog modulation; bit and baud rate.
Bit rate - number of bits per second (rate at which bit changes, bps).
Computer Efficiency how long it takes to process each piece of
information (time to send)
Baud rate number of signal units per second (rate at which signal element
changes). Also called modulation rate or symbol rate.
Data Transmission Efficiency how efficient we can move those data
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Data Transmission Efficiency how efficient we can move those data
from place to place.
Analogy In transportation, baud car and bit passenger
A car can carry one or more passengers. If 1000 cars go from one point to another, carrying
only 1 passenger (i.e the driver), then 1000 passengers are transported.
However, if each car carries four passengers (carpooling), then 4000 passengers are
transported.
Note that the number of cars not the number of passengers, determine the traffic, and
therefore, the need for wider highways.
Similarly, the number of bauds determines the required bandwidth, not the number of bits.
Bit Rate, Baud Rate and Minimum BW
According to H. Nyquist, binary digital signals can be propagated through an
ideal noiseless transmission medium at a rate equal to two times the
bandwidth of the medium.
The minimum theoretical bandwidth necessary to propagate a signal is
called the minimum Nyquist bandwith or the minimum Nyquist frequency.
Thus, f
b
= 2B
Where f = bit rate (bps) Where f
b
= bit rate (bps)
B = ideal Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)
Mathematically, Baud = (baud per second)
where t
s
= time of one signaling element (second)
N = number of bits per signal element
f
b
= bit rate (bps)
In analog Tx of digital data, the baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate.
- In binary system such as binary FSK and binary PSK, baud and bits per second are equal.
However, in higher-level system such as QPSK and 8-PSK, bps is always greater than baud.
N
f
t
b
s
=
1
Bit Rate, Baud rate and Minimum BW
Term Units Definition
Data element Bits A single binary one or zero
Summary of the Terms:
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Data rate Bits per second (bps) The rate at which data
elements are transmitted.
Signal element Digital: a voltage pulse of constant
amplitude
Analog: a pulse of constant frequency,
phase and amplitude
That part of a signal that
occupies the shortest
interval of a signaling code
Signaling rate or
modulation rate
Signal elements per second (baud) The rate at which signal
elements are transmitted.
Types of digital-to-analog conversion
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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) or On-Off
Keying (OOK)
A simple version of amplitude modulation used for digital
modulation.
Both freq and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes.
Uses logic levels in the data to control the amplitude of the carrier
wave.
1 for high amplitude (switch ON)
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1 for high amplitude (switch ON)
0 for low amplitude (switch OFF).
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) or On-Off
Keying (OOK)
Basic implementation of Binary ASK
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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) or On-Off
Keying (OOK)
ASK Modulator
- The modulator cct has 2 inputs:
1. data to be transmitted
2. high freq carrier sinewave
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At the Tx, let the input of a
data stream is 0110001011
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) or On-Off
Keying (OOK)
At the Rx, the data stream need to extracted:
Step 1 Rectify the input ASK
waveform to contain only +ve
signal but it will still contain
unwanted carrier wave
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unwanted carrier wave
component.
Step 2 Pass through a LPF
to remove the carrier
component.
Step 3 Pass through a
voltage comparator to get a
true copy of the original
data stream
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Use logic levels in the data to control the frequency of the carrier
wave.
Data = 1 for high frequency
Data = 0 for low frequency
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FSK Bit Rate, Baud and Bandwidth
It can be seen that the time of one bit (t
b
) is the same as the time the FSK
output is a mark or a space frequency (t
s
).
Thus the bit time equals the time of an FSK signaling element and the bit
rate equals the baud.
The baud for binary FSK can also be determined by substituting N = 1,
baud =
b
b b
f
f
N
f
= =
1
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baud =
b
f
N
= =
1
FSK Bit Rate, Baud and Bandwidth
The minimum bandwidth for FSK is given as
And since
) ( ) (
b m b s
f f f f B =
b m s
f f f 2 + =
f f f
m s
A = 2
And since
Then the minimum bandwidth can be approximated as
(**)
Where B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)
Af = frequency deviation (|f
m
- f
s
|) (hertz)
f
b
= input bit rate (bps)
f f f
m s
A = 2
) ( 2
b
f f B + A =
Note that equation (**) resembles Carsons rule for determining the approximate
bandwidth for an FM wave. The only difference in the two equations is that, for FSK,
the bit rate, f
b
is substituted for the modulation signal freq f
m
.
FSK Bit Rate, Baud and Bandwidth
Bessel function can also be used to determine the approximate
bandwidth for an FSK wave.
The fastest rate of change
i.e highest fundamental freq
occurs when alternating 1s
and 0s are occuring.
Therefore,
Where 2
b
a
f
f =
Where
f
a
= highest fund freq (hz)
f
b
= input bit rate (bps)
2
The formula used for modulation index in FM is also valid for FSK, thus
a
f
f
h
A
=
(unitless)
Where h = FM modulation index called h-factor in FSK
Af = peak freq deviation (Hz)
FSK Bit Rate, Baud and Bandwidth
The worst-case modulation index (deviation ratio) yields the widest BW.
The widest BW occurs when both the freq deviation and the modulating
signal freq are at their maximum values, thus
or
Thus, bandwidth,
B = 2(n x f
a
)
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
There are many different ways of
generating an FSK waveform.
One way is by combining 2 different
ASK waveform/modulator.
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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Lets assume that the above data stream is applied to an ASK
modulator using the higher freq as the carrier. The resulting
output:
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Inverting the original data stream:
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
This inverted data stream will be the input to another ASK
modulator using a lower carrier freq - the original data 0 periods
filled with a lower freq carrier.
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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Summing amplifier is used to add the two ASK waveforms:
Output from
Modulator 1
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Output from
Modulator 2
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Advantage of FSK over ASK higher reliability in term of data
accuracy.
Disadvantage requires higher BW (the actual increase depends on
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Disadvantage requires higher BW (the actual increase depends on
the 2 freqs used). The higher the freq and the more they differ
from each other, the wider the BW required.
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Multiple FSK (MFSK)
A signal that is more bandwidth efficient, but also more
susceptible to errors is multiple FSK (MFSK), in which more than
two frequencies are used. (i.e each signaling element represents more than
one bit)
The transmitted MFSK signal for one signal element time can be
defined as follows:
Where
f
c
= the carrier frequency
f = the difference frequency
M = number of signal element (2
n
)
n = number of bits per signal element
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M i t f A t s
i i
s s = 1 , 2 cos ) (
f M i f f
c i
A + = ) 1 2 (
Example - With f
c
= 350kHz, f = 20kHz, and M=8 (n=3),
the following frequency assignments for each of the
eight possible 3-bit data combinations:
fi Frequency
Assignment
Freq (kHz)
f
1
f
2
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f
2
f
3
f
4
f
5
f
6
f
7
f
8
Example Figure shows an example of MFSK with M = 4.
An input bit streams of 20 bits is encoded 2 bits at a time, with each of
the four possible 2-bit combinations transmitted as a different frequency.
The display in the figure shows the frequency transmitted (y-axis) as a
function of time (x-axis).
Each column represents a time T
s
in which a single 2-bit signal element is
transmitted.
The shaded rectangle in the column indicates the frequency transmitted
during that time unit.
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Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
In PSK, the phase of the carrier is shifted to represent data.
Two-Level PSK(Binary PSK) - BPSK
Uses two phases (0 and 180) to represent the two binary
digits.
The resulting transmitted signal for one bit time is:

=
1 ) 2 cos( ) 2 cos(
) (
binary t f A t f A
t s
c c

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+
=
0 ) 2 cos( ) 2 cos(
) (
binary t f A t f A
t s
c
c
c
c

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Example: binary 1 is represent with a phase 0, while binary 0 is
represented with a phase of 180.
PSK is equivalent to multiplying the carrier by +1 when the info is
1, and by -1 when the info is 0.
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binary 1 binary 0
Bipolar
NRZ
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
PSK Transmitter same modulator as in ASK system
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Since a sinewave is symmetrical, it is impossible for the Rx to know
whether signal is inverted form or not.
Thus need to apply some data conditioning to the incoming stream to
convert it to a form which recognizes logic levels by changes that occur and
not by the absolute levels.
One such code is bipolar NRZ.
The amplitude of the carrier is controlled by the bipolar signal on the
modulation input. When the signal goes negative, the sinewave inverts.
PSK Bit Rate, Baud and Bandwidth
Mathematically, the output of a BPSK modulator is proportional to
Solving for the trig identity for the product of two sine function,
)] 2 [sin( )] 2 [sin( t f t f
c a
= output BPSK
t f f t f f
a c a c
) ( 2 cos[
2
1
) ( 2 cos[
2
1
+
Thus, the minimum double-side Nyquist BW, B is
But ,
then
2 2
lsf usf
f f B =
a a c a c
f f f f f 2 ) ( ) ( = + =
2
b
a
f
f =
b
b
f
f
B =
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
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Quadrature PSK (QPSK)
The term quadrature implies that there are four possible phases
(4-PSK) which the carrier can have at a given time.
The pair of bits represented by each phase is called dibit.
The rate of change (baud) in this signal determines the signal
bandwidth.
BUT the throughput or bit rate for QPSK is twice the baud rate.
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QPSK = 4-PSK
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Assumption
Modulation for Data Communication: QPSK
One way to increase the binary data rate while not increasing
the bandwidth required for the signal transmission is to encode
more than 1 bit per phase change.
In the system known as quadrature, quarternary, or quadra
phase PSK (QPSK or 4-PSK), more bits per baud are encoded,
the bit rate of data transfer can be higher than the baud rate,
yet the signal will not take up additional bandwidth. yet the signal will not take up additional bandwidth.
In QPSK, each pair of successive digital bits in the transmitted
word is assigned a particular phase.
Each pair of serial bits, called a dibit, is represented by a
specific phase.
Quadrature PSK modulation.
(a) Phase angle of carrier for different pairs of bits. (b) Phasor
representation of carrier sine wave. (c) Constellation diagram
of QPSK.
QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
-Uses both amplitude and phase modulation of the carrier;
not only are different phase shifts produced but also the
amplitude of the carrier is varied
8 QAM
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8 QAM
Is an Mary encoding technique where M=8
8-QAM
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Figure : 8-QAM Modulator a) Truth Table b)phasor diagram c)
Constellation diagram
8-QAM
Figure : Output phase and amplitude versus-time realtionship
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Figure : Output phase and amplitude versus-time realtionship
for 8-QAM
Min. bandwidth required = fb/3
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
A combination of ASK and PSK: both phase and amplitude varied
#amplitude shifts << #phase shifts
Lower susceptible to noise than ASK, higher bit rate than PSK
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8-QAM
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16-QAM
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Better susceptible to noise because
-Not all possibilities are used
-Sometimes, Amp and Phase have a relationship
Summary
ASK
demodulation: only the presence or absence of a sinusoid in a
given time interval needs to be determined
advantage: simplicity
disadvantage: ASK is very susceptible to noise interference
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disadvantage: ASK is very susceptible to noise interference
noise usually (only) affects the amplitude, therefore ASK is the
modulation technique most affected by noise
application: ASK is used to transmit digital data over optical
fiber
Summary
FSK
demodulation: demodulator must be able to determine which
of two possible frequencies is present at a given time
advantage: FSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK receiver
is looking for specific frequency changes over a number of
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is looking for specific frequency changes over a number of
intervals, so voltage (noise) spikes can be ignored
disadvantage: FSK spectrum is 2x ASK spectrum
application: over voice lines, in high-frequency radio
transmission, etc.
Summary
PSK
demodulation: demodulator must be able to determine the
phase of received sinusoid with respect to some reference
phase
advantage: (i) PSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK, while
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advantage: (i) PSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK, while
it requires/occupies the same bandwidth as ASK; (ii) more
efficient use of bandwidth (higher data-rate) are possible.
disadvantage: more complex signal detection / recovery
process, than in ASK and FSK.