:(Noun Modifiers)

:(M1-1: articles)
Noun Modifiers

Noun Conditions

a, an (indefinite)

The (definite)

-./

, -./

Translate

VW " U$ - P 2 R
<(Y3W)- AX? <- X? (=1 ? @-3) =
(M2)..."
X; Z . < [13- ? < P3 $

=. ? 2 3

!" #

Example

01 5$ 01
(9 : 9; #-3<7 8
)
(=1 ? @ -3) = < + N + =$
,@ 1 - / ,0$

01 2 3

A man was standing

3 A 3 BC$ ( 3 ?) 3 ? (=$)
A teacher should be active in the class.
. ... MN -3 $ A : ? (5$)
It is recommended to use a metal.
. Q 3 RB
S:. ,@ 1 / 3 P ,? =
Ali gave me a book. I put the book on the table.
. BP X` S ?

.(3- 3 l mB
= 3 A a, e, i, o, u - 3
!" # ,B
@ e -3) $W ,? an < 1 P k" P " <(
An (umbrella, upset, unhappy, honor, honorable, honest, heir, orange, onion, apple)
A (university, unanimous, unique, unicorn, union, horse, house, once-distilled)

Q)

"- - (=A B )(- X? _ B )_ B (VW)U?...

:=Ba1

<W <g <h <i

"W A =Q , b:Q / cde

:( M1-2: Demonstrative adjective) - P 2 R

Noun Conditions

Noun Modifiers
this, these

that, those

such, such a(n)

the very

Translate

Example

< P3 $ <(Y3W)- AX? <- X? U$

(=...U$ :=1 ? @-3)< ... " X; Z .
< P3 $ <(Y3W)- AX? <- X? VW
(= ...VW :=1 ? @-3) <... " X; Z .
<V v <U w $ <U v 5$ <U v
+N+(,wb =$:=1 ? @-3)<V x1W
(M2 = }$" <| s) <V b <U b

. 1 P ,? =b8

These are nice.

These books

( -P

bu). BC

_ s t$
tA BQ U$

Those houses

=1 s VW

Such a book
Such students

BQ U v, Such water,AW ,wb =$

$ x{1 3 (U v z$)U v

Before my very eyes

Y tb{v U b cA ?

:=Ba1

t1W " t $ <( $ 1

b ) P A - P bu =Q , e ? those " These

.9
: U wb such
A
... " The heart V A S8 < The guitar ,
? 2W < The sun, The moon Ba$ S v : $ A the A 9
3 3- e ,$ S v z$
(the, an, this, such an, my, one, ) Alis English practice book .3- 1 - t V a? (3 R? 2- A) ,a:? 9R $ M1 V" A

:(M1-3: Quantifiers)

M1-3-1: Quantifiers Simple

Noun Modifiers

Noun Conditions

some

.9

some

.9

b1 9 b

..Z A

some

.9

b1 9 b

.Z. A

some
any
any

many

.9

Translate
01
<(/ ),s A <(/ ) 3
< v
( / ), A
(/ )

e 3 @ / cde

9dm?
3- 1

a1

ds 2Nb8 -3
9$3" ?

-./ c . + ()*+) (..Z

<(3 R?
< (b8

several

+N+

3 $/ (3
)
) / - CA
< - CA (3
)
. =b8 (M2)
$ @ < 3 B?

(U$ v) <(/ )

both (2 things)

< v
"3

0 12 c . + )*+

<

+ 3 R?
+
b8
+ / 5$
<
+ 3 R?
+
()(=b ) < b8
+ / 5$

..Z

every
either (2 things)
neither (2 things)

+ N + <

a1

=B

each

- ?
3" #

,R ? $ ,; 2Nb8 -3
(Y c .).Z. " ( c .)..Z

"3 / Y Q

( 3 { ? =b8 ,R ? c . ?W NP

A)

<"3 (VW <U$ ) / 5$

<"3 (VW <U$ ) / 5 w
"3 / Y aw

b1 9 b

Example

01 Y..Z A

Some book ,A B
Someone (body)
Some white wire
R
,
something
Sv
Sometime
,1 ?/ <,Be"
Some books
tA B / ,s A <_ B
3
Sometimes
2 e" ,s A <,
Some sugar (water)
(_W) 0P Some time
(V ?/)9e" Some 5 books

3 .

`
?
?

_ B 3" #

I didnt see any students in the class.

Is there any water in the jar?
9C - -3 ,A (
Any student (body) can answer your question.
Any oil can be used in that engine.
You can sit on any chair.

) $W

Many books
tA B / - CA <_ B
3 $/ 3
Many houses are built from stone.
... - CA
=1 s
We have many mistakes.
. $- 3 ( 3 $/ 2 dBP ) 3 B? 2 dBP ?
Several students
... (V $ x{1 3 /

) x{1 3

Both books (Both of the books ) are .

Each (Every) student in the class had a book.
.9P 3 ,A B MN -3 (V $ x{1 3 / 5$

) ,$ x{1 3

Every of the books is

( tA BQ =b )< tA BQ / 5$

<,A BQ

Either way is possible. (either of the ways is )

.9
Uab? - "3 (VW) / 5$
The students in the class explained the terms in details in
neither lesson.
Neither way is true.
9C 1 9 -3 - "3 VW / 5 w

Noun Conditions

Noun Modifiers
all

() 3- 1

Translate

9$3" ?

?W NP
A
(...
e<,; R?<,:@ .)
3 P,? =b8 ,R ? c .

no

+ 3 R?

( Every of the students has )

.7a@ A " 3 P ,? =b8
Noun
Conditions

Functions

.3 Q 3 RB

9R

,$ x "3 9C -3)
y, er, ow =A Y B?
( P d1

__

,b1 < P d1 k u ? Y b
A

+ 9R

? =A / z$

` =Q 9

Translate

Adj Conditions
. P d1 ,$ x 5

,: R

=b / V

8 (.

eV B

- 8W

More bright colors

More cold drinks

Less adj (N)

9R

A 70@ /

,: R

VW 7 9R
.3 P
(3- 1 ,A- x =A)

__

Less (adj) N

. .9

+
+
,b
- 3- s A

+
Bb - ?
9R +

__

A b1 9 b

- 8W U

B{ A 3

3- 3 Y tA
_1

9R

V `_B
w c0{?
9 U$ b
B{ A 3
*

3- 3 Y tA

More purified gold

+ 3 R?

9R
Bb
+ 70@ 9R
Bb ... / =
(3- 3) 9

Example
more expensive book
the more complicated problem
More difficult exercise
More strong columns

B{ A (- ?) 3

__

. .9

A b1 9 b

,$ b1 9 bQ t all -

More corrugated pins

More (adj) N

... _W cQ
... tA B =b

The (No) teacher asked the (no) students a (no)

question in the (no) class on no Monday.

+ <

b8 " $W ,? b8 c . A <3 A b8

More adj (N)

A/

Example
(The entire) All (the) water is
(The whole) All (the) books are

cQ <Y b <=b

B{ A - ?

UP"- 1-

; s

B{ A 3

5 s ,1 P 1

B{ A 3

Less big apples

Such less pure acid
Less beautiful girls
Less hot drinks
Less hot drink

B0v

; s 1
U v
1- 3- s A
Bb ,$ d$/ / = ,1 Bs3
5s t1 P 1
( Z ) 3- 3 Y tA
5 s ,1 P 1 3 ,1 P 1
Bb - ?
Less contaminated water
3- 3 Y tA
S _W 3 ;W _W
Bb - ?
Less purified gold
( Z ) 3- 3 Y tA

Noun
Conditions

Functions
most (adj) N

. P d1 ,$ x 5
,; @

,$ x "3 9C -3)
y, er, ow =A Y B?
( P d1

__

The most (adj) N

Much adj (N)

A $ {

Much (adj) N

__

. .9

fewer

little

b1 9 b

few

zv Q

? =A

,b - CA - ?

(/

9R

"

3"

? ),b - CA 3

3- 3 Y tA
d$/ V Bs3 U$ B{ A V Bs3 U$ d$/

happy students
bitter memories
shallow rivers
narrow rods

P s - CA V $ x{1 3
-: - CA 2 s
b@
- CA
=1 s3"5$- A - CA
=: ?
_1

N 3 $/ - ? - _ 1 - CA N
3 _W 3 $/ - ? 3 - CA _W

Fewer interesting novels

Fewer unsolvable problems

; 8 V ?c $ c0{?

Bb 3
Bb 3

Little sugar
Few friends

e 9; # V3 A ,a$) 3 Q 3 RB

. " 9C 1 b1 9 b

t? c$ C? m
A V $ x{1 3 m
w
$ . m
U? c0{? U$ Bbt?
Bs3 U$ d$/

Example
BbQ 3

. .9

A9

Much
Much
Much
Much

3 $/ - ? Much pure gold

9R Much hot water

The most pure gold

; s N U$ B{ A
The most important problems
3- 3 Y tA
t? c$ C? U$ B{ A (2N0{?)c$ C? U$ Bbt?

Translate

.( t1W ,BR
little boy

+ - CA +

__

(.
().9

9R

Noun Conditions

b1 9 b .

+ U$ B{ A
9R

much / 7 9R
.3 P

(3- 1 ,A- x =A)

A b1 9 b

Noun Modifiers

+ b8

__

A b1 9 b

9R

b@ < [@ A) mQ Most important problems

9R + b8
+ Most clever students
() Most complicated processes
My most important problem
(
) + U$ + 9R
The most beautiful girl
The most beautiful girls

__

A b1 9 b

The most adj (N)

Example

Translate

Adj Conditions

,b1 B{ A " : / mQ

/ cde little <9

little ,: R 9R

8 =A -
less -

: (NP of the NP + V) :;2 <=>

" b8

A"

? (5 :db ) the " 1- 3

9$3" ?

of A (each, either, ) 1- 3 (3 R?)

Every room is (Every of the rooms is )

9$3" ? =Q 3

b1 9 bQ

. $W ,? (3 R?) b1 9 b

A A ? c .

One of the books is

. $ W ,?

B? c . A "

Two books are (Two of the books are )

? (5 :db ) the " 1- 1

9$3" ?

of A < 1- 1

9$3" ? =Q t1W "

All of the book is ( books are )( water is )

Some of the book is ( books are )( water is )

:DE
=b:Q VW < P A =b:Q z$ -3 (3 P R: =Q) ("W < h < g < W) ai, oi, ei, av Q ?

t ? $ y 2 ?

1 $ a, i, o, u, e (=Q ")

t ? / 3

.(3 P ,b1 _ C# " y " sW e) 3- 3 x 3

Vb

Yellow (2), noise (1), dirty (1), beautiful (4), house (1), moisture (2), rule (1), more (1)
:<=>
.9C 1 - bP cA e ,C :1 -3 ,$ b P Q ,B# $ ,$ b P @ <S:.
.(9

: 9C -3) <(sugars
,$ x z 9R

ek 1)

Q ,? - P VW # " $ k 1 =A

+er " more, less, fewer : 1 P ,? =b8

(additional, further

tB1 -3 s *

bB# S v ,C :1 -3 *

B{ A) : 1 P ,? =b8

A , ` " "3

Intensifiers:

:IMIJK 0LHG

much, very, so, quite, pretty, far, too +

too
+
rather, fairly
+

(adv/adj)
(adv/adj)
(adv/adj)

==
==
==

much (quite, far) more interesting

much (quite, far) less big

; 8 - CA
5v - CA

( e/9R ) + - CA
( e/9R ) + # / A
( e/9R ) + BdC1

.3 P ,b1 3 RB
too much

3 @ 9; # -3 " <(3- 1 ,; 0P

$ A much too ` )3 P !X# much $ A " 9

: $ A much / cde too < ?W to verb =:b8 -3 ` *

much too hot to drink

=b8

| s <(9P 1 8 ? Nde) 3 1 , ? ` .9

- P 9R

$ A

:9

/ cde " ,0:? 9R

these very stores

M1 + very + N

very more *

- CA- CA , ? =A " 3- 1 ,:0{?

$ M1 /
=

A ` .9C 1 b1 9 bQ S`

|s

very *

t P" . U$ :cm? .3 P ,?

V b <U b

Before my very eyes = Y tb{v U b cA ?

the very markers = t0$ ? V b

. far beautiful = d$/ - CA .9C 1 -"3

this very books = tA B U b

? =A < $ A

e $ 9R

/ cde ` far *

M1-3-2: Quantifiers Compound

Noun Conditions

Noun Modifiers
a few
very (so, too) few
quite a few
a little
very (so, too) little
quite a little

Translate

(,b 3

Example
A few friends , a few more books

v< 3

:2- 1 =A)

( S v 1) ,bQ - CA- CA 3
3 $/ 3
. .9

- ?

(,b - ? :2- 1 =A)

( S v 1) ,bQ - CA- CA - ?
3 $/ - ?
(

a lot of
lots of
plenty of
the whole
the entire
all the
a great (good)
deal(s) of
a (small, limited) great
(good, large, huge,)
amount(s) of
a(small) large
(immense, huge, extreme,)
quantity(ies) of
a (small) great (good, large,
huge,) sum of
a great (good)
many of

+ are
9 + is

(/ )

3 $/ (- ?) 3
Lots of people

3- 1

9$3" ?

. .9

Y3 ? /

3 $/ 3

c <Y b <=b

)*+

(/ )

The entire city

tP Y b

All the book(s)

( )_ B =b

3 $/ - ?

(/ ) (,bQ) 3 $/ - ?
(/ ) (,bQ) 3 $/ $3 ?

a large amounts of sugar

(/ ) (,bQ) 3 $/ - ?
(/ ) (,bQ) 3 $/ $3 ?
(

+ are
9 + is

(/ ) (,bQ) 3 $/ 3
(/ ) (,bQ) 3 $/ - ?

-./ c . + (.

(/ )

3 $/ 3

Noun Modifiers
a (small, limited)
large (enormous, great,)
number(s) of

Noun Conditions

Translate

Example
A large numbers of books are

(.

a couple of

)*+

(/ ) (,bQ)

..Z

a pair of

9R8 5$ < 5$

b8 c . + ..Z

3/ "3_ 3 =1 ? @ -3)

scores of

t 3 < 3 $/ 3

A b8 2- A V 3
of

#"
(.

a number of

)*+

v / ) Y 0w

b8 c . + ..Z

a number of

The number of

? "

/ " 9C 1 ? "
NP of NP - Bs
.
,? "

.3 P ,b1

the b ?

.3 P ,?

the b ?

b1 9 b

xA b@
(9C 1

A dozen spoons are

A dozen of guest are

_B
V :?
MN

3
3

None of the students is (are) in the class.

< v

(.

b1 9 b
9C 1

two

A pair of socks(gloves) is
(0B 3)_ - 8 9R8 5$
A pair of scissors (glasses) is
(5 @),w e 5$
Two pair of slippers are
,$ ?3 9R8 "3

Hundreds of books
Tens of millions of cells
Dozens of classes

<(/ ) z w

(/ )

? ,: s "3)3 P ,? 3 RB

Scores of articles are

ten, hundred, thousand, million,

billion, trillion

none of

( "3 ,0$ =1 ? @-3) "3

(is) 3 R? c . + (.

a dozen (of)

3 $/ 3

3- 1

.
9$3" ?

b8 c .

(/ )

" NP A A ? c .

<
(b8

< v
- bP
) - bP

:=B01
.9

" NP A A ? P A NP of NP ` " 9
( a few more books

.3 Q 3 RB

(... < 3

B? </

- CA) many

$3 _ BQ

=b8

$
8

/ V

,b
=BC A A ? A c . < P A ? b1 9 b ` . $W ,b1 none books 2- A
A S` " 9
bu none v).9
,? 9

$3

? =A < $ A $3
3 $/ 3

t1W =b8

b1 9 bQ /
=Q ,$

A more `
b1 9 bQ

A -

:(M1-3-3: Numbers) 0RISR

zero, 1, two, 3, , infinity
.9
5(M1) apples =

- bP , ? =A 2- $

-3 <9

:(Cardinal) (,: ),P- bP 3 @

b1 9 b

$ A

/ cde ,Be" . ,P- bP 3 @

apple 5 (M4) = - bP

:(Ordinal) ,d
M1

U BC1 - U ;"

U ?"3

M2

The first
(1st)
9C1 - "

The second
(2nd)
Y"3

. 1 M2< $ A

U?
The third
(3rd)
Y

A ` " 1 M1< 1 ` - e

U ?- tv

U ?

The fourth
(4th)
Y- tv

...

U$ sW
U C "
The last

,1 $ - sW

/ cde ` =b8

The twenty first(21st) century :

M2

-3 "

$ A the A $ A

a$" 9C A V e

$ A
-

A ` ,d

3 @*

M1V e U ba$" 9C A

CQ 3 @

. 1 { ? c a{ ,d
" ,P- bP A "3 / , $ < 1 P ,? =BP 1 , - . 1 ?
CQ 3 @
{P 5$ - five & two ninths t1 "3 " -four eighths B{ - tv five thirds Y

. 1 s ,?
A c . " 3- 1
9$3" ? " $ A the " of A ? <3 P ,b1 b s A S`
CQ

a(one) sixth
Two thirds of the apple(s) is(are)
Four fifths of my clothes are
A third apple
,?

The third apple

U?
Y

3 @

:(M1-4: Superlative adj)

UDS VD1T

(=M1) + N
adj + est
The most + adj (=M1) + N
.U$ Bbt? , $ <9
The most important problem
Our biggest issue
The most beautiful flowers

.9C 1 b1 9 bQ ? <9
M1 7 <3 P ,? =b8
/ cde
,; @ 9R " 9
(M1) =b:Q z$ t$"- The most important

c0{? U$ Bbt?
? c0{? U$ B`-SA
t:` U$ d$/

: Z=J2 [M YK
<(9C

1 -3 ,C :1 -3 ) $- 1 ,C :1 " , - . -3 1" V ? .9
.3 P ,b1

1/

,? 9R

a + sleep = asleep(n)
A s
em + power =empower(v) V3 3 2- e

P =Bs

$3 =b: / ( 1"V ? " 1 { < 1 C ) 1" A B{?

_- u
_ u <9
,A @ V A/ -3 B{ A 1" V ?
/ = ,$ t1W .
,b1 @ - =b: k 1
-3 /
1 {
.

,? @ - =b: k 1

:`D^ :_S :^R

1 C

D I L\]

- logy:
biology, geology (,
P U ?/) , psychology
- nomy: agronomy ( /-" { :@) , economy
- ics:
physics, mathematics is
- ry:
chemistry, history
- aphy: geography
- ophy: philosophy
: 1 P ,? ,Bs P 1 P 9R ,Be"
,
P Y b < 1 P ,? 9R ical " ic A :@ ,?
,? b
historical
,b$ e <,$- - mathematical ,u $- - economical =. =A V" ? < 3 Be - biological
,Bs P 9C$/
10

. 1 P ,? =b8
VD1T

)MR d e VD*=J2

simple

<./ K

noun-derived

ical, ic, al, ary, ory, ful,

less, some, y, like, poor,
rich, able, ible, ous, free,
ish, ive ,(bound, based,
oriented, led, driven,
centered)

adj-derived

ish

c . + al =
+ al = 9R

/ /

9R

M1

V+ing

+ Ving + N

M2

*
verb-derived

. P A,? M2 " ,; R? 9R p.p

M1
M2

+ (V)p.p + N

s3 -3"-"
3t{

necessity +ary = necessary

dictionary :cm? 3/
,?

t ish

+ - ?
1
. P A,? M2 " ,:@ . 9R

red, big, nice, heavy, dark, my,

arrive + al = arrival
purpose + al = purposal

9R

: M2 VD1T
!Ns A M2 2 R

A =b M1 2 R
bDc2

<3- 1 "- " 9

,@ b
.,0:? 2 R
?

=b: 5$

Derivational

Z . 9; # "3 s ?
- ? + #-3
,A @ ,:@ . 9R _ A
, - . -3 " B?
3
$ B{? 9R
, -.
P
1 P
Z . 9; # "3 s ?
,A @ ,; R? 9R _ A
, - . -3 " B?
3
$ B{? 9R
, -.

-" u
, ` ary

redish yellow
S? e =A c$ ? 3-/
fool
foolish
=1 b# <b#
darkish
1The(M1) running(M2) man (they are running)
"3 # -3 3 ? - 1"3 3 ?

big(M2) destroying machines

-SA( 1 $" <_ ?)

The moving chair

( B? <U 9 #)

a broken arrow

the punished boy

_ s

9 # ,;

P)=BC0P

(=d B?)

big(M2) destroyed building

-SA (=A" ? <( P)V $")

t P?

P=d

P _ s V bBs

11

::^R `R `D^ f1T

- ic
- ical
-- al
-- ory
-- ary
- ful
- less
- some
-y
- like
- poor
- rich
- able
- ible
- ous
-- ive
- free

economic, historic
biological
3/

,?

" 9R

colorful, beautiful
(1- 1- < d$/)
jobless, homeless
(- 0 A <V b1 s ,A)
handsome, troublesome, bothersome
( {e <U$ .W 3-3 <
3- /W)
rainy, hairy, cloudy
( A < ; b{ <,1 - A)
humanlike, doglike
( 1 ? V C1 < 1 ? )
oxygenpoor, nitrogenpoor soil
(V} C
<V" B 1
s)
oxygenrich air
(V} C
)
accessable, portable
(, B 3 cA e <cb# cA e)
comprehensible, responsible
(-3 cA e <( )" C?)
dangerous, famous
( 1 s <- t{?)
9R
<3/
,?
" 5$ -3 V ?Sb
fatfree food, sugarfree
(,A v V" A X < e V" A)
(,$... <- ?... <3 A... < `... <S ?... <- ?... < ...M
A< ... A , Bd?)
-- bound
homebound activities
(MN A , Bd? <- ? MN <- ? MN <, N
tB ; .)
-- based
taskbased
((- ? <3 A) - ?
:0 < :0 A , Bd?)
-- oriented
monyoreinted projects
( A , Bd? <(3 A) - ?
" )
-- led
studentled demonstrations
( x{1 3 A , Bd? <(- ?)- ? x{1 3 <,$ x{1 3 2
[)
-- driven
electricitydriven cars
(... <- ? Z A <,e A t P ?)
-- centered
humancentered
(... <- ? V C1 <- ? V C1 )

12

D I L\]

al:
+ al= 9R
c . + al =
remove
culture
ory, ary:
introduction
observatory
element
dictionary

removal
cultural

(!X# :
)
(, . :9R )

introductory
elementary

(, ? ? :9R )
(=1 s - :
)
( 3 A <= ;" :9R )
(
)

ive:
relation (9dC1 <=A -)
relative ($ s " Y e <,dC1 )
alternative (_" B? < $3 <U$S$ 8 :9R ) (= $S` :
)

. $ A N"M2 $" N " M1 U A = 9

9R ,1 ?/ " $ A tobe /
A= 9
c . ,1 ?/ V+ing *
" (c? V ?/) $ A have /
A $ " ( tx? c . ) $ A tobe /
A= 9
c . ,1 ?/ V+p.p
. $ A N"M2 $" N " M1 U A = 9
9R ,1 ?/

tobe
am
is
are Ving
was
were
. . . be
. . . been
. . . being

.3 P ,b1 =b8

,:@ . 2- A (9e"

) S`

,; R? 9R

" ,; R? 2- A S`

,:@ . 9R

**

13

Ving:
- bB
- bB
- bB
- bB
- bB
- bB

#
=BPX`
$W
=BPX` -3
c? #
c? =BPX`

P.P:
c? #
c? =BPX`
c?
$W
c? =BPX` -3

$W

$W

0Ld 2 lR .=^R jY+ 8IMDH ing jY+ `R jkG tobe

R
(am, is, are) running
(Y"3 ,? Y- 3 :=1 ? @-3) Y"3 ,? < 1 $"3 # -3
(Was, were) running
( $"3 ,? BP 3 :=1 ? @-3)Y $"3 ,? <Y3 A V $"3 # -3
Will be running
3 A
s V $"3 # -3
Would be running
3 A
s V $"3 # -3
(Have, has) been running
(9 )Y
$"3 ,? <(9 )Y 3 A V $"3 # -3
Had been running
(Y $"3 ,?) - (9 )Y
$"3 ,? <(Y3 A) -(9 )Y 3 A V $"3 # -3

IMq
(Have, has) broken
Had broken
Will have broken
Would have broken

2 rq `R IY P.P oD.=p e 0lR0 have

mYM j2Dn
(9

(,u ? UA + ,?)

)Y =BC0P
Y3 A =BC0P
(9 )Y =BC0P
BC0P ,? - Y3 A =BC0P

:<=s

. PA

(.3- 1

tx?
tx?
tx?
tx?

3
#
3
=BPX`
3
$W
=BPX` -3
$W

(am, is, are) broken

(was, were) broken
Will be broken
Would be broken

tx?
tx?
tx?
tx?

c?
c?
c?
c?

(have, has) been broken

Had been broken
Will have been broken
Would have been broken

#
=BPX`
$W
=BPX` -3

$W

? =b8

.3 P ,? k" P ,? " # -3 A - bB
=b8
.
,b1 ,e . would " will =b8 "PYb
$W -3 , ? V ?/ = ,:b@ , $ c?
$W
. $- X` ,? h_ <3 A have 8 =b8 -3
-3 V P <9P 1 Y
9bCe tobe ` ) : tx? c .
3 P ,? =BC0P (9 )Y
P =BC0P
P =BC0P
P
s =BC0P
P
s =BC0P
9
3 A
9
P ,? =BC0P 3 A

14

P =BC0P
P =BC0P
P =BC0P
P =BC0P

: (M2-3: Compound) tn 2 VD1T

: $- 3 V3 ?
A 9; # ,C :1 V A/ -3 :tHn K D
el
A A sW " A k 1 [1 / ? " (={ b =1) b ? ). 1 dCv ,?
=A - =b:
v $ "3 -
(... 3 A =. u ! #
1. sticking words together (blackboard, greenhouse, intake , hereby , herewith, understand, upon, nevertheless, notwithstanding)
A
Xt ?
/ [1 !
=1 :`
_X8 =:
$ A =? 1 U$ A
` <3 P ,?

? =b: <3 A

intake (c ./ ) ?

` <9

<hereby (=. u ! # / ) ?

e <understand ? c . <into ? =. u ! # < Basketball ?

(,$ S.

2. hyphenation (well-known, mother-in-law, well known)

(3 P ,? 3 3 M-3
3. stress shift (a 'book case, a book 'case)

<

A)

) "

U A 5v

" v $ "3
1 - Bs
"3 /

(,A B 8 <_ B =[R?) . $W ,b1 -

=A =b8

-3 " 9

s 5$ /

3 RB

- [ ? =A : (-) Hyphen
8 - [ ? =A : ( ) Dash
- BR` -3 <M B

c?

: s

.9
Y"3 =b: k 1 / ?
" %
C !X# A ,. u
A ,R "
/ , - . -3 /
? "? =. u ! # / <3 1 _ 8
/ A ` " _N` = c` _W < :A e = :A h e

,? _ :? < C !X# A "N@ $ <3 P ,? =Bs

1 P5s
A BC
:
,? 3 RB

15

VD1T

)MR d e VD*=J2
,: 8 9R
=A ,: 8 - ed )
(
?

adj-n ed
Compound

? ,:@ . 9R

n-vd adj

n-Ving
n-p.p

***

<./ K

9R

+ ( C !X# A)
_ :? 2-

9R

? ,; R? 9R

? ,:@ . 9R

adv-Ving
adv-p.p

adv-vd adj

bDc2

+ ( C !X#)
c . / B{?
VW _ :? 2
? =. u ! # A -

c . / B{? 9R

? ,; R? 9R

= <

number-unit-adj

<

+ #"+3 @ -

+ 3 @ + (9R )

20-doller notes (worth)

10-story buildings (high)

+ =A #"

(, =b8 )

I have 20 dollars.

(Y @ =b8 )

I am 16 years old.
-3
=d

It is 10 meters tall.

red beard
S? e $a red-bearded man
S? e $- 3 ?
the hard-headed men
9
V3 ?
a cold-blooded murderer
3 C1 s ,: e
a bad-tempered lady
ZNs A ,b1 s
The(m1) hair-removing(m2) spray(N)
( ? ,:@ . 9R ) A ?

air-cooled systems
( ? ,; R? 9R ) 1 P 5 s
A tbBC
Hand-made objects
(9 3 9s
well-known
(- t{? :Y3W)
the rapidly-moving vehicles
( 1"well-cooked beans
Thinly-populated areas
Rapidly-changing world

a 10-meter-tall mast
a 16-year-old lady
2-meter-wide hole
8-story (tall) buildings

. 1 ` ,b1 b8 s ,?

( B? k R - =A)
B? ,: 3
(
U =A) =;
,b1 s
B? ( @)
t =A
=; v
=d t1 bBs

3 @/

.3 P ,? !X#

t
0
t1 bBs

16

)/
9 3
P
P =Bs P ,A s =A
) "- = :1 $ "
P =B _ s
A ;
9 b8
?
# -3 9@
=A V t8

AZ .2d
9R

-3 - *
, ` -

:M3
. BC M3 $3
.(3
.3 P,b1 =b8

"3 " 9
sW
,:
< $ A ,; B?
=
.(= ; ! ?)
,?
- $3
= 9
,b
b8 V3 A 3 R? - =A V ,? Y"S; 2-3) 3 $X,b1 b8 s b ?
.9
/ x? ,b
=BC / M3 "3 m

=b8

( C V3-"W) = ; ! ? " ! ? 2- A ={ b " 3 P,? =b8

(U$ <= <

< ) =A Y B? ,dC1 9R

`
M3
M3
#

2- A M3

Young(m2) smart(m2) oxford(m3) university(m3) students(n) demonstrated(v).

heavy(m2) industry (m3) organization
the organization of heavy industries
Heavy Industries Organization (HIO)
Student of London oxford university

U
. 1- 1 ,b

V ?/

" ` @ e 9$ @- =A
(

The telecommunications companies

News agencies
chain stores
school boy
sports shoes

, A ? tB P
ds tC1 W
x1/ t P" .
= - ? =wA C
(9C 1 m3) ,P/-" t{R
.3 P ,? m2 " 9

A [1 =A ,b:@ $ ? </ 1 `

- d8 ( 1 P ,? k" P -SA !" # A) | s ,?

,? cb@ 2U$ A
"3 / A 3 RB
A)

# <3 P =b8

,b

sport t1W / ,0$ = < 1 P ,? 9R

=BC / M3 $ M2 ,$ P

s A ,C :1 -3 " "3 :uDmc=^R

:<./ K l0 VIpe lDYd
9 3- 1 V 0? =8" =A S`

17

: M4
. that is $ i.e (Id est) t - d@ $ 3 `,? - e ? < : . <<> <" " <{} <[] <() < "3 U A b ? = 9
.9
=:b8 sW VW Y"3 9bCe 3 A ,0$ ` <3/ ,? =u B ? . "
,? 8
/ 1 - Bs

.9
=u B ? k 1 / ,0$
- Bs
(Appositive) =u B ?
"3 <,0$ =v < "3 =v () Dash

Ali, my brother, went to

n m2

n
NP

.(9C 1 =:b8 c

lS8) $- XA 3 s

1W <=:b8 =b8

/ 7 " (

. $ A (=:b8
. $ `,? A , - . -3 VW =A "

3,? M4 c 0{ <3 P

-3 V v) 3 P !X# =:b8 /

tB1 ,?"3) 5 2- A U0b? S 1 ?

/

,? cB? - =:b8 c

"

BC 1 =u B ?

$ A vD.=p
?

=b

A =: .NA " P A NP VW ,1"-3 9s

= App k 1 / ,0$ D;mK
3 RB
( - Bs ) 1 ,? $ " , $ 2 b: / M4 =b8 -3
: $W,? 9?N@ V" A ( A) M49; # -3

my brother Ali went to

the apple 4

- bP

.(3 P k" P -SA ! # A) P A | s

.3 P ,? - bP VW , ? " ( $ A ?

18

A $ A 3 P =BP 1 !" # 2- A ` ) $ A

M4 = ,?
/

A3 @

.3 P ,? @ VW 91 . $ 3 P ,? Italic $ Bold , `

...

:(Relative Clause) ,;
RC

Relative Pronouns (,;

$ P

,;

Noun

V ?/
V 0?
the reason
BC 1 M5 9e w

:M5
? A

? $ bu) + Sentence
? $ bu

(RC

=b8

that
which
who
whom
whose
when
where
why
what
whether=if
how

.3 P ,? =b8 = " P A,? RC k 1 / ,s A M5

NP ) 3 P ,? NP U {1 8 $ 9
M5 $ ,C :1 -3 RC
.(3 P ,? NP < P d1
VW cde ` )
. 1

? (while SxA)

wh " That *

In 1944 when the world war started

... ,1 t8 8 (=0 ? ) =
.

=b8 VW -3 = - where 3 P ,? =
The palace where the Queen live .
...
,? ,` 1/ =0:? VW -3 =

*
-3
*
e

19

:
NPE

(M1)3(M2)(M3)2 N (M4)(M5)

NPE

M1aM1bM2aM2bM2cM3aM3b N M4aM4bM5

^lD+ <

\H_y R psr jMIkK

(M5) (M4) (M2) (M3) N (M1)

NPF

M5 M4aM4bM2aM2bM2cM3aM3b N M1bM1a

NPF

That big crowded 5-story chain store, Ghods, which is located at such a wide busy intersection
Prep M1 M2
M1
M2
M2
M2
M3
N
NP=M4
R
V
M2
N

sells
V

NP1
a great deal of fresh medium-sized trout fish
M1

M2

M2

M3

that is considered a vital prolific cholesterol-free diet

R

M1 M2

M2

M2

especially

adv

NP2
for the young growing deprived kids
Prep M1
M2
M2
M2
N
who are suffering from any of these fatal malnutritious diseases.
Prep
R
V
M1
M1
M2
M2
N

W Se , ? 3 $/ - ? P" . ,? ,$ @ :P U v -3 9
P e " = < M e , $ < -SA :P =d
V 8 P- # -3 Y" ?
=wA
A
? , # X? " BC: V" A ,$ X $- 5$ (3 P ,?) 9
P ? =
.- d` ?
=$X l
t$- b A U$ / 5$ =A $NBd? (/

.3 P ,? =b8

=A

BC NBd? $ V P - v3 2-

VW -3 < P d1 ,0$S . c0{? $

20

-bA

VW /

A ` <9

x1/ P" . VW
/ B? / 1
1 A ,? 1-) =

:=B01
V3 A 1- , ? =A suffer

PPE

Prep NP

NP Prep
.(3 P ,b1 =b8

: Prepositional Phrase (PP)

PPF

. NP

R <+DzR { p |e

A <3 P ,? =b8

=. u ! # "

-3 ={ b in , $ )9C 1 , - . " ,C :1 U A 5$ =A 5$ =A - =. u ! # -3
:3 P ,? =b8

d? =
cde c .
cde NP
A NP

A =. u ! #
d? A (
d? A (
d? A (

1) (We got interested) in such huge organic molecules

Prep M1 M2
M2
N
PP
,`-SA ,;W

t; 0; ? U v -3 ( =A $ P

? =eN@ ?)

"-) ,:R?

[1 "}

2) A detailed theoretical research on these wild American camels, lamas, showed

prep
M1
M2
M2
N
M1
M2
M2
N
NP=M4
V
PP
... = 3 3 V {1 <

NP
3) on
Prep

? , $ <,{#" ,$ 0$ ?

BP U$

- A-3 (on

a cold dark night

M1 M2

PP

M2

NP
( Ik\~

2 }q f1T < | s

DM )

5$- P -3 (on

"-)

21

" " NP . V

,? (,1 s

) =:b8 V bt.

A<(

,;

70@ A)

,? 9A ? VW A c . " 9

,;" ,:

: of <+DzR { p
NP < NP v ,; -3
.9. ` [1 -3 - c .

NP of NP of NP of NP of NP
PP

PP

PP

PP

.3 P ,? =b8

=A : B? <=A A ? </ < C " (... c . < e <

"3)

3 ,? A-

:A- ! #
=A - 7 8 5$ / @ "3

.9
NP 5$ c -3 " 9
A - 5$ of < NP of NP -3 A =A U$ /
.( m # V BC . [1) 9C 1 _ s 3 $/
C $ $" e ?
The handles of the door of the cabin of the captain of that ship

(3

s 1 =A : B? 5e

-3 =A A ?

B 3

NP =@ bx? $/ NP ={ b d$ NP of NP -3
.
=b8 - 3 $ A - of
h 3 ?) ,13 01-" A 3 B
( - 3) A 3 ?
V" . 9 b
A ,@ u ?

<(3 1 _ 8 =b8 ) 3 A 70@ A =@ bx? $/ ` <3 P ,? 3 RB

A man of incredible talent
A mater of great significance

,B{ VW
A- ! #

22

=b8

/ "9

:
1- adj-ly

(3/

A friendly (N-ly) behavior

The orderly arrangement
The likely events
The costly (N,V) watches

,? 9R

ly A

) ={ b =1 <9

e b@ ly A (

\H_y RIHG RL R
S v

) 9R

=1 B "3 - B. ? {$ -W
cbB?
3 $"9b e V ` tB@

The deadly weapons (dead = deadly)

The elderly people

- d` ? t#N
(old ,: R ) b;
3 .

.9. ` 3 $ $ A ,@ b : ()9?N@ V" A

e -
often, never, (now, tomorrow, yesterday, today ), here, there, seldom, (yet, still, however, nevertheless, nonetheless ), (somehow, somewhat
), already, always, almost, also, so, then, hence, more
./
=1 <3 P ,? =b8 ,;" $ ? < $ A =:b8 " still " yet
fast, hard, late, long, just :9

,0$ 9R

"

e 9; #

,s A -3

a long trip
,1
R
It was long thought that
= P ,? - t ?
Just : a just judge
(3 @ :9R ) 3 @ ,u e 5$
Just :
(V U b , ` ) .
<. e3 <9 -3 : e
Just at 7 o'clock
9@
M - 9 -3
Just my brother
U? -3 A .
I just had my lunch
Y3- s - 1 V U b U?
(=. u ! # - dB@ =A) PP

On a cold night
Prep M1

M2

(Prep NP = PP)

.9
(at) last night, (in) next week, (in) this year, (for) two times

P !X# VW =. u ! # =

3 A

=. u ! # " ` <9C 1

e 9e w

NP

23

The man (that, who) I saw

? " =. u ! # < 1 !X# 3 ?W =[;

.
ADVerbial Sentence

e c 0{

; ,$ "- "

A =:b8 A

e lS8

t1 A/ -3 S v "3 u ?

/ :

e =:b8 -

adverbial particles ( adv ) + S

S + ADV
ADV + S

S: =$ =:b8

3 ,?

, $ <9

.
. $W ,? VW

S adv S
adv S , S
3 ,?
e =:b8 c 0{
A =:b8 A =0:A 9C 1 e =8" =A
A $ cde =
s ,? =$ =:b8 bB# " 9
" =:b8 ={ b

e lS8
e =:b8

: IHG uR /R
.(9

P !X# -" ? =A ,s A -3 = ) 1 P ,? =b8

= 2 d

A"

3 ,? A-

=A - =:b8 "3 V v < BC 1 (conjunction) A- ! #

.3 P ,? =b8 / -3 =A (my trip was as long as her trip) 3 A NP VW A ` : as long as

.3 P ,? =b8 -"3 =A (My house is as far as her house) 3 A NP VW A ` : as far as
As far as I am concerned

3 P ,? A ? U? =A = ,$ 8
.

24

3 ,b1 _ 8 $/ =b8

< $ A =:b8 " -3 ` : Because

=b8

adv
if
unless
although
though
even though
even if
when
where
while
whilst
whereas
whenever
wherever
as
as far as
as long as
as soon as
no sooner than
(in)sofar as
(in) as much as
because
so that
such that
as if
as thought
lest

=01W

-3) -(=Q) `
(= , (=a1W <=a $ ) ?
- =A (=Q =v `) (=Q) =v `

= ,-

-3 ,B# ` ,B#
=a ? =Q ,Be"
=Q ,$ 8-3
=Q ,; #-3

=Q ,Be"
=Q 8
=Q ,$ 8
=a ? 3 ? - =Q ,1 ?/
=01W 3 x? =A =a1W ? =A

Whether
However
Whoever
Whatever
such as
like
provided (that)
providing
incase
once

=Q ,$ 8
= [1 U$ / =
#
$/ - =01W (c ;3 < s) d =A
=
- =A =0 $
= V v
(= ) - 1 (= ) ,$ `

(= ) 3 d?

s 3 3 M-3 (Y )

$W -3 . P A

,? (R)

"

e lS8

Nm? , $ . 1

-Q

v< 1

25

S(sentence) my problems were solved.

M2

S my problems.

M2

NP

NP

S
because ( adv )(S)
because of (NP)

( P c#

although ( adv ) (S)

in spite of (NP)
despite
in addition (
e lS8 =1 9
in addition to (NP)

N0{?)=01W s =A <=01W c ;3 =A <=01W d

( N0{?) s =A <c ;3 =A <d =A
=01W - =A <=v `
- =A

e)

U$ A "N@ < bu < "N@ =A

A "N@

instead (adv) (S)

instead of
(NP)

@ -3
8 =A

as a result (adv) (S)

as a result of
(NP)

U$ A A
=x B1 -3

accordingly (adv) (S)

according to
(NP)
in contrast (adv) (S)
in contrast to(with) (NP)

U$ A A <M
U$ A
hd A
cA ? -3
h70@ A <h !Ns A

in response (S)
in response to (NP)

- -3
=A - -3

in comparison (S)
in comparison with (NP)

=C$ ? -3
A =C$ ? -3
26

=A

?W Sx? 2- A c BC? -3 =Q t1W

. P

Ali bought a new car

NP1

M1 M2

NP2

for
Prep

adv

his wife bumped the old car into a tree.

N

M2

M1

M2

np1

np2

PP

ADV
.
"
1234567-

P c$ d
for
since
"
after
before
till
until
than

e lS8 =A =. u ! # <( $ A NP V b

? " =. u ! # <9

=A : B? ,: . 7

" NP

Y # ,.

BA , $ )3 P

:<./ K VD2 2
1 c ;3 V" A =b8 =A S v "3 V3"S. -
:
e lS8 =A =. u ! # c$ d
=:b8 $/ =. u ! # / 7 `
.3 A
s= 2d
S 1 VW =b8

=0 $
A
= ,1 ?/ /
( P A =BP 3 have c . = ,Be" .)
=0 $ x1W /
(3- ? = A -3)
=01W / 7
(after dinner :Y P /
A)
=01W /
=0 $
(till tomorrow : 3 . )
=0 $
(=01W)=A 9dC1 <(=01W)/

than her sister (PP).

s/

than I thought (ADV).

Y3

,? - =01W /
. $W ,? (had A c . )

A ,u ? before / cde " after /

27

:
(... " R: <{

s < ` :

A ,A @

=b: =A - U$

$- 1 #) ... " b@ <e R <BdC1 :,A @ V A/ / ,u e , $

=A <,A s =A <2 P =A <9@

=A :

9R

V 1 <V

s : V + (_

- " V b ? <=1 ` db <

<=BC W <
9# - ,;

Wc

W +

<9# - <=Bd; < 3 . <S` <V

<V t` 1 : () 9?N@ V" A
e -
- " A 9# - :cm?. e
1 9R
< 9R
-3 , - . -3

=d ? "3 (

3 Be ; =A : (PP)

A) <=BPX` P (-3) : (

= :

28

)9

=b8

=. u ! # " ` -

P !X# =. u ! # = ) NP -

<V v < $/ <- 1 <,$ ` < ? < ` :!"X? = ) =:b8 + = 2 d

quickly : Nm? .(9

B{? 3 e -

t ? Y c .)k- ? UA -

: - " <=1 ` <

,b:@ - =A < t?

(=v ` < 3 d? < v

3 e -

+ =A -

=1 @ xP <=1 3 ? : =1 + 9R

... " 9P/ <_ s <$

^lD+ l0 IHG RL R

(ADV)

e =:b8 -

cA e , - . 3 e / Y

A ,C :1 3 e / Y
$
9@
=A
$
9@
A
.3"- ,? 9@
A ,: s "
.9P 3 3 $/ 9@
= ,; # -3

.(

,b1

S`

,?

- "3 VW

" 9R

"c .= 9

=b:

:IHG

One of my (relatively) intimate friends drank a (relatively) cold tea (relatively) quickly (exactly) in his office (exactly) before I arrived.
M1

m2

adv

m2

M1

adv

NP1

m2

adv

adv

adv

Prep m2

NP2

adv

adv

NP1

PP

A U? =0 $ / cde ( e3) B.3 -3 ( e3) 9@

=A (BdC1)

ADV

(BdC1)

P 1 U? ,b b

/ ? -3 :

(BdC1) V B "3 / ,0$

:IHG RL R
9C$

V b / ? <=b8

A VW / ? U$ BtA ) 3 P ,? =b8

.(3

BdC1

v) 3 P ,? =b8

9R

8 V b -3 " 3 P ,?

/ " 3 P ,?

9R

/ =:

.NA :

,bt? - CA 3 $"- $ ,bt?

S 1

,?

-c .=
. (9
- 9R =

,?

e
?W =
e

: R R 0LHG
A dramatically important event
M1

adv

m2

(: = ,bt? S 1

3 $"-)

- =A 3 $"-

NP

A considerably trivial point

3 B. - CA =B01 -

A horribly comic movie

.3
.3 P =b8

(: = ,

B{#" - 3

: .)

-3

3 B.
=[#N? cA e - A =B01
. 3 A 3 B. =0:A < 3 d1 =[#N? cA e N
s - CA

: . - -3

s,

B{#" - A

=B01

:.

3 RB
V ,? S 1 ... " $ P <9$ t1 ,A <2 P =A < 3 ; Z . / <(,: s =1 ? @ -3) 9
- CA , - . -3 $ {
@ $ A " 3 d1 Z e 2- $ -3 .,R ? ,R ? $ 9
9dm? 9dm? $ , $ <9
,R ? $ 9dm?

"3 Z

an economically important event

A scientifically trivial point
.(-

e
e

(: = ,bt? 3 Be 3 $"-) ,bt? 3 Be ; =A 3 $"(: =

3 B. ,b:@ =B01)
3 B. ,b:@ ; =A =B01

B.3 -3 e3 <$

BdC1 ) 3 P ,? =b8

"

$3

e / =:

.NA :

,?

- $3

e=

29

c . 9 .

- B{` - B 3 -3 ? < P ,?

1) NP1 VI

PP

.9.- b
I
V

adv

NP2

PP

NP2

NP3

adv

PP

=A /" $3 ,:@
PP

adv

. $3 - -3 V

Mark gave Merry a rose in the park yesterday.

NP1

.9

-X` 1)(Vi) Y/ =B 3 "3 =A c . ,B

- B 3 -3
.3 P ,? {?

Mark saw Merry in the park yesterday.

NP1

3) NP1 VIII NP2 NP3

:jY+

B? " (intransitive

Ali went to the cinema yesterday.

NP1

2) NP1 VII NP2

C (transitive -X`)(Vt)

.3 3
II
V

adv

II

PP

? =A ,s
PP

NP1

? /" $3 - ?
NP2

adv

NP1

c` - -3 /" $3 - ?
NP2

PP

adv

NP1

Bb ,0$ , - . c . 9 . b ? < P d1 A A b ? "- !Ns A , - . -3 VW 3 ? c . 9 . A ,C :1 -3 ,: . 9 . `

*
.3 P =b8
? =. u ! # A , $ PP 2=A = 3 A
s NP2 - b
L_Y2 2Nb8-3 3 / ? NP 9t8 U b =A
.3 P =b8
? =. u ! # A , $ PP 2=A = 9
NP1 - b 3 / ? NP <9 . V3 d1 A A 2-3 bL;E2 2Nb8 -3 U0 ;
.
<V3 Q ,: =V3

. <UB. $ <(V ? 1

$ ` ,? ` S b - ,B . =

t: . U$ A A < BR` ,? ( C?) S b - NP3 A

-3 *

? =A)V 1 s =V ? 1 <UBC1 3 <UBP 1 =UBP : 1 3" ? , - . -3 ,B . =

t: . *
.V 1 3 ` = UBs
<V3-"W _ C# =A =V3 _ C? =UB. ` [1-3
.9

,B . "3 " 9

,B . =
.9

VW , - . < P A

`S b

,B . "3 c . < ?W ,a:? 9R

.3 P , ? , B . =

30

c . VW , - . 3 ? `

$ M1 c . /

A `

$ "3 c . <3 A NP c . /

A `

:
./" $3 b

^lD+ b0DY2
: VI NP1

=A 9.- ,:@

( -) NP2 VII NP1 ( ;

(
PP VI NP1 (_
NP3 ( -) NP2 VIII NP1 ( ;
(
( -) NP2 PP VII NP1 (_

Ali ate food

Ali ate the food

X 3- s ,:@
(=@ b? X) - X 3- s ,:@

.9

They enjoyed the party last night.

.=BPX` P ,1 bt? /
.3 P ,? =b8

III
V

NP2

; -

13 A 2X; t1W ( _

,B . "3 c . <3 3 _ 8 c . / - 7 =v " - S v =v

Merry called her new doll Jane.

NP1

,? S; - UBP X` < P A =. ? NP2 ` (

.U 8 - $ 8 z " @

?1

` *

?(

NP3

Mark gave Merry that rose in the park yesterday.

.(9

=. ? =1 {1 that) /" $3 - -3 -

c` VW

? =A 3 3 - ? ( _

The English political authorities granted that major economic issue that sufficient attention.
m1

m2

NP1

m2

III

m1

m2

m2

NP2
t?

. - ,. Q =8

m1

m2

NP3
3 Be k u ? VW =A ( BP 3 "Xd? < 1 {A ) 13 Q @ ,C :1 ,

2 ? ?

31

VW NP1 =a1W P =A =Bd; )

Q ,? =b8

? =. u ! # A 1W NP1 < P d1

Her new doll was called Jane.

`S b VW c . Ua ; <3 P
NP ,; tx? c . / 7 `
*
( [ Y =A A ?] < P d1 8 ? V" A It
(9

`S b V ? 1 c .) U 8 P

That big crowded chain store, Sharvand, has been granted a lot of useful facilities.
. R? 2 1 a? 3 $/ - ? 9
P @ < 1" tP , $ <-SA :P
Mark gave Merry a rose.(VIII)
Merry was given a rose.(PVII)

.,s
., s

?1 $ 8z " @

x1/

P" . VW <

c`
? =A 3 3 - ?
c` P 3 3
? =A
:(Passive Verbs (PV)) bL;E2 bDY+R <./ K

:
The kids burnt the forest.

The forest was burnt.

New results were achieved.

The forest was burnt by the kids.

=wA 9 3 =A (9. ` W) 9s

(9

c 8

=wA

V $3 ` <UB{` <V P /
?
(Y/) -X` 1 c . /
( P 3/ W ) P

3 RB
3 RB
1/

(
(
c 8

:(% / Bb )3 {1 3 . c . / 3 A3 s Y tR? P A e ? <9P 1 by =:b8 ` *

P =B. ` W 7 .
,? !X# - c? @ "
3 ,? 3 A3 s
? ) .9. ` W c 8
.3 A - aA - $ / <
/ </ < A <9 3 =A V ,?
xA *

.( ?W 9

A ) P 3-"W 9

$ 8 $ B1
.9. ` - e ... 3- ? (

Ali was questioned.

.9. ` - e

3- ? ,:@
(Impersonalization)
/
,P (
(Passive
Active) Y : ? =A tx? c$ d (

32

. $W ,?
...and
...or
...but
as well as
(... S 1 " ...)
neither nor
(5 w ... " ...)
either or
(... $ ... ( $) )
not only but (also) . (... S 1 ... = ... t =1)
both and
(("3 )..."... _ ... ...
)
whether or
(... $...( $) _ ...=v...=v _ ...
.9

. $ A 1

s...

VW jkG <(... <=:b8 <9R

: (Conjunctions) ) l {e p
) $ A VW IY X
"9
V Ca$ VW U .

< e<

s)

A- ! # (nor, or, but, and A) S ; 1W -3 " 3- 1 " 9bCe both, not only , either , neither -3

,?(... " =. u ! # " ` < e )

: and
@ . " 3- 1 - t V 0? c . " NP $3 P 9A =:b8 ? . ,Be"

- Bs

The school principal punished Merry and her sister broke the window. (NP1 VII NP2 V NP : S ; 1W)
M1

M3

NP1

II

M2

NP2

NP1

II

M1

NP2

.(: =b8 ) ={ P UBC0P D -

s"
.9C0P - ={ P
s" -

?3
?3

=d = - ? $ ?
=d = - ? $ ?

The laser beams should attack the electrons and the positrons should be preserved.
II
V

NP1

NP2

NP1

.(3 {1

pV

.(: =b8 ) 1 {A 9[. ? $ A <n t1" B$/ " t1" B0; =A 3 P

t1W =A = P = ) 1 {A 9[. ? $ A t1" B$/ " t1" B0; =A 3 P

3 ,? A-

A
A

$ A -S ; = P
$ A -S ; = P

=A - =:b8 "3 Z .

t; m? -3 and

5w

3 8 " ,:@

3 8 $ ,:@

33

Neither Ali nor Javad will leave the country tomorrow.

NP

NP

II

NP2

.(3 P ,b1 Bs c . =A V v <3 ` ,? : - B

$" - ...=1...=1 =b8 ). 3 . - - { 3

Either Ali or Javad will leave the country tomorrow.

(9

: ...

...

=b8 ). 3 . - - { 3

Not only Ali but Javad will leave the country tomorrow.
.3 . - - { 3

S 1 3 8 = ,:@ t =1

Both Ali and Javad will leave the country tomorrow.

.(
Whether you stay at hotel or come my house

3 RB

...

Asghar, Ali, Gholam, Taghi and Ghazanfar

NP1

.3 . - - { 3
s
/ 7 < 3 ,b1 _ 8 "3

.( P A ,? : ... $... =v " .... $...

.3 P ,? 3 RB

Mina plays the piano as well as her brother.

She drives as carelessly as her mother.
Ali is as tall as his brother.

...

e $ 9R

("3 ) 3 8 " ,:@

=b8
8 ,: s)

s) ... ,$ A U? =1 s =v <,1 bA cB =v
A A

A asas .9

: as well as
$ ` ,? ,s A

.-3 A ,A s =A 1 3/ 1 ,? ?
,? ,` 1 - -3 ? , B# ,A =A "
.9
-3 A
e :A =A ,:@

as well as Kambiz went to school yesterday.

NP2

PP

adv

. ...

34

B.- S d?

(,A s =A) H e R " , <YN <,:@ <

. BC (and) A- ! #
? U$
.,A s =A 3 P ,? " 9
e as well as 7 P e well ` < $- 3 A - " as " A =A Y"3 as = 9
- $ VW V3 A e ,$
P "" 1 A- ! # t $ <3 d1 e =$
A well " BP 3 A - " as " A =A Y"3 as Ubu -3 " 3 A ,$ ? "
1 7 8 5$ / as well as U . `
.
,? =b8 ... S 1"...
.(9C 1 : ,;" 9C 1 9:?
e 9; # -3)
=b8 1 b " 1 ? <( $3
` 8 ) 3 3 ,? _ 8 - A- ! # " e 9; # "3
`

*
*
*
*

The strategic sites, the oil reserves, the power plants, and the major dams should be protected against the missile attacks.
I
M2
N
M1 M3
N
M1
M3
N
M1
M2
N
PV
M1
M3
N
M1
Prep
NP

NP

NP

NP

NP1
.,0P ? 2Nb# A A -3 3 P 9[. ? $ A t?
A $ d1 S`

"3 A

s A- ! # ,b

" ( t `" 1)Z A

?

=1 s-

<9R1 V/ ? (, $) <( 3 d -

t1 0?) 5$} B

tB$

. 1 ` ,b1 - e 5$} B
tB$
lS8 5$} B
t1 0? $
3 P 3-"W , $ ` *
< P A ,$ ? "
1 7 8 5$ / < t1W / 7
[B? A- ! # U . " ? U . `
**
.3 P dBP =u B ?
. $- 1 " ? , - . -3 " 9
UBP 1 -3 $ - : 5$ ,and *
: ,and RL R

.
t? =u B ? cs 3 x) 9

=Bs

,? 9$ @- - U b U @

(App) =u B ? =:b8 .9C

Haj Asghar, and Javad, went to the cinema yesterday

VW

, - . -3 " 3 3 AA ,;" 9C 1 ?

. B.- b

VW cde :(

=A /" $3 (3 8 " )

=A - @ x :

x, x, x, and (or, but) x

# 1 ? ) x, and (or, but) x,

.(9C 1
#

.
3 ,? V {1 SB1 A - =u B ? =:b8 7 < $- 1 " ? , - . -3 *
( Haj Asghar, and Javad, is ) . $W ,? 3 R? c . <9
!X# cA e =u B ? =:b8 V v **

a long with
together with
A b
Haj Asghar a long with Javad is
.
,? 9A ? NP1 A c . < 1 =. u ! # t $ V v
with

35

.(9

PP
NP

1) NPa P NPb

and NPc V

U$

1 s ) VW

3 ,? A- cde

A =1 <9

x =A ,A ?
.9

$3

VW cde =1 : x, and (or, but) x

-3 5$ -3 " 1 VP A - $ (S) =:b8 A - 3- ?

NPa A ? c . . 9

VW

-3

e = A " 3 3 Y x1 - c . NPa

The jewelry in the boxes and the antique bags was stolen.
NP1

2) NPa P NPb , and NPc V

.(9
,A ?
-3 5$ lS8 " )9C 1 =:b8 A - 7 <3- 1 3 8" c . $ =:b8 VW cde V v
. $W ,? b8 2- A VW c . " 9
VW e P NPb " 1 3 3 Y x1 - c . NPc
" NPa

PP

The jewelry in the boxes , and the antique bags were stolen.
The jewelries in the boxes and the antique bags were stolen.
NP

Prep M1

M1

NP

M2

pV

. 1 P

$3/3 = B@

=d 8 cs 3 2

H e
=d 8 cs 3 2
=d 8 cs 3 . 2

8
8)

NP

NP
The jewelries in the boxes ,and the antique bags were stolen.
NP

PP

NP

. 1 P

I
pV

$3/3 = B@
( 13 A

36

=b8

? , dBP -SA

-3

C$ A VW

A)

=b8

: Not only but (also)

$
< $ $3 not only ` *
.( 01
. $ A
/
/ ? -3 9
eV v $ $ 19
U0b? also *
=0:A ( not only, not ) 9
,R ? VW =$ A ,Be" but *

S 1... = $ =0:A 1W " =B.- but

.( ? =1 ) 3 P ,? =b8
Not only Ali but (also) Javad will (also) leave (also) the country tomorrow.
.
.
Not Ali but Javad

=b8

,? ,R ? - " NP " 9
.3
s

=0:A ( 9

.3 .3

A- ! # = ) - ?

.(but or Ali = ,:@ SxA) 9

P !X# VW or -" ? =A " 3 A but or

Everybody went to the party but me.

All the students but one answered my question.
. 1 P ,? =b8

( e) t <.

U0b? *

,R ? 1 not only but(also) -3 not *

"9

R? = <3 P ,? =b8

. 13 3 -

- - { S 1 3 8 =0:A ,:@ t =1

3- ? U$ -3 < $ A also " $ 1 but = 9

,R ? not
!X# - only ` " 3- 1
- - { 3 . 3 8 =0:A(= ) ,:@ =1

.3 P ,? =b8 t " .
. $ A bP =A S v 5$ 1 ,? t U?

I can but tell you one thing.

e < $ A ,BbCe "3

t: . U A ` but *

SxA " P A =. u ! # 9

U0b? but *

.U? SxA ,1 bt? =A B.- =b

t1W / ,0$ S8 V $ x{1 3 =b

$ " (=. u ! #) SxA <(A- ! #) =0:A < ? =

$- 3 but - tv c -3 **

37

. $ ` (ambiguity) Y tA 3 P ,? ( interpretability ) UB?

1) Lexical
Ambiguity

. $W ,? $ R;
.3 BC$ ,? ( =1 s3"- c#

She was standing near the bank.

-

/ ,;"

BC 1

td? V P3 s =

- A 1 ` ,? - e

Ali passed the river yesterday.

.3 P ,? {?
? =:b8 = A / .3- 3 V3 ? " UBPX` =1 s3"- /
,? {? =:b8 . 1 {A " `

More beautiful girls

- B 3 - SA =A :Ambiguity

2- Transformational (Functional)

3) Semantic

1- Grouping

2) Structural

3 x$ Y tA t1W UB. ` - e

$X CR d

d$/ Bs3

A "

" "3 Y

B{ A 3

" =

$)
-

" 3 8" =
A :( Lexical ) ,1 ` " Y tA
- dB@ 51 A 5$3S1 "

-3 " "3 :( Semantic ) ,Bs P

? "3 pass the river ,;" <3- 1 Y tA ,B;

-3 = 9

? Y tA
.3 P ,?
Z . =:b8 -3

U$ k u ? :( Structural Grouping) , " ` Y tA -

.9
9 -3

d$/ V Bs3

X company undertakes to deliver the galvanized girders and beams at y port by 26th 1994.
.

=$ 1

y - A -3 - S 1 ; `

=$ 1

y - A -3 - S 1 ; `

.3 P ,? cB ? , - . =A @ Y tA <
.

,? =b8

sW ,b

=BC / Y tA R#

Smart (m2) boys and girls

History (m3) books and teachers
A big door handle

(33 ` ,? A

=b8
A"9

sW / ` .3

=b8

sW ,b

"

P
P"

=BC / / $ 3

td? < $ 1 $ $ A t1W U A A- ! # =0 $ /

B 3 $ -3 =A ,`-SA V 1 s
38

A c$ =

,? t

x9 P

A c$ =

,? t

x9 P

.- - Y tA

@ ,b

A V C " V Bs3
-$tA B "
: ?
1 A) -SA -3
B 3

$ A $ td? - Bs

-3 **

=BC "3 / cde M3 $ M2

:( - B 3)
II
V

- B{` Y tA -

NP2

Smoking cigars can be dangerous.

M2

II

M2

. 1 s P A 1 ,? A
-
. P A 1 s 1 ,? V3 3"3 # -3 A

NP

V { :VP
-
:NP

NP1

VP
II

NP
NP2

She likes jumping horses.

NP1

II

II

M2

..-

NP2

Fighting lions may be dangerous.

M2

II
V

II

M2

NP2

NP2

II

M1

NP1

A 3- 3 9 "3 " : VP

3- 3 9 "3 " :NP

. P A 1 s 1 ,?
P A V 8 :VP
. P A 1 s 1 ,? 8 # -3
P :NP

Developing countries can have an important role in this issue.

M2

t8

M2

PP

.=; C? U$ -3 ,bt? 1 P A =BP 3 1 ,?

.=; C? U$ -3 ,bt? 1 P A =BP 3 1 ,? =

- { V3 3 =
:VP
# -3
- { :NP

NP2

: - B{` Y tA " P
(

3" ? ,:@ . 9R
s

P -

, $ M2 =A .

- B{` Y tA / ,B; # (
.3 b1 _ B1 -

" M2

1W =

NP 1 ?) VP

$ 1

3" ?
=b8

NP $/ 3 A

$3 3

- ? =b8

VW / , $) 3 P / W Ving A =:b8 =1 `- tv

" VP

NP =A 1W = ) $ 1 ,0:? 9R

,? UB? =A k 8- A t

M2 VP

the cigars

NP M1

... A

Fighting
M2 VP

NP M1

M2

V {

.,$

U v A V $ 3- 3 9 "3 "

my lions
NP

She likes jumping such horses.

M2 VP

... U?

P A V 8 :VP

Developing some countries

...

The smoking cigars

...

Smoking cigars is dangerous.

Fighting lions are dangerous.

Developing countries have an
Developing countries has an

:VP

... -SA 8 # -3

Such developing countries

Fighting lions is dangerous.

- { ,s A V3 3 =

... V3 3"3 # -3 A

Big fighting lions

Smoking cigars are dangerous.

"3

s Y tA V3 d1 $ 3 8" $ ? S 1 c . V3 A b8 $ 3 R? <3 P e " NP1

.9

Smoking

# -3

. 1 s 9C A
. 1 s

BC V3

. P A 1 s

P :NP

- { U v :NP
-

3"3 # -3 A

. P A 1 s 9C

V { :VP
-

... 3- 3

:NP

P A V 8 :VP

BC 8 # -3

... 1- 3 =

:NP

# -3

P :NP
- { :NP

- { V3 3 =

40

:VP

$ M1 S 1 Ving / 7 =01W A " {?

1W < P A , ? " ? - Bs

39

NP / ,0$

/ c

? ` = 3 A

$ 8 -3 - X? 9s

0 12 - b ( RC

NP

.(

{1 ,? NP

S v =v 9

VW t? <9C 1 t? NP

8 , $)

{1 ,? NP

. PNP " NP1 V NP2 NP3, M4(, NP,) :

.(

8 =1 $W ,? ,b

" `

8= 9

=b:

bu 7) .9

: Transformation lD=J
X :? - e :(, $S$ 8) , {1 8 - B{`

8 = ,$
,?

- t ,@ .

$ bu <3 P NP U {1 8 1

Pronouns

$ 8 5$ " ,:

,? =

S v U ;" : Pronouns

=b8

Subjective

,:@ .

Objective

- t

I, You, He, She, It, We, You, They

,; R? me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them

Possessive

,0:? mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs

Reflexive Pronouns
or
Emphatic adverbs

... <

0 1 $ bu
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself,
$
yourselves, ourselves, theirselves (themselves)
3 e

.3 P ,? 3 RB
.(3 P ,?

him, 3 d1 c? @

,: s " A " 9

NP1 =BCA

<U?

VW

xA 8 -

8 1W 8 ?

NP2, PNP

? <U? ?

3- 1 9$3" ?

my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their *

Y"3

{v ) $ A =. u ! # /

1 s 9 -3

=b8

... <

NP1

3 s

e $

I myself saw Ali in the park.

:

<U?

"- M B

"- cb@ M 0 1 ` " himself, <3 A c? @

e lS8 =A c$ d for) for I : (9

:3 P

... <

$ 8

<2 <Y =1 ? @ -3) NP2, PNP

(Y3 s :3 P ,?

3 RB

. BC ,0:? 2 R
.3 P ,? R:

$ 8 -3 NP

=b8

0 1 $ bu -3 *

"- cb@ M 0 1 ` :,BC =B01 *

A NP

8 ,:@ .

bu 3- 1 V 0? **

=1 ? @ 2- A $

3 e =b8

-3 *

.Y $3 (3 s) - -3 (3 s) - ,:@ (3 s) U? (3 s)
1

,? < BP 1 9 "3 - ? ` ,0:? $ bu =b8

Ali's book is on the table. Mine is on the table.

.9

S?

-3 *

"- (U? ?) U? _ B . ... ,:@ _ B

41

.(M1
.
P A e ? .9 A s

-3 <3 P ,b1 =

"- U$ N

=b8

... " S v <This can be explained in an easier way.

M1

NP

pV

M1 / ]

,? =b8
1W ,:

NP) f^R M1 8NP HJ D/ H2e0

:=b8 "NP1 xA - M1 S 1 , - . -3 @ (

8 ? $ ,d

? " ,m s ,b

<3 . <P < ? <=B01 <:? <k u ? <=;C? :( $ 1

3

,P"- =A 3 P $ {

=BC

dBP - 8 ?

,? (... <k u ? <=; C?) U$

PP

Some may say that

Many believe that

... =
... =

$ A 9
U0b? ,s A
1 B ? - CA
:M1

that
(the) one

There were many pens on the table ,but I took that of Reza.
II
V

NP2

PP

those on the chair.

that which belonge to Ali.
the ones which belonged to Ali.

NP1

II
V

M1

t1W

=; 1

that of, that which

those
(the) ones

.3 P =b8

NP1

xA t1W 8 ? IMD " 1- 3 -

. - u- - 3 s BP 3 A U? ? <S ?

bu 0# < 1 P ,? NP U {1 8 t $ ,Be"
"- - 3 s

3 $/ 3

(9P 3 3 8")3 A x1W

NP NP

.3 A ,;
"- = - ,$ - 3 s BP 3 A U? ? ...
.3 A ,:@ =A : B? = - - 3 s BP 3 A U? ? ...
.3 A ,:@ =A : B? = - ,$ - 3 s BP 3 A U? ? ...
. $W ,? ! ` - " " 3- 1 8 ? one , ` *

One may say

... 9R` V

,?

<

... $ A 1

42

,? V C1

.(M2

She is beautiful (She is a beautiful girl)

d$/ ( 3 .)
Bs3 9C " : (3 P ,b1 =
.
=b8 b8 1W " $ b1
U {1 8 - 9R
The poor can not compete with the rich.
M2

I
V

NP1

NP) .f^R M2 8NP HJ D/ H2L^

:=b8 "d$/ 9C " :
,? =b8 NP xA - M2 S 1 , - . -3 @ (
"- U$ N
)
=b8 M2 / H] 1W ,: 8 ? $ ,d
? " ,m s ,b
=BC (
1 ,? .3 P ,? NP U {1 8 the A b M2 , ` .9C 1 M1= $- 3 9 : the 5$ (
(V

PP

b" A

9A e-

,b1 .) . b " A

9A e- 1

,b1

. (3 . )

The disabled should attend ordinary classes.

...

9 P $ A V : ?

<

. 3@

. B{ A =1

t N -3

P A =BP 3 NP U {1 8

9 P $ A : ? (3 . )
1

,? M2 5$ m

:<=s
# *

She is beautiful attractive. (:)

She is beautiful and attractive.
. $ A 1

,b1 NP U {1 8 M2 / cde

$3 3

She is (the, a, this, such, ) beautiful.

bu + (=0 $ ) = $ = + wh

2- A =

Mina said that her husband was sick

NP1

II
V

NP1

II

M2

and

$W ,? wh A $ 3 P ,? =b8
that he had to stay in bed.

NP2

I
V

NP1

: (RC
NP) NP HJ D/ RC
$W ,? that A $.3- 3 9; # "3 P d1 M5 ` RC
.3 P ,? =b8 ,{

=0 $ <= =
RC

NP2

PP

. BCA -3 ( 1 ? ,? $ A) 1 bA 3 A - dx? <smMR " - b A 3 A

P <n 9R`

: $/ 9C 1 M1 Ubu -3.9

NP2 U {1 8 " 9C 1 M5 7 ? 1 (S)=:b8 " that / cde V v

.( $W ,? c . NP2 /
A) 3 P ,? 1 =:b8 ? . 9C1
.9
NP 5$ @ U ;" ={ b ,0:? 9R 7 . P A ? =01W ? <3- 1 - t V 0? $3 3
M ,0:? 2 R / cde =0 $ Y"3
many of his problems , a lot of my friends
(this, such, big, small, ) (my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their)

43

R = wh

= + wh

which
who
whose
whom
where
when
why
what
whether
how

= =w1W
= ,C

1 <=

NP1

pV

( RC

NP1

II
V

.what = R 7 (3- 1 9?N@) 9C 1 ,;

3 ,b1 _ 8 ... =v =0 $ ) . `3 3 -3 bP = :@ P
(...9

I don't know where she hid the stolen jeweleriese.

R

$)=
$)=
$)=
$)=
$)=
$)=
$)=

$/ =:b8

NP1)

What you said is important

II
V

(=0
(=0
(=0
(=0
(=0
(=0
(=0

PP

NP1

_ 8 t1W / ,0$ A , ` < P A :A $ A - =b8 "3

. 3 ,b1

bu + (=0 $ ) =

,C =v
x
9e" =v
v
=v
$W
(=1 v)- v

P<= ,P"pp

Y
(=0 $ ) =
,C =v (=0 $ ) =

= ,C
= ,:? <= ,$ 8
= ,Be" <= ,1 ?/
= ,B:@ <= ,: ;3
=
S v <= =w1W

What you said will be used against you in the court.

R

,{

NP2

( RC

NP2)

t?

BR` bP ,v =0 $ )... 9

. - =e" C? 2

. - =e" C? 2

83

. - =e" C? 2
. - =e" C? 2

83
V t " (=

83
83

. - =e" C? 2

V t " (=

83

BR` bP = =w1W

t?

BR` bP = =w1W

- ,$ 8) x =

- ,1 ?/) 9e" =v =

V t " (=

V t (=

. - =e" C? 2

44

s 3 RB

1 3 ,b1 U?

1 3 ,b1 U? :When

- ,: ;3) v =

1 3 ,b1 U? :Why

- ,C ) ,C =v =

1 3 ,b1 U? :Who

83

V t " $W =

1 3 ,b1 U? :Wheter

V t ,C =v =

1 3 ,b1 U? :Whom

VP

V(NP(NP)) . 9

(VP) ,: . " ` 1 ? ,? ,e A =w1W <

.(RC
She told me
III
NP1 V

NP2

why

she suffocated her husband.

II
V

NP1

RVP) $W ,? ,: . " ` A

RC(RS)

I
V

Prep

.-
P 3 =Rs (= - ,C ) ,C =v = U? =A 3 3 V {1 "
.-
P 3 =Rs (= - =w1W) S v =v = U? =A 3 3 V {1 "
.-
P 3 =Rs (= - ,C ) ,C =v = U? =A 3 3 V {1 "

NP1

II

RC

NP =. u ! # /

: What
: Whom

NP2

. - - 3 tP 3 -" " ( v =0 $ ) = ,: ;3
. - - 3 tP 3 -" " ( x =0 $ ) = ,$ 8
. - - 3 tP 3 -" " ( 9e" =v =0 $ ) = ,1 ?/
. - - 3 tP 3 -" " ( =1 v =0 $ ) = ,P". - - 3 tP 3 -" " $W =0 $

They were talking about

: Where
: How

NP3

why she assassinated the mayor.

R

RS ) $W ,b1 =:b8 A ={ b R

NP3

RC(RVP)

VP

NP1

: Verb Phrase

.3 =Rs -
P (= - ,: ;3) v = U? =A 9R` "
.3 =Rs -
P (= - ,$ 8) x = U? =A 9R` "
.3 =Rs -
P (= - ,P"-) - v = U? =A 9R` "

who suffocated her husband.

They were talking about

, ` <( RC

NP2
S

She showed me

!X# - NP1 =:b8 /

- A-3
- A-3
- A-3
- A-3
- A-3

13 ,? 9d
13 ,? 9d
13 ,? 9d
13 ,? 9d
13 ,? 9d

t1W
t1W
t1W
t1W
t1W :

: Where
: When
: How
Whthere

who assassinated the mayor.

. - - 3 tP 3

-"

( ,C =v =0 $ ) = ,C

- A-3 13

,? 9d

t1W

45

: =. u ! # /
.3 P ,? RC

(9
PrepR
from when
to where
to why
in what
about whether
with how
in that

= + wh

+ =. u ! #

=. u ! # /

,{

1) ,P"- A

I hadn't see my brother from when he left the country.

(=
(

9e" =v =0 $ /
x =0 $ =A
v =0 $ =A
=v =0 $ -3
$W =0 $ - A-3
- v =0 $ A
[1 U$ / ) =0 $ -3
3 ,b1 _ 8 9e" =v =0 $ / ) - - { 3

We have travel to where no one .

I have objection to why you get us here alone.

bu + =0 $ + =. u ! #

= (,Be") ,1 ?/ /
= (,:?) ,$ 8 =A
= (,B:@) ,: ;3 =A
= =w1W -3
= (

A V v <9

A NP U {1 8 RC

: (PrepR)
? / cde =. u ! # :" 9; #
NP < ?W
? / cde =. u ! # `
A =A U$ /
:=b8 "= + wh
+ =. u ! # (
=0 $ .) ,{ bu + =0 $ + =. u ! # (

.9
.t

" = ,1 ?/ / - Y-3 A Y $ 1 U?

=BP X1 x1W =A 70w

= ,$ 8 =A

x $ -3 - ? $ =BP 3 =1 bP ( v =0 $ =A) = ,: ;3 =A Y- 3 B@ U?

I put the keys in what he gave me.

.3 3 U? =A = =w1W -3 -

About whether she assassinated the mayor.

. - - 3 tP 3

I have problem with how he handles the class.

. - MN

These two markers are different in that one is black and one is blue.

.9

46

,AW

:
-"

BP X` U?

" $W =0 $

- A-3

,? - 3 " (- v =0 $ A) = ,P"- A c0{? Y- 3 U?

$3 " 9

,0$ =0 $ -3

1 2" RB? 5$ ? "3 U$

.( BC 1 c . t $ 9e w
. 1 P ,? =b8

: VP
NP
V v ) to A - ? $ tobe V" A Ving < P A e 1 c . ` . " ` 3 P ,? NP U {1 8 VP
- ? 2- A

VP

NP Y b U$ A A <9

She likes swimming.

NP1

II

VP

. - V3

pV

U @ -3 = 9

@ - ?

P 3- 3 9 "3 "

NP2

She is interested in reading such comic novels.

NP1

c . V3 A

II
M2 V

Prep

M1

M2

. S

t1 ?- U v V 1 s =A 9

? =eN@ "

NP

(To write) Writing these business letters is his major duty.

II
M2 V

M1

M3

VP

M2

M2

."

t? =R " 9C

III

NP2

II
V

M1

VP

. - 1 UBs 1 U? =A 3 3 3 $ "

NP3

(Finding) To find a real loyal friend is almost impossible nowadays.

V

II

M1

VP

=? 1 U$ UBP 1

NP2

NP1

She taught me playing the piano.

NP1

-3

M2

M2

II

adv

M2

NP2

. /" ? U0b?

d$ 9C , e " - 3 ." 9 "3 V3

adv

NP1

=:b8 =A 9dC1 $ A " 3 P ,? 3 x$

II
V

VP

- B{` Y tA =1 `" P A =BP 1 Y tA

?9

U0b? 2-

VW -3 =

P A td? =:b8 - Bs

t1 ?- V 1 s =A 9

? =eN@ " :VP

NP2

U0b? *
.3 P =b8

She is interested in reading comic novels.

M2

M2

(...<V 1 s #-3 <U V 1 s)

V 1 s
Writing business letters is his major duty.
. ...(...<UBP 1 #-3)
VP
NP1

t1 ?- =A 9
UBP 1

? =eN@ " : NP
-x

=? 1 :NP

.S

." ,:

=R " 9C

-x

=? 1 UBP 1 :VP

47

:D

( C ?) !X# " =. u <

e lS8 <

@ V A/ =[;

? <=. u ! # : 1 P ,? 9

.9C 1 V3 Q 9
t. " 9

t. cA e " 9C 1 3" ? t1W 3

3" ? V P3

|`D^

MD^Dmd
:V A/
@
N, adj, V, adv :(Open set) / A =@ bx? (
. Q ,?

Prep, R, adv , conj, Pronouns :(Closed set) =BCA =@ bx? (

,abQ . < $ bu
.

3 ,? { - / A

@ / ? =BCA

"- / V C1 U

:(Border Markers) D D. ` 2
1)

90% N
10% VI

Puntuation ( - X` =1) . , : ; ( { [ __ <> ! ?

2)

90% N
10% VI

Prep NP

3)

90% N
10% VI

adv

4)

70% N
30% VIII

5) ...

90% N
10% VI

6)

100% N

7) ...
8) ...........
9) Xs

R S, VP
V
RT2
M1

my, their

[ NP

(M1)(M2)(M3) N (M4) (M5) ]

Pronouns
| s ,?
Vs: P Y
Ns: b8

c .s
s

48

.9

,B . z$ c . .9
. PA

P Y b ,:de /

P Y b ,:de /

$ A U$ A A <9

adv S .9

ADV
. PA 1
.3- 3 / ?

"3 9

c? Q /

,? RC

,abQ c . A V v <9

$ ` ,? t $ (

c? Q /

z$ PP (

z$

e =:b8 (

c? Q /

NP V v <3 P ,? c? P

V v .3 P , ? !

=Q

- ,B . "3

t: . (

=BCA V3 A / A U @ -3 c . (
... (

. $ A M3 $ M2 9
.9

, A cA e

... " ? Q / M4 ,b
" ` -3 U$ A A .9

" ` -3 .9

VW

@"9

/ ? ! "3

M2 " 9C 1 =B 3 U$ lS8 (!" B

/ ? VW ! "3 " 9
.9

A " cde
c? Q /

z$ M5 "

/ ? dCv ,? ,b

Uab? VW

.9

c? Q /

W) s .9C 1 3 s
A 7 .9

z$ NP " 9

A s U$

3 ,? / ? R < M5 -3 " 9

=BC =A =Q b8 s /

A .9C 1 , A cA e ,:de @ (
NP U {1 8 | s

$ Ub? " P A s =A Y B? X " (

c? Q /

/ ?N/

z$ 3 s "
$ 1 =v

Q ,? 3 RB

$ A =v M5" M4 ,b

:(,@ .)U v =1
NP of NP
. 1SA c?

. $W ,? U v =1 / ? of / cde : NP A - (

- / ? " $ A =. u ! # - VW

A of <3 A of / cde NP U {1 8 9R
VP to VP

,:

/ ? U$ A A <V 5$ 3 P ,? V to V V v .9

VP " V / ,0$ VW

A $ cde $ <9

/ ?

VP $ V VW

9e"

:( - B 3 / . 5 to) ,: . A - (

A " cde $ <3- 1 B{ A - t 9; # - tv

.3 P ,? 3 x$ ,@ . / ? to / cde " 9

V /

! "3

:,: . A - =b8
Y" A < A A <Y- A :(=

"-

P + ? c .) ,? SB; k- ? + ( < <(=0 $ )= ) (

UBP 1 =A <V3- s

A :- ? + (=A <- [ bA <9t8 <

A) (
-3 (

49

a) I want to sleep.

V to V

. A A (= )

b) She decided to write a book.

VI to VP

c) They bought a novel to read.

VP to VI

s ,? U?

._ B UBP 1 =A...

. C$ A _ B ( < <= ) 9. `

.V 1 s (- [ bA <9t8)

A...

b "

. 1 A ( ) = ,1 ?- 1 $ s t1W

VP

VP

d) They started to excavate the tough ground near that hill to unearth the possible relics of an ancient civilization.
NP1

II
V

.,1 B

M1

M2

Prep

NP2

A ,1 b ,; bB#

M1

II

M1

M2

PP

$ A (V3-"W V" A

M1

M2

NP

A) 1-" A V" A (= )

VP to VP

NP

= VW 5$3S1 9

NP2

U ?/ (V

=A)

0A ( <= ) 13

k" P t1W

:=B01
They went to the cinema.
A - to `

c?

VW / cde / ? " 3/

A 1

.9
.9C 1 c?

9e w

,b1 =:

. t1W U A S v

U v =1 VW / ? "

" $W ,? NP VW /

?W c . / cde " 3 P ,? k" P

A =:

(Prep) =. u ! # to 5$

.NA < P A =. u ! # to `

! 1W =b: 5$ / NP < P A ,: .

=. u ! # " 1 ? ,? / ? "3 U A =. u ! # V v < 1S1 / ? 9e w

.

.9

. $- 3

(N)

bB# / ? U$ @ U$ sW <3 A =. u ! # $ ,0:? 9R

.(NP of NP and NP or NP but NP NP = NP) 3 P ,b1

=. u ! # A "

.(3 P ,? {? =b: k 1 V v) 3 P ,? 9# - =b: , e "

.3 Q S ; 1W V

{? - cde /

,? =b:Q z$

VW NP " =. u ! # U A
U

<M1 / ? /

{1 {? VW - bP $ 1 9

/ 7 - b

A ! # U ;" `

A ,$ t1 NP

.
A VP $ V =A
$" A @ - 1W ,: . A - to / cde
? V3
"
{0$3 A $3 <3 ` 2S ; 1W ,Be"

? UBC1 3 V" A - ,C :1

50

$A/ ?

=:b8 Y b ,@ . / ? " ,:

/ ?Ub

: =. u ! # /

A NP U {1 8 RC

? / cde =. u ! # :" 9; #
:=b8 "= + wh
+ =. u ! # (
bu + =0 $ + =. u ! # (

: (PrepR)

(9

=. u ! # /

A V v <9

=0 $ .) ,{

: whom " which / cde =. u ! # : Y"3 9; #

RC=M5

NP Prep which

whom

S
cde NP =A A ?

?R
.VW cde NP

A9

RC=M5 vD.=p x $ -3 U$ A A <9C 1 NP U {1 8 9e w

PP " 9

bu + =. u ! # + = + NP :=b8

PP V b c

.9
. $ A ,? - =P"
.9

x1 b bB#

- $3 c . =A

=BC S 1 NP1 ,b

,b

-3 =P"

-" u =b8

/ ? ` (R NP V (NP)) RS c b0 / 7 <

" ` -3 / <3

!X# - RC V

,? =:b8 ,:

cs 3 - Bs

-3 NP =A A ?

"-

V v

bu V3-"W

,? / A - RC =P"

- [ ? 9. $-3 9t8 ,1 s

9e"
5 0 -3

RC=M5

The big cardboard boxes in which Ali put some spare parts yesterday have to be transferred to the warehouse.
M1

M2

M3

II
V

NP1

M1

M2

I
pV

adv

Prep M1

NP2

NP1

N
PP

.- d1 =A (( A $) 1 P 3 3 B1 ) 1 P cB ? $ A /" $3 ,

$ = e

9P X` ,:@ t1W -3 = ,`-SA ,$ ?

=d 8

:=B01
.( dCv ,?

=. ?

=A

) 3 P ,? =BP X` = / cde , - . -3

51

NP under which

VW $/ = NP

The table under which a cat is lying is broken.

-

over which

.9

to whom
beyond which

in front of which

. $-3 =A 3S$- ,?

VW

with whom

VW

.M C:

5$ 3 A -

-3 9C

VW =

.9

=BP 3 A

A B Y3 3 U? " =A =

3 ?

P 8 ,? _W VW

-" = ,$ ?3

3 A 3 BC$ " VW cA ? -3 =

= $W

A = ...
.,B:? ,"-3 3 A Y P s U? VW =

A = ,"-3

" A = ...

The lady with whom I went to cinema was my sister.

interms of which

=1 s3"-

:8 -3 = ...

The lie due to which I was fired was a white lie.

VW / . A =

-" = ...

The mirror in front of which she was standing is cracked.

due to which

,? / " ,$ b

. {1 3 3 B

The temperature beyond which water boils is 100 degree celsius.

S?

" =A = ...

The man to whom I gave my book was a university prof.

-

{ / -3 =A ` 5$ $/ =

VW / . A = NP

The river over which a plain is flying runs to the sea.

-

P =BC0P

VW (M

.Y

s3 A b

=A B.- U? " A = ,b1 s

A <; -3 )C# A = ...

The unit interms of which we measure electric current is ampere.

. ?W 9C
-

as a result of which

VW =x B1 -3 = ...

52

- ,0$ B0; V $ 8

,?

` / 1 ? VW C# A =

#"

:which
of which

NP

whom

/ cde of =. u ! # :Y

whom

RC=M5

NPVP

NP =A A ?

bu +

C + NP + = + NP

:=b8

9; #
"-

?R

. $3 3 - e 1W 3 ? S
NP - RC -3 NP1 U b

A.

3 ,b1 _ 8 ,:de =b8

"- U$ A A .3 P ,? =b8
.

xA =P"

C 3- ?

,? 3 RB

-3 <9

S = NPVP V v

-3 -3 " /

-3 "3 ,0$ -3 of

xA VW / =b8

-3 "

,?

- X? 1

RC=M5

The small old bungalows of which the sloped roofs are leaking in this heavy rain aught to be reconstructed immediately.
M1

M2

M2

M1

M2

NP

< 1 P

Prep M1

M2

NP

/A $A

N$") .- . 1 P

I
pV

adv

PP

/A $AU

V - A U$ -3 (3- 3 ,B{1)

,? =0v t1W - 3 P

= ,0v

,b$ e
N$"
(
=1

The armed guerilla troops of which the cruel commanders have instructed to annihilate the residential zones as well
M1

M2

M3

M1

M2

NP

M1

M2

II
V

NP

adv

NP2

are being briefed to commence a heavy broad aggression.

V

II
V

8t

M1

M2

M2

N.

NP2

k" P =

1 P ,? = 8

.( s ?):C? <3

1- 3 S 1 - ,1 0C? ,# 1

3 A1 =
1 3 3 - B 3 t1W # A V
1 ? . = ,:C? 5$ v V

(... = 1 P ,? = 8
1- 3 V
:,1 s
) .,
3 BC`

. $ A S 1 ={ b ,;" 9R` V
P ,; R? 9R " =B. ` ed = 1W ,: .

3 RB

,?
U wb <3 P ,? =b8 S 1 " 9
e as well
?"3
- arm $ A <
{0$3 -3 armed , ? UB. $
A

:=B01
-

53

.9

P @ VW

. <9

V b =b8

"- . $W ,? c . of which

whom

RC=M5

NP

NP of which
whom

:_ Y
/

A 7 < 1-"W ,? =P"

V" A " 3

9; #

xA 8 - RC =:b8 NP

VP
RC=M5

The lethal nuclear weapons the high-tech warheads of which have been fully designed by a number of young motivated domestic experts
M1

M2

M2

M1

M2

NP1

pV

adv

Prep

M2

M2

NP1

M2

M2

PP

are to be translocated to a new secret dungeon for security purposes.

I
pV

Prep M1

M2

M2

$ A V 8 S 1 A (,? A) ,:s 3 V

P-

Prep

v, 9

M3

A c?

- A 1

P ,# t1W =B. { t0 N =
- d` ?
=BC
t#N
.,B ? !
A
$ 8 = / =A 1 P xA 8

:=B01
. e"9

e"9

. $W ,b1 M2 cde M3 V v 9

e <(fully)
M2 e

. P A ,? /

,?

/ - c . 9bCe "3 = S v VW

VW cde < P M2 VW ic A domestic ,Be"

v , V C1

A a number of =B

. =b8

have to
(9

3 s ? VW to 9

$ A ,v

P A ,? $ A =

?"9

V P3 s ? to < 1 B cm? t $

aught to
(am, is, are, was, were) to

.9

54

M3 security 7 <9

1 C U$

!" ? ity

: Reduction Transformation (RT)

!X# - B{` Y

dA

,? , - A " .9

P !X# S v 5$ , $ 1 P 1 @ e U$ 8
.

< P A l mB
,? =b8

!X# - B{`

NA " ? @ e `

/ A / 7 < 1 s ,?

.3- 3 3 8" !X#

@ e c -3

:RT1
c .

"3

=b8

9 3 H e PA

P 1 =:b8 ? . " (... ?

= " 3 P ,? c 0{ RC=M5

NP1 VII NP2 (

which
) NP1 VI
whom

<9C 1 t1W U A S v
which
whom

/ A / 7 = ) .9

) $ A

9{ =:

P !X# " U$ =

.NA NP

"3 =:b8

S v VW < P A =:b8 VW -3 c?

,:

(3 P ,?

I saw the man (whom) my mother hits.

.3/ 5B Y-3 ? =

3 ? Y $3 U?

NP1 ( which ) NP1 VI PP VII NP2

whom

RC=M5

The old man (whom) my sister has seen in the park is her university prof. . {1 3 3 B
M2

M1

M1

Prep M1

II

M3

M2

NP1

9C - -3 9

$3 Y

s = , C? 3 ?

NP2

.9

-x

$ A $3 c0P =A

,?

:RT2
-"W3 $ - t1W

-x

BA .3- 3 -

"

adj " Ving " P.P @ =

A RT2

P.P:
1234-

to be Y Ce + P.P = tx? c .
have Y Ce + P.P = c? V ?/ .
P.P + N = M2 ,; R? 9R V @ =A
P.P = ( P A A A VW Y"3 9bCe A c . Y

/ cde
9bCe ,Be") =BPX` c .

55

Ving:
1- to be Y Ce + Ving =
- bB
2- Ving + N
=
M2 ,:@ . 9R V
3- VP
NP =
- ? =b8

t1 ?/ .
@ =A
/ cde

adj:
1- adj + N = M2
2- M2
NP
NP U {1 8 Ving " ( P A ,:
:3- 3 cde
.=BPX` -3
RT2:

c . =:b8 -3 $3 c . 5$) P d1 =BPX` c . P.P " P A / ? V P A "

=A ,BCA R .9
P !X# (N)
/
A R be < P d1 M2
$W " =BPX`

A was, were "

$W " #

$ A (N)
/
A adj " Ving " P.P `
NP 9R " (
1 NP $3 =:b8) P d1
.V C1
A which " V C1
A who
A is, are : $W ,? =:b8 $3 c . M
A to be .9
M5 bB# RC

RC=M5

NP

R
be
who
is,are
which was,were

P.P
Ving
adj

(to be P.P) tx?

=BPX` c .
VP
NP
M2
NP

(to be Ving)
(to be adj) V P <V3 A <UB

- bB

RC=M5

NP1

corroding the plates.

V

II

M1
VP

NP2

(NP2)

I
V

. - 2 R

PP

(V3

.9C 1 =:b8 -3 c .

PP

"-

+ 9R

be ) running in spiral routes under the vertically-arranged cupper plates

The chemical liquids ( R
which
are
M1
M2
N
Prep
M2
N
Prep
M1
M2
M3
N
NP1

= + NP :=b8

:Ving m?
evaporate and soon start
V
V

II

adv

2- A ,C? 2 R $/ ,w - ?
C? -3 1 P ,? - 8 = ,$ b P 2 $ ?
.) V3- s 3"/ =A
,? k" P " 1 P ,? d ( P ?) P =BP X` 3 b@
"3 $/ 3 P RT1

A = 3 P ,b1 VP
.

56

NP.9C 1 c . 7 < ?W to be V" A running

(liquids , evaporate)
are
,b1 cb@ @ 5$ ""- - B{` "3 <9C 1 b ?

_
M1

M2

M2

M2

NP1

M1

M2

R
who

be ) happy for the sudden unexpected raise in their monthly wages

were M2
NP2 Prep
M1
M2
M2
N
Prep M2
M2
N

NP1

invited all their colleagues to dinner.

II
V

: adj m?

RC=M5

The young educated recently employed ladies (

Prep

NP2

,1 t` 1

II

[B ?

PP

$ S.

PP

A 13 A P s = ,1 8 3 0:
P Y B
.Y P =A - V {1 - 0b =b
13 2 @3 V P =1
?

/
tb1 s
3SbB 3 -3

PP

. $W ,b1 =:b8 " NP

.9

9R

dCv

=A ly < monthly -3 .9

9R

"3 " $ A
/ cde $ A 9R
(ladies , invited )
were
< dCwA 9R /
1?"
=A ly

:P.P. m?

RC=M5

The rays (
R
which
M1 M3
N
NP1

be ) deviated due to the thick cupper coil round the glass tube will be reflected to the photocells
I
are
Prep
M1
M2
M3
N
Prep
M1
M3
N
pV
Prep M1
N

NP1

pV

PP

PP

PP

RC=M5

( R be ) transforming their energy into a faint electric current upon reaching a small mirror on their way.
II
which are
M2
N
Prep M1
M2
M2
N
Prep
V
M1
M2
N
Prep
M2 N
II
V

NP1

NP2

PP

VP

NP

PP

PP

,$ t:

B. 9b

=A P
s 70 ?
.V P C? -3 ,0v

={ P =; ; -"3 =A ,b u ,C?
=
A( 1
= $W =A V
- / 7 ,R u ,0$ B0; V $ 8 =A - V P

P) 1 P ,? ! ? =

1
,? c$ d = ( - 1 t; : )

.9
c . e ?W ,0b c . A V v will be reflected < P A =BP 3 c . "3 1 ,b1 e =:b8
,B . 5$ cde c . V v 9C 1 NP U {1 8 " ?W ,0:? 9R cde V v 9C 1 M2 < ? 1 VW cdeto be V v 9C 1 c . transforming
.3"- ,b1 ;
1 =:b8 -3 $3 c . 5$ =A = ,1 ?/ P.P
.9

<9
! sS?
= P "9
k P b8 = P

.9

57

:RT2 -3 P.P ,$
The books (
NP1

R
which

be ) published in Iran can be cheaper.

are

pV

PP

II

M2

. BC

:A - c .

P c#

-=

" NP

NP

s ,? to be " 9

tx? c . 7 <

,? {B ? =1 3 P ,? {B ? _ B

! ? , - . -3 .(V3 ! ?) 1 3 ,? - deviated , ? " 1 3 ,b1 - rays , ? Nm? . BC 1 :A - NP ,;" BC

:A - c . , ? -
.3 P !X# 1 ,? RT2 A to be . P A =BP 3 to be " P A tx? " P A P ! ? $ A 7 <3- 1 3 8" NP2 ? 9
,B . "3 V3
P A tx? $ A c . =

3 ,? { by (via, through)

The rehabilitation dorms ( which are) revitalized by will be used.

. P

"- / $/ m? -3 . - c . , ? =1 < 1 3 ,? s 3 RB

... =:

A 1

Pl # =

-" / A

, ? =1 -
t A s

:RT4
c . t1W

A $ A ` < $ 1 M2

NP1) 3 P ,? 1 =:b8 ? . <ADV

e lS8 /
A
adv S $ A =:b8 / S v
.9
P !X# NP be " U$ " (3 P ,? c 0{ =:b8 " ?W
9
P !X# v
< P A A A =:b8 U$ NP A =$ =:b8 NP ` " 3- 3 NP =$ =:b8 "
s ,? =$ =:b8 bB# " 9
" =:b8
e =:b8
.(%) 3 A (8 ? V" A It) , A cA e $ (%) 3 A - 0 NP $ 7 .
,? !X# - {# V A/ " {# 3 P ,? - 0 " - 0 3 P ,?
(3- 1 , ? V v <9
8 ? V" A It VW " 9
, A cA e NP 5$ . )
was, were

RT4:

adv
NP

be

NP1 $ VP

=BPX` -3

P.P
Ving
adj
NP
to V

VP
M2
NP1
VP

$W <=BPX`

_ am, is, are

NP1
NP1
NP1
58

$W < # :3 P ,?

/ A =$ =:b8 c . V ?/

"- /

to be

ADV
This exercise will enlarge the arm muscles
M1

II

M1

M3

if ( NP
adv It

be ) possible.
is
adj
NP2

NP1

II

: adj m?
. P A =BP 3 V 0? VW `
.9

ADV
Whenever ( NP be ) required, the mechanical engineers use these delicate tools.
II
It is
P.P.
NP1
V
NP2
adv
I
. $
- SA U$ /
NP1
pV
" , - . V A/ -3 .9
(3 . <3 . :,A @ " , - . cm?)
. 1/ ,? / ?
V P3 R? " /
A /

3 R?
phenomenon
criterion
bacterium
datum
curriculum
stimulus
fungus
syllabus
corpus
hypothesis

b8
phenomena
criteria
bacteria
data
curricula
stimuli
fungi
syllabi
corpi, corpora
hypotheses

$
?
B A
33
, -3
=? 1 A
?
- e
(M"-3)
c.
(= ; ? 3- ? )
(2 u .) .

- "/ A

=w

?W 9R

"

?3
s -SA /-" U$
( P A U0b? /-" Y x1 ` )
? 1
e =:b8 if /
A
: P.P. m?

,? 3 RB

P =B. ` U V A/ / b8 2- A
-3 U$ A A . 1- 3 9?N@ b8 "

5 1 0? V

" 3 R? 2- A
" 3 R? "
-a
b8
-a
-i
-ses

t? 3 P Y/ 9e"

: t? =B01

2 ; / ,s A ,C :1 V A/ -3
U V A/ -3 ? <3- 3 9?N@ b8
-on
-um
U -3 3 R?
1 C
-us
(Mg <Yg <Vg)
-sis

0
.9

9C

3 t $ -3 (b8 $ 3 R?)

? c . _ B1

The bacteria are (is) , receive (recirves)

59

ADV

: Ving m?

While ( NP be ) preparing the small white rats for the dissection session in the veterinary lab , the vets suddenly came across
II
the vets were
M1
M2
M2
N
Prep M1
M3
N
Prep M1
M3
N
M1
N
adv
V
adv
II
V

NP1

a queer phenomenon (
M1

M2

N
NP2

NP2

PP

PP

NP1

RC=M5

R
be ) contradicting a number of commonly-accepted principles in this discipline.
which was
M1
M2
N
Prep M1
N
NP1

II

NP2

PP

1 P =8 ? V t` 1 (V 0PS? 3) t1W <,0PS? 3 {$ ?/W -3 $ { =C:8

A - 5v
R
tP ? 13
.,: =BP- U$ -3 - P =B. $X b ? - A
/ 3
c?

=:b8 5$

A =A ?

/ . $- XA ?

$AV 3 s"9

: VW

- X` =1 3 d1 ` < P A

e lS8 V $3 /
A
. P A $ A (=$ =:b8)
VW , ? = ,A ? % -3 <9
, ? 3- ? % =b8 e ? <
S ; 1W =:b8 sW " 1SA - / ? =. u ! # / cde $ A ={ b
=8 ? <V3 3- s A) s $ 3- 3 ,#N , ? 5$ =. u ! # A c . =
5v
{0$3 -3 (come across : @ -3 ?W) 3 P ,? ! sS?
.(3 1 _ 8 8 ` )
@ - =$ c .
? = $ A
A - =. u ! # " c . ,Be" U$ A A . (come across :V P
. $-"W ,? A =. u ! # A - NP2 7 <9
,B . 5$ c . 5$ V P =8 ?
:<=s
t: . 3
.,B . = 3 P ,? $- XA NP VW /
A BC1
` < $- XA c . /
A me 5$ (9# - ,: s) ,B . =
t: . ,$
P
A
.9
3" ? , - . 1 ?
,C :1 -3 ,B . =
Give me a book.
Bring me a pen.
Send me a letter.
Buy me some flowers.
Fetch me a coffee.
Find me a friend.
Consider me your friend.
Receive me .

60

?W ?

,? 3 ?W V 0PS? 3 = ,; # -3
3 ,? 1 = ,d x@
$ D

$ A (while)

ADV
When ( NP be ) still a school boy , I sold flowers on the street.
II
I
was adv M1 M3 N
NP1 V
NP2
PP
adv
II
V

NP1

: NP m?

.V A s -3 ,$ t:` Bs" . ,? U? <

NP2

= - ? =wA /

Y3 A U? = ,Be"

:=B01
Ali washed the dishes yesterday.
Ali washed the dishes when he was young.

./" $3 - t. 9CP ,:@

.3 A V 8 ,Be" - t. 9CP ,? ,:@

:3- 3 =b8
"3 3
=BPX`
.3 A = .3 5$ . ` : 3
,u ? -
.3 A cb@ - 0 ` : - bB
,u ? -

ADV

: PP m?

Although (
NP
be ) just in its early years of emergence in the realm of sociology ,
Darvin's theory of evolution was adv Prep M2 M2 N
NP
Prep M1
N
NP
adv
I
NP1

PP

PP

RC=M5

Darvin's theory of evolution could soon attract the attention of a good many of outstanding elites ( R
be ) philosophizing
II
who were
M2
N
NP
adv
V
M1
N
M1
M2
N
NP1

NP

NP

on the merits of such hypotheses.

Prep

M1

M1

NP1

I
V

NP2

NP
PP

<,
P = ? 8 (" b:e) =u # -3 $ / = ;"
t;
-3 . 3 A (c? 0 , $"- 3 - ) U$"- 3 c? 0 =$ [1 =v `
., u . U v 2 / B? ( "-) - A-3 13 ,? / 3 =RC:. = - =BC8 A V d1 / - CA 3
=8
:8 3"/ =A 9C1 VW

:=B01
.

=b8

sW / - NP of NP ={ b <(its early years of emergence) $ $3 =:b8 -3 - ,0:? 9R

= ;" $ t;
$ / = ;"
t;
U$"- 3 c? 0 =$ [1
c? 0 , $"- 3 =$ [1
61

- {# V A/ " 9

{# 7 <9

NP VP
VI
VII NP2
VIIINP2NP3

Simp
NP1

/A<

: Imperative Sentences (Simp)

2R V./
, A cA e 9
You ={ b V v <9
You ={ b VW NP1 " 9
,; b ?
=:b8 cm? VW ? .
. 3
3
3
c . <,: .
=1 tB ? <3 P ,? k" P c . A " 3- 1 NP1 ? =:b8 U$ A A .
,? !X#
:=b8 "( $ + ) k- ? UA + (A)
Sit down.
You Close the door.
Give me a book.

0A / A : open . 1 P

.
{ A <U { A
. - -3 ( $ dA) dA
.,A B U? =A (

A)

V3 2 d
A = ,$ t: . <3 P !X# 1 ,?
VW " _ t: . / ,s A -3
. 1 P ,? B{?
ds =:b8 / - B{` 5$ A = 1 , Nb8 ,; "
? 2Nb8
Go, Do, Listen, Come, : P A =:b8 5$ 1 ,?
,; s 3
c . 5$

: (RT4) cmb; _ u 5$

ADV

When ( NP be ) in Rome , do as Romans do.

I
I
you are Prep N
V
NP1
V
adv
adv
I
S
imp
ADV
NP1 V
PP
(...

{1 ,

s).

.9

you

62

3 ,? Y x1

,?- =0$- 1 b

A Y x1 <Y- -3 ,BC

" =:b8 NP1 U$ A A <9

you ={ b ? =:b8 NP1
. $ A 1 ,? " =:b8
v
A =$ =:b8 5$

,Be"
-

: as IHG u /
: as (such as, like, unlike) NP -
Ali has been working in our company as a Janitor.
I
V

NP1

Prep M2

he was

NP2

.(- $

. $-"W ,? - 5$

=b8

"

) V A-3 3 A " =0 ; # -3 ? 9 P -3 9
.- $
V @ =A

,b1

" [1 < 1 ? <cm? . such as, like =b8

"

/ A - =:b8 tB ? 3

/A -" A

[1 < 1 ? <cm? 3 1 _ 8 ` " 9

,?-

,:@

lS8 U$ 3- ? -3

@ =A as =b8

. P A ,? !Ns A : unlike
[1 < 1 ? <cm? (unlike :9C 1) 9C NP1 =0 ; # -3 Z . 3- ? =b =b8 ,b:@ "- :<=s

. P A ,? ...

.9

VW

NP

e lS8 such as <(3 P invert) $ A NP 9

U0b? as " such U A :<=s

:j+DK f\K

Unlike the other kinds of birds,

a) there is no feather on the heads of the vultures.

. tC

b) No feather grows on the heads of the vultures.

". tC

c) The heads of the vultures lack any feather.

=NP1) .

=1 `

.V P

3 ,? _ 8 =:b8 Y

NP1 =

$3 $ A <3 P 3 RB

3- 1 3 8"

"- $"- ,b1

.9

d) Vultures have no feather on their heads.

( tC

... <V ` 1 $3 k 1 !Ns A

"-

e . tC

1- 1 tC

... cm? 9C 1 NP1 =0 ; # -3 ,b:@ =b8

: as (such as, like, unlike) PP -

.9

[1 < 1 ? <cm? t1W =b =b8

"

,b1

/ A - =:b8 " 3

/ A - " A cde 3- ?

1b

Women are quite comfortable in their offices as in their homes.

NP1

II

adv

M2

NP

Prep M2

.V P

pp

=1 s cs 3 cm? V P - 3 -3 9# - (- CA) N?

BC

1s

63

: unlike e like 8such as D as

. $W ,? PP " NP . " < $W ,b1 =:b8 unlike " like <such as / 7 ( -" ? -3 =1) - B 3 -3
She was walking so proudly she was a queen.
a) such as

b) like

c) as

d) unlike
: as `R IY <+DzR { p

as
as
as
as

with
for
to
of

.9. ` [1 -3 S 1 ? =. u ! # V

,? , $ <3

S ; 1W - 8 "3 V

,? with, for, to, of =. u ! # - tv 3- ? -3 .

( - A-3 <3- ?-3) | s -3 : ? =. u ! # =b8

NP
. 1 P ,? =b8

As with me I should say

[1 "

... =

1 ? " cm? <3 1 _ 8 ? =. u ! #

$ A $ A Y3 s | s -3
: as S -

. P A =BP 3 3 8" 1

,? ,$

. B. ,? Z R V ?Sb " " =$ =:b8 :(= ,?

As I was crossing the street, I fell down.
.9

? =A - =

<= ,; # -3 :=b8 ) ,1 ?Sb

.U ?/ Y3 B. <Y P ,? 3- V A s / (=0 ?
: ? =$ =:b8 " 9:@ " =:b8 :((=01W =

As I didn't have enough money, I couldn't buy that car.

.Y A - U P ? VW

=$ =:b8 " " =:b8 U A

A <=01W c ;3 =A) =0 $ x1W / :=b8 ) ,:@

BC1 B1 < BP 1 ,.

) = ,; # -3
(

=0 $ x1W /

. B. ,? Z R " =:b8 d A =$ =:b8 :(= - 1 b <=0 $ d A :=b8 ) A

As my father said, the rate of precipitation in Mediterranean areas is high.

. A 9C
.

=. u =0 $ ,:de

=b8

=1 B$ ? ,# 1 -3 - A V S ? <9R` Y- = - 1 b
=A 9; # U$ -3 .
(=0 $

Mina was walking so proudly as she was a queen.

3 ,b1 _ 8 Z . 9; # =
[1 <=0 $

<3- ? / / % -3

1 ? <=0 $ cm? <=0 $ V

.3 A =0:? " =0 $ cm? =1 d0B? ,: s 9.- ,?

64

@ =A :=b8 )
-"

:<=s
(
(

3 ,?

- ,1 ?Sb Y tR? = - 1 b

3 ,?

$/) .

,? =b8

- =0 $ x1W / , ? =0 $ d A $/) .

,? =b8

= - 1 b "

$- X` ,? A - A " U A 5P -3

=0 $ d A "

$- X` ,? A - A " U A 5P -3

.3 P 3 3 {
.3

=b8

<sHMDE q `R " <n lL D.

AV

$A"9

,? -

c A " U A 5P

?W =:b8 VW

A = as MR Dm

: <=d e bDp
.

,?

" ,1 ?/ Z / , $ <(

-c . $A"9

$W

,? =BPX` -3

Cb ={ b

e =:b8 -3 " " =$ =:b8 c . V ?/

=BPX`

$W

=BPX` -3

c?
1

e " =:b8 V v) BC

$W Y Ce $ =BPX` Y Ce A . =BPX` -3

D2` Z

=BPX`

$W

=BPX` -3

$W

=BPX`

$W V ?/ U wb < $ A 1
. $ A

,?

,? "

$W Y Ce $ # V ?/ Y Ce A .

BC l mB

=BPX` " c?

$W V ?/

# t . $ A

: RT5A
P d1 VP

NP1 Ving =01W P =A < P A / ? t1W /

. (9

RT4 U @ VW /

A) 9

A " $ A ((Puntuation)
while

N@ /

A " =:b8 sW " " , $) /

e lS8 < A 9; # -3 .9

P !X# adv

. $"- ,? RT5

/ W -3 P.P., Ving, adj

NP be < P d1 M2

3 1_ 8 `

NP1 adj 3- ? -3 "

$ ` ,? RT2 ={ b

=:b8 sW

P.P.

RT5A:
#

adv NP be

Ving

VP

NP1

adj

M2

NP1
65

: (RT4 m?) Ving m?

( adv

be ) Preparing the small white rats for the dissection session in the veterinary lab , the vets suddenly came across

NP

While the vets were

a queer phenomenon ( R

be ) contradicting a number of commonly-accepted principles in this discipline.

which was

"3 3 P ,? "

?W NP

A $/) 9C 1 NP U {1 8 <(

?W M1 cde ) 9C 1 M2 <(

? 1 VW cde to be ) 9C 1 c . =:b8 " -3 Preparing

.( P ,? NP U {1 8 < ?W ,? ?

/ cde can be easy ` .=:b8 / W -3 NP

ADV

ADV

( adv
NP
be ) Fully transformed to an odd organism in the lab , the beast started to tremble ,
While the beast was
Prep M1 M2
N
Prep M1 N
M1
N
V
V
NP1

pV

a colored gas from its nostrils

M1

M2

Prep

NP2

M2

PP

RC=M5

PP

NP1

NP1

II
V

I
V

k" P (- 1 8) VW < {$ ?/W -3 ,d x@

1/ 3 8 ? =A (3 A =B. $ c0P

. A 9b

=A 13 A

.(

?W ?

RT2 7 <(9

c?

VW cde) 9C 1 cde c . NP U {1 8 <(

=:b8 NP) 9C 1 cde c . NP U {1 8 <(

66

)3 A

P c$ d N?

P =BP . = , A

. $W ,? ?
.9

( adv NP be ) emitting
while It was

( R
be ) rasing upward.
which were
adv
NP1

- s VW = ,; # -3 <V $/ ; =A 3

PP

: P.P. m?

ts -

- 1 8 = ,; # -3
/ ,1-

/`3

c . . < $W ,b1 ed c . =:b8 "

?W M1 / cde) 9C 1 M2 <(3- 1 to be) 9C 1 c . emitting

?W

e / cde) 9C 1 M2 <(3- 1 to be) 9C 1 c . rasing

,?
-

: adj m?
( adv NP
be ) Really sad
While Mark was
adv
M2
NP1

for the sudden tragic demise of his dear newly-wedded wife in such a horrible car crach , Mark
NP2 Prep M1

II

M2

M2

M2

M2

M2

Prep

M1

M2

NP

M3

NP1

PP

PP

wiped his tears and left the church with a tall blond lady
V

II

M2

II
V

N
NP2

Prep M1 M2

NP2

VP1

M2

PP

VP2

RT2:

M1

" <,

1-

B{#" c d?

!3 U v -3 S$S@ M" @ /

Cb ,1 t` 1 S 1 (2 .) 9PX`-3
A 3 A 9# - 1 e " - ? =0 ; # -3
... e :A - A 1 s 5$ A - C : 3 " - $ t0P

still sobbing hard for this catastrophe.

R be
adv
PP

.= 8 . U$

A ,B

=A 3

,? /

who was
NP1
VI

2-

,
still sobbing hard for this catastrophe.
NP
be
adv
PP
adv
while he was

RT5:

NP1

.= 8 . U$

A3

,? ,B

=A /

3 s = ,; # -3

.9C 1 NP A - and " 9

.1/

c . left <

P k" P

! 1W =b: 5$ / and /

A NP V v

s 3 P ,? $- X1 ` " B.3 ,{ ? 3 P ,? 1 s VW $- XA ?

67

: ; e : H
% -3 " ( $- XA =1 =

1 A ? 1 ,: s =1 "

$- XA ?

1 A ?

=A ,: s =1 = ) 9

. $- XA " =b8
(;) ` $" =1 - 9C and =

- ,$ ?

VW <( and

" 9C

=:b8 "3 A - 3- ? % -3 " 9

e ? .(9
?

and

/ A) 9

$3

and V b ;
/

=:b8 -3) $- XA Z .

A - ,A ?
U A =0 $

. $- X` ,?
. $ A VW -3 1

,? (..." ,;

? A <=:b8 < e)

Sv

"9

=u B ? ={ b
:3- 3 9; # =

There are just two ways to solve this problem: 1-

2-.

There are many ways to solve this problem: .

.9
A ?

/ ,C :1 -3 ? <3 P ,? 3 RB

e c1

A Z . 9; # =

A "N@ , - . -3 .

=b8

(:

.) =1"3

=u B ? : /

:9

3- ?

:9

m?

B{ A u

" =BP X` : ,C :1 U @ =b8

.3 P ,? 3 RB

Ali (Np1) said (VII), " quickly " (NP2).

" " (NP2), Ali (NP1) said (VII) .

.9
. 1-"W ,? - =:b8 = A

NP2 =? ` 3 s <9C 1 NP
A =BP X` - c1 " ( P A

II

" quickly " (NP2) , said (V ) Ali (Np1).

e. $ A 1
$ `/
.

. and =1 9

68

,?

Sv

e ?

e c1
=? ` cs 3

t? c1) , `
,? Full invert

c1 -3
, `

NP1 =? ` " and " is a conjuction. =:b8 -3 :=B01

# (PP, adv, ADV) ,

. 1 P 8 =:b8 c / ? A 1 ,? < $ A =:b8 " ` ( PP, adv, ADV) S v = :

adv: However, Nevertheless , Today
PP: In practice, For example

.(9

, , , , , ,(and, or)
Nde = 9P 3 c0P = ) or $ BC and
?

P 33 u

: (Conj) A- ! #
bt. ,? and, or

:(Direct speech)
.9
=u B ? = 3- 3

$3

bB# $ A ` <(9

?) 3- 1 - t V 0? ?

=:b8

t; ? . / Y 0w
.( P d1 A- ! #

1- S

NP, , VP

Ali (NP1) , , V

2- VP

V , , (NP(NP))

has, , (PP, NP2)

3- RC

R , , (S, VP)

wh, , (S, VP)

4- ADV

adv , , S

if, , (S, VP)

5- PP

P , , NP

in, at, instead of, in addition to

6- NP

(M1) , , (M2) , , (M3) , , N (M4)(M5)

7- Conj , ,

:D2Dn RL R
? -

? -
"- /

BC? e c1

?W ; " : Z . -3 VW u
@ U A :(App) =u B ?

,?

= , P =A )3/

x (and, or, nor ,) , , x

8- AUX (auxiliary verb)

9- S , (NP)(PP, RC, RT) ,

69

. $ A9
. $ A $3
.

=b8

=P"

5$ $ A <9

=u B ? $ A ?

$ SB1 cs 3 - =u B ? "

=b8
. $ A9

. $ A9
-3) 9

{1 9$ @- 9R
.

,;

s ,b1 ?

A V {1

M2

M2, M2, M2, M2 N

s ,? . ?

U$ .IH

` 2 IMlRI Zp .9

NP< P A 3 8 ? N $ A bB# . (9

? ?

NP1 /

` (,0b ,B#) c . /

A `

- RC < ?W ?

R/

? ?

e lS8 /

=. u ! # /

U$ B 1 s

? ?

M2 U A

<?

t? ,C :1 -3 ,;" <9C 1 t? 9R

,;

, -.

tall, young, handsome, smart, welleducated man

- CA = ) $ A NP ` . 9C 1 t? ?W PP, adv, ADV, RC ` tB ? .9

=u B ? . =1 `" 3 P ,?

A < P A (NP2)

App bB# < ?W ?

=:b8 V $ ` < P Y b = =:b8 ? . -

VW / cde ` " 3- 3 RT $ RC $ PP 2 e" % -3 NP U$ .9

t? ( $W ,?

3 $/
.9

They analyzed the structures , the complicated constructions

NP1

II

NP2

., ?
$W ,? ?

A = ,$

P =A $ 0$ A 1

=u B ? .9C 1 A- ! # 9e w

associated together in a logical manner.

which were

NP = M4

P d ? =

( ,and V" A) t

. $ A ... " =P"

adv

"

PP

, $ <-

- Bs

s ,? A- ! # bB# =:b8

<SB1 A =01W ? < P A 1

13

c : t1W

"3 : S , (S, VP) ,

,b1 VP $ =:b8 9e w

V P ,1"-3 9s

:<=+ JH] RT4

.3 P

/A $A= 9

P !X# NP be < R / 7 " =B. ` 2-

I don't know what ( I am ) to do.

I don't know where ( I am ) to go.
I don't know how ( I am ) to play football.
70

-x

1 (RC

R (S,VP)) $ A =:b8 /

Sv

R / 7

:
. 1 P ?R
... =v
what
... Y
which
,C =v ... whose

,? what, which, whose & how = ,; #-3 < BC ? R

$3

*H*p tn 2 R

. - of whom " of which

which
I don't know what ((English (scientific)) book ) she is reading.
II
whose
NP1
V
NP1
V

NP

?R

. 1 s ,? " (,C :1 (,b:@) _ B <,A B ) =v =

e/9R

- v how adj/adv

You don't know how beautiful (dumb, smart) she was.

V

NP1

II

? R

NP1

. 3 {A ? VW

NP1

wahtever,whoever ,however. $ A 1
$/) 9

,? ? R < much " many A =

$- 3 $3 how 5$

A however -3

You dont know how much she earns.

how much money she spends on her dresses.

?R

RC N

A < s) d$/ - v) - v = ,1 3 ,b1

. - 1 9s 1 ,? " ( d$/) B{#" - v = ,1 3 ,b1

,? ,B# " 3/

how many friends she has.

NP1

You dont know

A NP A 1

.3 A " ((

You don't know how horribly (beautifully) she was playing the piano.

You dont know

1 3 ,b1 U?

Q ?

I
V

,? t;

e lS8 <9

PP

? U$ =b

A ever .3 P ,? - e

tx? V v $/ =:b8 -3 .(ever A) 1

VW , ? "

their own interests had "been most peculiarly attended to" however "grievous"
pVI

? adv

.V $3 A V {

13 A t1W - A

e how /

e lS8 $ " ? R

,?
( $- 1 Y/

the effects on others.

they were

- e

?W ever

- Q"3 , $ < P A Q ?

NP2

Uab? caP U$

| s =A 3 A =B. ` - e =8

3- ? V { . ? ...

71

However hard I tried, she was not convinced.

? adv

pV

. {1 1 e " Y3 Q N U? 9

However hard I tried was useless.

RC

NP1 ? R

VII

M2

- e

.3 A

$ . ,A Y3 Q N U? 9

- e

NP2

:D} bDY+R
keep, make, find, turn, [leave, get, render, consider]

:3 P ,? NP3 U {1 8 < ?W 9R
( BC make

1 ? N?

NP2 / 7

render " get) ( 1

?W 9 b

?W ,B . =

=A [1 3- ? . )

V adj - NP2 NP1 :=b8

Refrigerators keep the food cold.

(9

Mina made her house beautiful with some flowers.(c`

Ali found that novel interesting for its comic tone.

- ? A d$/ 3 A =

- ,$ X 1- 3 ,? =1 t; w$) .3
- =1 s 9s

(S ?WS U; A 3 A ; 8 = - V ?- VW 3

Sunshine turns the leaves of the trees red in fall. (S $ -3 BC S? e = - V Bs-3

NP1

III

NP2

NP3

,:@)

t` A 1 s w ? _ B.W)S

"-

- X 1- 3 ,? =1 t; w$

- ? A 9s

d$/ - =1 s

. ... A 9. $ ; 8 - V ?- VW ,:@

$ -3 1 3 ` ,? S? e - V Bs-3

t` A _ B.W

PP

She left her friend alone.

She considers her friend lazy.

? ).c`

. -3

.(3 A t =
(3 A cd =

72

- B "3 3

")3

- t

- B "3 9. ` ,? [1-3 " ) 9C1 3 ,? cd

- B "3 "
- B "3 "

:be to V

be

P.P.

She is punished.

Ving

She is running.

adj

She is beautiful.

NP

She is student.

PP

She is at home.

tx? - Bs
- bB

- Bs

M2

NP2

to V
:be to V
<V3 A A <V3 A - e " (9C 1

8 c . / to) P A ,?

=b: 5$ c . " 9

(Aux)

s.n jY+ 5$ ought to " have to 1 ? be to -

.3 P ,? =b8 UBC$ A <UBC$ P

The students are to analyze the sentences before translating them.

NP1

II
V

Aux

NP2

PP

. t1W V3

=b8

/ cde - 2Nb8

These books are to be published before Xmass.

NP1

Aux

pV

.7bC$

Aux

II

A) 9

- e V $ x{1 3

/ cde 1 P {B ? 9

- e tA B U$

PP

My brother was to leave the country in July.

NP1

=$Sx ( $ A <9

NP2

.= $"

? -3 - - {

3 A - e Y-3 A

PP

,? =b8

P =BR` U v =1 / ? -3 = "- V b =A .9

U v =1 / ? x $ . $ ` ,?

_Y+ ) Rl - to ( ; -

Our major problem in the country is to find the right person for the managerial positions.
.,B$ $ ?
- ? =b8

+ ( P <3 A <9

) :=b8

9C

A ,d

"- . $ ` ,? VP

NP -

?3 .

0A

A =A to V / "

=0 $ 9C - { -3 ? ,

c0{?

$ ` ,? ,B . "3 c . - be (_ -

73

Our major problem in the country is to find the right person for the managerial positions.
NP1

II
V

PP

II
V

NP2
VP

PP

NP2

.,B$ $ ?
.

,b1

9C

A ,e . c -3 .9

A ,d

{e =b8

? 3 . UB. $ 9C - { -3 ? ,
,;" < P A

c0{?

- ? Y"3 S ; 1W 9

U0b?

:<=s

:3 A ,

=b8

=A %

V B ? =B01

v A ,;" 3

.3 P ,? =b8

_ B1 -
... <9

=b8

- e " 9

.9

" 3 3 d UB? A " 3 P =b8

$ A " 3- 3 Y tA be to V =b8

,0b c . e ? % -3 <3 A tx? be to /

Ac . `

NP1 `

Y"3 9; # % P A c . (agent) c? @ 9C1 B1 NP1 `

,0b c . e ? % -3 < P A c . (agent) c? @ 9C1

.9

:RT5B
.9

if

e lS8 = . $ " 9
.(

s ,b1

P !X# adv NP be e < P d1 VP

?

" $ A $ A c . VW

A < P A VP

NP1 VW /

NP1 ` ) c?

A ,; bB#

NP A " $ A to A - ? /

=:b8 5$ VW / 7 " P A

?W $ A ?

"

/ W -3
e =:b8

`
tB1

To explain the problem in detail, the professor had to analyze it into its constituent parts.

If the professor were

NP1

II
V

NP2

PP

NP1

1/

- [ bA =b8

-3 "

NP2

S8 =A 1W 3

.( $ ` ,?
.3 P ,? =b8

II

3 ,? PP c 0{ ?

was

,? =$Sx

?/"- -3 ?

" 3 B. Z R
74

PP

$ A " <c R =A - c0{?

$- XA were bB# 9C -3 )

$ { 3 A - e - C." `
$ ` ,? were b ? if -3

in order =. u ! # !X# (: =A)

.-

,B# -

In order to explain the problem in detail, the professor had to analyze it into its constituent parts.
.

1/

S8 =A 1W
:(

=$Sx 3 A - dx? 3 B

._S

el

<c R =A c0{? V3 3 u

DE ) in order tn 2 <+DzR { p `R |0D1=^R IMRL+

RT5B V P

" 9C 1 l mB

9; # U$ -3 =0 ; # -3 .3 ` ,? l mB

1W / 7 3

c . V ?W " =BC1 3 =. u ! # - in order to ,B

.3/ ,B# - =A To mix the two acids safely , .. .

9C ,s A V

... <Ub$ - A
.,

=; ; /

NP

,? ,b:@ "- A t

"3 V3

3 RB

- B 3 -

.3 P ,? PP VW A VP

a) It is necessary for the chemist to use special tubes.

- [ bA

bP

- [ bA

A9

Y/

b) Using special tubes is necessary for the chemist.

c) Special tubes should be used by the chemist.
d) The chemist should used special tubes.
.3 ` ,? - e =$ =:b8 NP1 <" =:b8 If NP be -3
_,? to / cde (for A ={ b )
=. u ! # " ` 5$ - [ ? U$
A < P A =$ =:b8 NP1
1 VW NP1 " P A =:b8 lS8 in order ` -
.3 3 - e $3 PP 5$ VW V"-3 " 9. 0P 1W V ,b1 < P A =. u ! # (,B
- B 3 -3) in order to ` = ,; # -3 . $- X`
In order ( for the students) to explain the problem in detail, the professor had to analyze it into its constituent parts.
VP

Prep

NP

. 1SA $ A - for <3 A NP

A ` " to V 3 A c .

A ` . 1/ ,b1 - to =:

.NA $3 in order =. u ! #

9C -3 -

75

: ) l 0LHG
. 1 : =b U$ A A < v <=v ` < # =A
=b8
$ A =:b8 " ` ,B# " 1 A- e However, nevertheless, nonetheless, yet, still, but(at the first of sentence) ; ? <U0 ; <U0; <5; ? < X ? < # U @ -3 < # U$ A <U$ 3 8" A <,;" < ? : 1- 3 =b8 3/ $ " 1 P
. 3 ,? - e " =:b8 A 3 -3 - Y"3 =:b8 = 9
U$ - 9
A- e ,Be" however . 3 ,? - e Y"3 =:b8 A 3 -3 - " =:b8
e lS8 " 1
e lS8 =v ` " v The teacher was teaching in the class however the students were not listened.
. 13 3 ,b1 ` V $ x{1 3 (... <U$ 3 8" A <,;") ? 3 3 ,? M-3 MN -3 9P 3 : ?
,? =b8

=:b8
BA -3

? <

.(9

PP

NP1
PP
PP

NP1

.9

to V
to V
to V

The inherent desire

NP1

<=A 9dC1 </ 9

,0$ =

=b8

"

:than RL R
$- 3 ,C :1 -3 than k 1 =

. $W ,? NP VW A = =. u ! # than 5$ (
. $W ,? (S) =:b8 VW A = 9
e lS8 than 5$ (
A " cde) 9
A- ! # < ?W VW A
1 ?"
Y
9; # -3 (

,0$ VW

:<=+ JH] RT2

NP = ,Be" ,tB ? <3 P ,? =. u
to A - ? 9; # U$ -3
. P A =BP 1 3 8"
$3 c . =:b8 / W =A V
$A

P !X# R be 2- 1W -3 < P d1 ,: . A - $ VP

to develop a new teaching methodology in the field of translation coused him to spend 11 years
which was
II
R,NP1 V

NP2

PP

II

NP2
VP

II
V

NP2
VP

to devise an efficient teaching method.

V

II

NP2
VP

-" 3

- 3 " =b8
... "- 3 x$

/ #-3

$ 8 ,P/ ?W ,

A , c$ b : $ A
76

P "- 3

A VW

,? 3 x$ $ A = (, ) ,1"-3 ( "/-W) c$ b
. ?W- ,P/ ?W "- V3 ,#
A
/ / A xA 1 ,? - 9; t
A -

: as IHG u /
:(_ X@ as) Y- tv 9; #
.( 1 {A
adj
adv
much
many
few
little

as
so

as

adv

NP
PP
S

,?

/ = ) $- 3 ?
= ... - e V b -
e/9R + =A -
A
@ + / 1 =A -

= ... - 1W

that S

= ... V v

adv

the same

as
adv

NP
PP
S

(M1) = ... V b
(M2)
=A {? ...

. $W ,? =:b8 . that /

A = ,; # -3 $ A 1

$ A 1 P k" P much, many, few, little A = ,$

,?

NP "

:<=s

NP
PP
S

e <9R

as t1W Y"3 ! = ,$

,? . so " as /

. $W ,? NP < the same " such /

.9

e lS8 Y"3 9bCe " (9

. $ A 1
.9
(9

VW

=b8

/ ,0$ V v ,;"

,?

II

M2

NP2

adv

PP

3 1) 3- 1 ,

$3 ( - d8 , ` $)

,? Z . S ; 1W . $W ,b1 ,:0{?

V C0$ <=A {? $ V b the same =b8 ) .

3 RB

=A {? /

Mina was as beautiful in the party as her sister (was).

NP1

e lS8 - tv

adv

NP

"

A
@+
Y"3 as /
e/9R + Y"3 as /

that S

such

V 0? $3 NP)

$A"

.3 A

"3 -3

e " lS8

@/

1W ` such that 3- ? -3

3 ,b1 _ 8 V b , ` the same as 3- ? -3

s = ,1 bt? -3 d$/ - e V b 3 A
.,1 bt? -3
s ,$ d$/ =A 3 A
.,1 bt? -3 d$/
s / 1 =A 3 A

NP

.NA "

.NA ? (3- 1 - t

s 1 " 9

- Bs

1 {

A =:
A =:

elS8 /

?
?
?

77

Mina drives as carelessly on the roads as her mother (does). .

NP1

adv

adv

PP

NP

,? ,` 1 - -3 ? =
3 8 -3 B# ,A - e V b
.
3 8 -3 -3 ? , B# ,A =A
.
3 8 -3 B# ,A -3 ? / 1 =A

Mina has as much money in the bank as Rokefeller (has).

NP1

II
V

NP2

PP

adv

NP

,? ,` 1 ,? ,` 1 ,? ,` 1 -

?
?
?

.3- 3 :. - = 51 A -3 V " . - e V b 3- 3
.51 A -3 V " . :. - / 1 =A 3- 3

?
?

Ali is using the same pen as his father was using when he was young.
(

3 ,b1 _ 8 $3 V b ) .3 A V 8 = ,Be" 3

This is the same as your book. (This is the same book 9

,? 3 RB

_ B V b U$ ) .9

- = VW =A {?

- 3 s/

,? 3 RB

,:@

bP _ B =A {? U$

He explained the point in such a low tone that nobody understood anything.
.S v
She was so sad that couldn't stand up.

.3 P

3 01 -3 70w

= ,? -W

V v A - =B01 3

$ { "

:A 8 / 9C1 B1 = 3 A 9# - 1 - 1W "

::;2 <=s
an " a <(an " a .) 3 P k" P an " a A =
9C

3) $W ,? 9R

so " as /

A =:

$- XA NP

A 9R

xA 8

.NA 2- $ -3 . 1 P xA 8 9R
( 1- 3

<(9
A

A 9R

?) $W ,b1 NP 9e w

so that " as as U A -

,? , $ 1- 3 - (inversion) ,` P M 0 ? 9 :A e

= ,$ 8

-3 - ,` P M 0 ? 9 :A e an " a) . (9

Mina was so lazy a person that she couldn't even make her own meal.
NP1

II

NP2

It is too hot a tea to drink.

adv

NP1

II

NP2

. $ A 9R

78

,? . = 9

$ 8 VW /

A to " too U A -

:I Ld
_Y+

DmY2

(3 { ? =b8
V

jY+

e .)

used to

- [1 =A
)

appear (to)

AV

DmY2

" 3 P ,b1 =b8

UBP 3 c$ b

tend to V

V ?W

come to V

$-

happen to V

e R <.3

(Y3W

.3 P ,? =b8

go on
carry on

Y ? <=B

Ving

Sv A --

end up in Ving

Y x1

end up with Ving

V $ 8 <V3
V3

A tend to =b8

-3

23 @ get used to " be used to Ving/NP t: .

. 1 P ,? =b8 UBP 3
I am used to listening her lies.
."
t"-3 =A V3 3 ` =A Y- 3 23 @ U?
I am used to her lies.
He will get used to her lies.

01 3 RB

e . = 9
b ? / Y3W

<=b s -3

xBC8

seek to

,-3 <3 -3
( d13 =A :=1 ? @)

e B?

cease to

,R ? c . + $3

I used to go out my friends.

I used to have a lot of friends.
I used to be happy.

=A

keep
V3 3 =b s

,: . t used to

A) b ?

continue to V
V3 3 =? 3

MD;_Y+

Ali failed to answer mina's question. ... 9C1 B1 ,:@

They failed realized that... =
A $-3 BC1 B1 t1W

look (to)

V P =8 ? <V3 B. Z R

V3- s 9C0P 3- ? % -3 Fail to

. 3 ,? ? (can't) UBC1 B1

seem (to)

[1 =A , ? = ,: .

IHG

2 <./ K IHG <n

. B.- ,? V" A 1 B "3 A A

U?
. BP 3 3 $/ V B "3 A
.Y3 A P s A

79

There seem to be a great problem.

Ali seems sad.

- ,? [1 =A 9# - 1 ,:@

He tends to wake up early at morning. Mina tends to sleep late at night.

These structures tend to resist strong earthquakes.
.

.3- 3 3 8" ,`-SA c0{?

xA) 9
U b ,:@

... .3 P ,? 9?" ? $ P

He came to talk to me.

We came to understand that
The scientists came to realize that

... =

Reza happen to have knife in his pocket.

A _ s / 3"/ d 9P 3 c$ b "
=;S;/ A A -3 b ?
/
U$

.
9d U? A
?W "
... =
B. $-3 $- =A ?
B. $-3 $- =A V b{1 3

.9P 3 d 8 -3 ,$ e v .3 u-

Ali was lost in the desert. It seems to be nowhere land. There happen to be a small house in the middle of nowhere land.
.3 AW x 1 VW " -3 ,0v =1 s 9P 3 3 8" e R .3 A 3 AW x 1 . P
Mina kept nagging at her husband and ended up in screaming.

. { 8 =b s -3 "

She seek to establish an institute.

She sought to give him sharp response.

Mina ceased to answer Ali's call.

.9
=C
A " =A

.3 1 -

80

,:@

3/ ,? (, ) =B

?7
, -3 "
- 3 A3
-3 "
t

b =A $3

` V A A -3 ,:@

:(Dummy Verbs)
.
. $

,? ; $ A , ? ,A " dummy c . 5$
3

3 x$ k

U$ A " 9

A<

,? c$ d

(dummy) , ? ,A

-3

;K bDY+R

=A - c . <=:b8 -3 c . - 0 /

c . 5$ UBs 3 .9s 3 -

` :8

VW Y x1 =A :, - . -3 m?

. BC get | s $ P -3 " take " make ,C :1 -3 ,t .

I walked = I took a walk

.9

Y3

"- 3 e " -3 = ,; # -3 . "- 3 B. ` 3 P ,? R; =A R; =b8

.( B. ` Y b#) Y3

I bathe = I took a bathe.

contribute : He make contribution in the committee.
deposit = make deposition = V3

Y b#

,? 9 - {? Ubx1 -3 "

9s 3

mistake = I made a mistake

.Y3

dBP

We decided = we made a decision

:<2LH
.NP 3 P ,? VW c .9

NA -

.3 P ,? S ; 1W ,; b ? =:b8 2- A " 3- 1

D;=UDp

: e c1 -
: B$N$
.9

APP -
:<=s

It is of important to me. (has)

It was of quality. (has)

be (is, are, was, were) of == have (has)

? =A 9

He is of high family. (has)

. A =A {?

? =. u ! # analogous to

81

:D
(my, your, his, her, its, $ s !" B
C

A 7

"

$ b1 =b8

W /

- Y"3 A

@ ) ,0:? 9R
BA 9

$ ( P 1 ,; ) ?W $ ,::s ,b

Y/ 9t8 U b =A " 9

Those two mechanical engineers' five new enrichment techniques.

M1

M1

M2
NP

M2

M1

M2

M3

" ` -3

Modifier ,;

Modifier
x1/ -3

URLK
`

NP of NP 9C0P =1 <c? V b / e3 P
t1W V ? -3
. $/
A ? U$/ W A =A 1W
.M t? "3 VW $ 8

,5 0

NP

(=B. ` !" B

W NP ,$ xA 8 " of !X# / 7 9

Y3W M t? V v)

V A - =:b8 NP of NP A

,? $- 3 A - !" B

W `

five new enrichment techniques of those two mechanical engineers.

The handles of the doors
Two friends of mine

The doors handles

My two friends

[3- 1 0P ? M ].3- 1 - t V 0? VW / cde

A lot of friends of mine

$3 3

A lot of my friends

82

< $W ,? /

BA -3 ,0:? 9R

of !X# e ? V v U$ A A

: RT6A
< P A help, let, make, have, watch, see, hear, notice, would rather, had better
.
Mina helped her husband
II
V

NP1

NP2

II

NP2

-x

/A= 9

. t. ( $ {A = ) UBCP -3

VP

<V3

1 - Bs

= NP V NP V - Bs

-3

P !X# Y"3 c . / cde ,: . A - to

wash the dishes.

to

VP

V P d

" c . ` 9

,?

- dx? <V3

3 ,b1 - ( X V3- s <UBP 3 _ UBs

) V P3 s

5b

? 1 {A RT6 ` have " make t: .

.
3 ,? , ?

V3 3 8 , ? =A ? c . 5$ @ bx? " 9C 1 ,0b c . would rather -3 would

.(9C 1 !X# cA e
.
s ,? to (is, are, ) $ A $3 S v
A Better .9
# V ?/ " V3 A BtA , $ <3- 1 c? =BPX` V ?/ =A ,A- had better
It is better to know.
You had better do.
.to V" A
$W ,? to A
V B? -3 help
V P =8 B? :notice
.3 P ,? !X# NP2 ={ b had better 3- ? -3 ,;" $ 1 1 ,? NP2 < help " would rather 3- ? -3 .

to , prefer A) $W ,? prefer VW

-3""

P =A 3

xA b ? " 9

.9C 1 !X# cA e t1W ,: . A - to " 9C 1 (synonym) !3 B? . 3- ? -3 "

Let: permit, allow
help: assist, aid
make,have: force,get

,? Z

: =\K <=s
. 3- ? -3 . RT6 @ e

83

,0b c . ,$ xA 8) inversion
VW

/A= 9

$ S 1 =:b8 "3 / ,0$ / W -3 " P d1 t1W U A A- ! # = 3 P c 0{

3 3 - If

e lS8 !X# inversion

- 3 =:b8 / W -3 < P d1 ,;
.

V" A " 1- 1 RT3 =A , d -

1 P ,? inversion

3 - (,;

$ d

,? RT3 ,$
1 P

:RT3
`

A < NP1 "

e =:b8 5$ =A - =:b8

A , P =:b8 k 1 =

=:b8 `Dq -3 ,R ? 3 e
.

If

=:b8

2Nb8 -3 m?

,? c$ d =$ =:b8 5$ " , P "

. P A ,1 $ P 5b
=A =8

=:b8 U0 ;

=1 ` =A Sx? =:b8 "3 /

t: . V ?/

=0 $

,? Y e t1W =b8

V$P

=A inversion

Had the students analyzed the sentences with the transformational techniques in their exam, they would have comprehended the concepts
VII

NP1

necessary
which were

M2

PP

PP

VII

NP1

NP2

to answer the questions.

VII

NP2

-" u 13 A =

NP2

NP2

R? ( 13 A 3

-3) 13

,? -3 t1W <V {1 B? -3

- B{`

5 0 A - 2Nb8 13 A 3

c : V $ x{1 3 `
.2

.9
You may contact our office any time
NP1

VII

NP2

adv

VW

tB1 -3 ?

3 8"

=:b8

BA -3 inversion ,Be"

should you require any information on our products or services.

if

NP1

VII

NP2

. ? 2 ? s $ 2 ? - A-3 , @N =1 `

If

e =:b8 =1 {1 <=B. ` 2-

=A V3 3 -

PP

BP 3 / 1 bP ` ,1 ?/

? B.3 A $ A M b 1 ,? bP
any time = at any time -

Be it an extraordinary case in that district, the real estate staff would definitely grasp it themselves.
NP1

NP2

PP

VII

NP1

.V P3 s 1W 1 e ,? b:C? N? -" {? V
84

NP2

adv

< (= # 1) =:? VW -3 3 ; Z .

3- ? VW 3 A `

It were

Be it .3 P c$ d Be =A 1

,? P d1 ,;

e " =:b8 ` < $ A =:b8 " =A ,Be" to be c . :,C :1

@e

.3 P ,b1 =BR` agency -" ? -3 real estate agency 3- ? -3 .2NBC? , $ real estate

:
1- If
2- If
3- If

=BPX` (were, ed)

c?

=BPX` (had P.P.)

=BPX` -3

c?

$W

=BPX` -3

(would, should, could, might) V

$W

(would, should, could, might) have V

If you are smart, you will succeed.

. P,
.9

$W

"9

=BPX`

<9

d V./ RL R

$W (will, shall, may, can, must) V

should " 9

s . ? ,P A

A ` :9C .

=B.- @ =A V ?/ 5$ ,0$ = 9

can =BPX` -3

$W

" =BPX`

P A :A - " k 1 `

" Y"3 k 1 , P

" k 1 V b Y

could .

9e3 - should " could c .

.9

if, unless, as if, as though, even if, even though, wish ,would rather

: $ A $ A were "

"3

=BPX` -3

$- 1 was " A"- 3- ? /

I wish he were a doctor.

Even if it were a bad situation .
He was talking as if he were.
I would rather it were a joke.
:

1m2 0LHG Inversion

Not, Neither, Nor, Never, Nowhere, Not only, Only, Little, Seldom, Rarely, Barely, Scarcely, Hardly, Prep no N, So
=

1- 3 ,0b c . $ , $ < 1 P ,? inversion d

? S; < $ A =:b8 / W -3 ` . 1 ,R ? A- ! #

. 1 P ,b1
.(3 P ,b1

$3 9t8 U b =A <

3 ,? _ 8

8 ?

$ A

=. u ! # " `

,s A " 1 ,R ?

e =b

=:b8 " t $ . $W ,? =:b8 " do, does, did =1 `" =:b8 "
A) 9C no VW -3 =

=. u ! # " ` , $

t$
$W ,?

Prep no N

85

You can (nowhere) find such a friend nowhere.

Nowhere can you find such a friend.

.

I (seldom) went to see my uncle in summer seldom.

- ,B "3 U v

,b1 bP

Seldom did I go to see my uncle.

.V BCA -3 $ b@ V $3

The students not only analyzed the sentences but (also) they criticized some of the questions.
. 13
You never may (never) contact our office any time (never).

A B.- ,? 2- 1 =A U?

Not only did the students analyze

1 - 2

/ ,s A - 2Nb8 13

c : V $ x{1 3 t =1

Never may you contact our office any time.

.,1 ?/

You rarely require any information on our products.

$ A M b ? B.3 A $- 1 / 8 S`

bP

Rarely do you require .

.

I knew little about her family (little).

,?

? 2 ? =A 8 - , @N =A B# 2- 1 =A bP

Little did I know about her family.

The governments (in no country) interfere with the tourism industry almost in no country of the world.
In no country of the world do the governments interfere .
.V t8 /

- {

-3 d$

C$-

-3

,b1 =:s ? tB;"3

:<_./ e0 DkKlR

Ali plays the piano well and Mina plays the piano well too.
Ali plays the piano well and Mina does too. (Aux

VP)

Ali plays the piano well and so does Mina.

Ali doesnt play the piano well and Mina doesnt play the piano well either.
Ali doesnt play the piano well and Mina doesnt either. (Aux

VP)

Ali doesnt play the piano well and neither (nor) does Mina.
. $W ,? either < too
86

xA ,R ? =:b8 -3

RC, PP, adv, ADV, APP, M2, M3

,? 3 RB
(9

,t NP 5$ / <

. 1

- Bs

$ A =:b8 "

: Substitution of Arbitrary Elements (SAE)

M lD=J
" ` =BC / .3 c$ d
=A - - Bs
@ V ,? ,1 A/
-3
.(RC) ?W 9P 3
=A R
N =
C
.(PP) ?W R
N A
C
.(ADV) ?W 9P 3
=A R
N = ,; # -3 C
.(APP) ?W
R
N , $ C VW
.(M2) ?W R
N
C
:<=s
.9C 1 U0b? ={ b
- Bs
=b =A c$ d "
.( 3 ,?
$3
?)
,?

? 2- 1 =A 1

@ = A c . " ,b

01 3 RB

?W ,;" 9C 1 : 9 # U$ <3 P ,? =b8

NP / =. u ! # /

A =0 $

:Variety
tP"- / Y tR? 5$ V A
A
.
U$ , - . -3 " the fact ,C :1 -3 Dummy NP

A .V3

=0 $ b@ the fact that) .9

3 RB

:B?

We were talking about the fact that Ali was lying.

.3 01
/ /A"3
3 RB
SAE / V ,? < $W ,? 9
A ADV " RC ? b@ RT / / A / 7
c . = ,; # -3 .9
=. u ! # 7 9R` V ,? about A - concerning V v , {1 8 @ e d ,B
- B 3 -3
. $ =B. ` =. u ! # - c . " 9
P
concerning such tools are .

c$ d PP =A VW RC = 9
These articles
Which are

. ...
(while we are) considering, following, relying on

BC ,$ - SA U v =A 1 P ,? A ? = 2 ? U$
. ... BC ,$ - SA U v =A A ? 2 ? U$

87

Following

Concerning

Regarding

Considering

=A A ?

Using

/
( 1 A ,? - 0A = )

Applying

Comprising

3 RB

(V3-"W _ C# =A A)

Depending on

=A =BCA

Relying on

`- 0A A

A=0 A

Based on
c? P

( 1 P ,? c? P = )

Composing of
( 1 P ,? c 0{ = )
Composed of

Owing to

(V3 A V

Comparing to/with

/ c0{B?

,-3 < d13 =A

UB. ` [1 -3 A

Taking into account

Relating to

Including

,? d13 = )

Compared to/with

?)

A =C$ ? -3

:RT5C
P !X# adv NP be <

( adv =after)9
.
#

3 ,? PP c 0{ " 9

having P.P.

VP

after

1 VP

NP c 0{

A VP

@ A = , P =A < $ A c . Y

NP 1 -3 Having " 9

NP

adv NP be

after

After having P.P.

(V3

...) Y : ? - ? + / 7

After having been P.P.

(V P ...) tx? - ? + / 7

88

9bCe A Having

P !X# after =. u ! # adv NP be

/ W -3
xA

`
.

Having discovered the truth about that complicated legal (homicide) case , she decided to dedicate a full column to it in the paper.
After

VP

NP

PP

.=? 1/"- -3 VW =A - ,:?

V B

3 | Bs = 9. `

LAPD: Los Angeles Police Department

LAPD Homicide Department

cide :

VII

NP1

b " <

w (,$ 8) ,e #

NP2

PP

PP

1" VW | s -3 9 # V3

{ / 7

7:x1W M ; 7 : - 3 ,$ 8 V b - 3

UB{

Insecticide :
matricide :

{#

suicide : ,{ 3 s

,{ -3 ?

pesticide : 9.W

The Mi6 agents were determined to report the case to the headquarters ,
VII

NP1

patricide : ,{ -

homicide : 9$ 8 (,{ k b )

NP2

PP

having been informed of the deadly plot of the bandits

after

VP
PP

NP

PP

to assassinate the Queen.

VII
VP

NP2
NP

<,

1? .

=A - 3- ?

3 - S` =

1 P b? (7 :1 ,

.=0:? V3

-"

8 u V ?/

A V - 0td - d` ? =
. 1SA c?

/ ? 7 <

3 ,b1 b8 , ? <9

3 s ? s] [,? [1] ,
7 :1 ,:s 3 ,

1? .

/ V P :? / 7

?W c . of / cde

:Determine

< S ? ( - 3 ) B.3 : headquarters

V3 A b? <V3
[

) Mi6 V - ? ?

8 V ?/

: (Master Intelligence) Mi5

89

:) l {e p

Conjunctions

$ P

=b8

and
or
but

"
$
. PA

e 1

-3

( B{?)

1b "

1 ? <,A s =A

as well as
.9

A- ! # < P A =BP 1

e 1

( B{?)

1b "

1 ? <S 1"

=1 =1
,R ? c . (z w ) "
$ ( $)

neither nor
either or
not only but (also)

S 1 =Q t =1

("3

both and
whether or

90

)"

:DmY2 e ) l 0LHG
? A- 3 e
However

Nevertheless
Nonetheless
"3 U A $ ,R ? " ,; =:b8 sW
e < $ A ,R ? ,: . 9bCe
/
:=b8 <9
,; b ?

Yet

Still

? A- 3 e

=b8

PA
e lS8 =Q , -3
:3 P,? =b8 =v `
However S, S

P A ,; b ? e `
.3 P ,? =b8

<?
<U$ 3 8" A <,;"
< # U$ A
< # U @ -3
< X ?
<z; ?
<Ua ; <Ua;
<
; ?
?

But
Besides
Furthermore
Moreover
Meanwhile
In addition

In addition to + NP
In addition , + S

PP

Additionally
A-

And
Otherwise

e -SA ! # A =:b8 / W -3
9
A- e - :9
k 1 "3
<70@ A :,; b ? e -
$3
=1 ` =A

In turn

< "N@ =A
<U$ A "N@
< bu
<Ubu -3
<. ?
U$ A ! ?

Respectively

=b8

The former

,;"

The later
By the way
On the contrary
Conversely
Similarly
Likewise
Correspondingly

(=1 ? @) ,B

2- $

-3

sW
-

7a@ A

In fact
As a matter of fact
Actually
Indeed
Really

U b =A

<9 # -3 <e " -3

e " =A < e " <B #

In part
Partly
In/To some extent
In/To some degree

To a small extent / little degree

,bQ #

To a great extent / degree

=CR1 ,. <3 s
<cA ? -3 < @ -3
9{`/ A -3

=A

In return

Basically

3 $/ #

No more
No longer

,R ? c .) $3
(3 P ,? =b8

In the long time

2 ? / -3 -3

In time

e ? =A <V ?/ -3

91

? A- 3 e

=b8

Any longer
Any more

$3

ly speaking
Generally speaking
Scientifically speaking
Practically speaking
Theoretically speaking

Y @ V A =A<,: - A <? b@
,b:@ V A =A <,b:@ ; =A
Nb@ <,:b@ ; =A
[1 ; =A

In contrast
In comparison
Thus
Therefore
So
Hence
As a result
Consequently
As such

cA ? -3
=C$ ? -3

,; b ? e = ,?
:3 P ,? =b8 9
1W - 7 -
V ?/ VW -3 -

Then

. 1 P ,? =b8
Historically
Conventionally
traditionally

<U$ A A
<
U$ A
<"- U$ /
<7
< X;
<=x B1 -3
Bx B1

? A- 3 e
Anyway
Anyhow
In any case
e.g. (exempha gratia)
For example (AmE)
For instance (BrE)
say
On the other hand
On the one hand

i.e.
(id est)
That is
That is to say
Namely
So to speak
In other words

=b8

=A < #

<=1 b1

=A

A < m?
A
m? V @ =A
$3

/
z$ /

< $3 2- d@ =A <, $
$3 U =A

. $W ,? ? "3 U A b ? =:b8 " -3 " ? 5$ A

b ? =:b8 / W -3 Ae /
/ ? -3 ` " 1 P ,? =b8 8 V b < $ A c? =:b8 "3 U A $ =:b8 / W -3 ` : UL.Y2 D IHG
N =A
,$- ; =A So called
3 3- e ; =A Somehow
,B
; =A Somewhat
#
1 - 3 s , ? ` ) =BPX` -3

/ W -3 - b < $ A =:b8

92

RT:
Removed
RT1

Condition

NOTE

NP1 VII NP2 ( which ) NP1 VI

which

=b8 = " 3 P ,? c 0{ RC=M5

whom

whom

/ A / 7
3 P ,?

NP1 ( which ) NP1 VI PP VII NP2

whom

RT2

NP who

be

P.P.

is,are

Ving

which was,were adj

RT2 Prof

PP
NP 1

RT2 Prof

NP 1
PP
PP

R
R
R

NP R

(to be P.P) tx?

=BPX` c .
VP

NP

(to be Ving)

M2

NP

(to be adj) V P <V3 A <UB

. P A =BP 1 3 8"

be to V
be to V
be to V

VP

If

=1 ` =A Sx? =:b8 "3 /

.9

adv

RT4 Prof

be

R ( NP be )

3 3 - If

$ d

=:b8 `

3 - (NP1 " ,0b c . ,$ xA 8) inversion

- 3 =:b8 / W -3 < P d1 ,;

NP

xA

,? -

$A

9; t

be PP
3 P c 0{

RT4

/A

=:b8 / W =A V

. $ A

S 1 =:b8 "3 / ,0$ / W -3 " P d1 t1W U A A- ! # =

RT3

= + NP :=b8

+ 9R

$3 c .

A VW

NP

- bB

1 P

=:b8 `Dq -3 ,R ? 3 e

V" A " 1- 1 RT3 =A , d -

,? Y e t1W =b8

=A inversion =A =8

=:b8 U0 ;

e lS8 !X# inversion

1 =:b8 ? . < $ A =:b8 /

P.P.
Ving
adj
NP
to V

1 P ,? inversion

VP
M2

NP1
NP1
NP1
VP
NP1

Sv

ADV
:3 P ,?

(RC

S,VP

e lS8 /

adv S 3 P ,?

/ A =$ =:b8 c . V ?/ "- /
to be
am, is, are : $W < #
was, were : =BPX` -3
$W <=BPX`

R (S,VP)) $ A =:b8 /

Sv

R / 7

93

RT1:
-

The old man (R) my sister has seen in the park is her university prof. (whom)

I saw the man (R) my mother hits. (whom)

RT2:
-

The chemical liquids (R be) running in spiral routes under the vertically-arranged cupper plates evaporate and soon start corroding the
plates. (which are)

The young educated recently employed ladies (R be) happy for the sudden unexpected raise in their monthly wages invited all their
colleagues to dinner.

(who were)

The rays (R be) deviated due to the thick cupper coil round the glass tube will be reflected to the photocells ( R be) transforming
their energy into a faint electric current upon reaching a small mirror on their way. (which are) (which are)

Prof: The inherent desire (R be) to develop a new teaching methodology in the field of translation coused him to spend 11 years to

devise an efficient teaching method. (which was)

RT3:
-

( If ) Had the students analyzed the sentences with the transformational techniques in their exam, they would have comprehended the
concepts (which were) necessary to answer the questions.

You may contact our office any time ( if ) should you require any information on our products or services.

( If ) Be it an extraordinary case in that district, the real estate staff would definitely grasp it themselves.

RT4:
-

This exercise will enlarge the arm muscles if ( NP be ) possible. (It is)

Whenever ( NP be ) required, the mechanical engineers use these delicate tools. (It is)

While ( NP be ) preparing the small white rats for the dissection session in the veterinary lab, the vets suddenly came across a queer
phenomenon ( R be ) contradicting a number of commonly-accepted principles in this discipline. (the vets were) (which was)

Prof:

When ( NP be ) still a school boy, I sold flowers on the street. (I was)

I don't know what ( I am ) to do.

I don't know where ( I am ) to go.

94

I don't know how ( I am ) to play football.

RT

Removed

Condition

NOTE
/

RT5A

adv NP be

P.P.
Ving
adj

A " =:b8 sW " " , $) /

adv NP be < P A / ? t1W /

VP
M2

NP1
NP1

.9
RT5

while

to V

adv

$ A ((Puntuation) N@

e lS8 <A 9; # -3 .9
$ ` ,? RT2 ={ b

P !X#
-

=:b8 sW
. $"- ,?

ZR

RT5B

while

3 1_ 8 `

/ W -3 P.P., Ving, adj

A"

VP

NP1

in order =. u ! # !X#

.-

,B# -

3 ,? PP c 0{ ?

=b8 - [ bA =b8 -3 "

NP be

" 3 B.
.3 P ,?

If
.9

RT5C

having P.P.

VP

NP

adv NP be
After

P !X# after =. u ! # adv NP be

After having been P.P.

(V P ...) tx? - ? + / 7

RT6A

to
P.P.
NP have NP
get
to be

V:
help, let, make, have, watch, see,
hear, notice, would rather, had better

NP V
NP V
that

- dx? <V3

...) Y : ? - ? + / 7

- 3 " : have " make

t: .

,? NP2 < help " would rather 3- ? -3 .

.3 P ,? !X# NP2 ={ b

.9

had better 3- ?

# V ?/ " V3 A BtA , $ had better

t1W ,: . A - to " 9C 1

synonym 3- ? -3 RT6

@e

.9C 1 !X# cA e
V {

V: Expressive Verb
RT6B

<V3

-3 ,;" < $ 1 1

(V3

V P d

NP V NP

xA

After having P.P.

say, tell, state, mention, note, express,

explaine, illustrate, describe, declaire,
announce, think, believe, offer, suggest,
hold, maintain, recommend, wish,hope

- S v =v

-3 -3 =Q ,; . :,1 A .

.( v =A 3 B@ <V3 A B ?

-3 =1) 9

? A t maintain " hold

RC
t: .

. BC ,1 A UBP 3

95

RT5A:
-

( adv NP be) Preparing the small white rats for the dissection session in the veterinary lab, the vets suddenly came across a queer
phenomenon (R be) contradicting a number of commonly-accepted principles in this discipline. (While the vets were) (which was)

( adv NP be ) Fully transformed to an odd organism in the lab, the beast started to tremble, (NP be) emitting a colored gas from its
nostrils

( R be ) rasing upward. (While the beast was) (while It was) (which were)

( adv NP be) Really sad for the sudden tragic demise of his dear newly-wedded wife in such a horrible car crach, Mark wiped his
tears and left the church with a tall blond lady (While Mark was)

RT5B:
-

( adv NP be) To explain the problem in detail, the professor had to analyze it into its constituent parts. (If the professor were)

In order to explain the problem in detail, the professor had to analyze it into its constituent parts.

RT5C:
-

(After) Having discovered the truth about that complicated legal (homicide) case , she decided to dedicate a full column to it in the
paper.

The Mi6 agents were determined to report the case to the headquarters, (after) having been informed of the deadly plot of the
bandits to assassinate the Queen.

RT6A:
-

Mina helped her husband (to) wash the dishes.

This might sound like a strange way to get things (to be) started.

RT6B:
-

They announced (that) the poor people could receive subsidies.

96

:<=s
.3 P ,? =b8
1

,? ,B# A <(

3 V {1 B{ A - can bB#

s ,? , $) 9
.

,? 3- ? % -3 may

can ,; bB# k 1 tBe" ,: s <9C 1 =BPX` ={ b could

,b1 9d

=BPX` =A 8 - $ $3 ` <

=b8

,?

:can D may <\MD*2

May I go out?

V" A Y" A 9C

It's may rain.

.3- dA V - A 9

Can I go out?

V" A Y" A 9C

It can rain.

=b8

can

,? - may U$ A A .3- 1 may - can Y

It doesn't make sense. :9C 1 - 3 , ?

He is a sensible person. .9

? Y3W "

U0b? : bB# -

.3- dA V - A 1
.Y" A A 9s-3 U$ /

,$ -

/ 8 : / 8 -

:may

3 A-

: can

3 A-

/ 8 : / 8 -
,? : bB# -

,? U? :,$ 1

? <3- 3 can ={ b

.7# VW Y"3 , ? " 9

- may

,$ -

Y tR? Sense " , ?

sensitive lady : M C# 1 s
.

=b8

YS:BC? - "3

involved , required

< B

: eliciting

,? and A- ! #

? =A 1 M2 ={ b an other " other

{? _ V $3 <V
.(9

,0$ t1W 7 8 V v )

( 1SA / ? $ d1 " 9

9R

3 A-

,; ) . $3

.9
(U - ` : undertaker) V
.( given that = =0 $ . A) 3

=b8

=A - M1, M2, M3 1

=:b8 "3 $ VP "3 A - 3- ? % -3 ,(and, or, but)

de <UBs 3 <UB. `

UBP 3 A " 3

t@ A <V3

. =. u ! # V

. A =A {?

? =A 9

8 <V3 3 Y x1 : Undertake
,? - =:b8

BA -3 Given

? =. u ! # analogous to

.9

? =. u ! # out of

97

<=A 9dC1 </ 9

,0$ =

=b8

"

$- 3 ,C :1 -3 than k 1 =
. $W ,? NP VW
. $W ,? (S) =:b8 VW

.(9

,0$ VW

A " cde) 9

A- ! # < ?W VW

.3 P NP VW cde M1 A "
. 1SA c?
(9

8 B? V3 A -

?W =1 {1 <9C 1 :) .

- / ? " $ A =. u ! # - VW

01 =b8

U v "

=b8

VW /

.3- 1 ,A- than =A more

A = =. u ! # than 5$ (

A= 9
A

e lS8 than 5$ (
1 ?"

R$ - N 1 1

9; # -3 (

,? ={ b VP

A of < 3 A of / cde NP U {1 8 9R
A NP A . < $ A NP 9

NP
9e"

U0b? as " such U A

Such English novels as The Debacle can influence people

(... ,C :1
.3 P ,? =b8

,t8

t1 ?- U v )... Y3 ? A 1- XA

,? ("/ c ? ), b8 =B 3 - B{ 1 ? ,C :1

cA e- A ,? b@ V B? -3 ,;" 3 P ,? =b8

- 3 , ? - A

( C b ?) 1/ . Y

- ?W " ,0PS V B? -3 significantly

/ ?W 1 3 :3- 3 , ?

S v =A UBs 3 <V3 3S? 1 <V P

. $ ` ,?
.

,? =b8

`-3 :3- 3 , ?

: - =b (too, more, most, very) often , - . -3

P V A/ V B? -3) <9. A : Context

-"W cb@ ( UBs 3 ( V3 - B.- ( V3

.3 P , - A $ A

2) She didn't treat me well.

3) I will treat this problem

U$"

4) Concrete treatment
:Y :@ $

. UBP 3 / 1 , $ P A ,:
You need n't answer my question.

.,

A-

-3 (

98

V ?-3 ( : Treat

5) Water treatment
A 2-

c . ` " V3 A Y/

9C 1 Y/

engage

tP" . =v-

"3 Junior

` / 1 - SA yardstick

B? =A <9

UB? (,
_W = R (

t1 ?-

:,

P V A/ -3 ( :Formulation

? =A 9

,0b . lS8 need :

:MR Me
(- ?

? =b8 ) Meaning-based Translation _ B -3 Mildred L.Larson 1 s [1 / _ s =b8

(3 {1 3 $/ "
(

,? tR?) 9e3 " 9

1 =b8
( ? "

A) V3 A , d : Naturalness -
[ ? <Y tA /

- @) u" : Clarity -

:MR Me f;/
1) SVO

t `}$"

: Accuracy -

lD=J lL=^0 ISRLG

SOV (c . " R? ,$ xA 8)

2) Extraposition ( B1 - B{`)
.

,? cB ? = / cde =A - ,:
.9P 3

:A e =

?W

c . $

3 ,? c =:b8
. ?W [ 9P 3

tB1 =A - RC

:A e = ]

C
:<=s

.
. ... =

,?

btRA P xA 8 RC ` =0 $

A<

3 ,? _ 8 3- ? % -3 =Bd; .9
B 3 3 RB

3 . 7 :

-3

,?

=B 3 VW / $ 3-"W

? , ` ,;"

,? 3 x$ - 1 ={ b Extraposition -

B 3 [ $ b1 ,? U =A UxtBC? M d; = ] 3" ?

$ (RC / cde)

tB1 bB#
.9

. BP 3 U =A

M d; =

13 A ( )2 e 3S1 ( )V Bs d; ? A

. ... ,::b; U A

{$ b1 / ( V {1 3 B

. B. ,? Z R
It is said [ that Ali cant finish his PhD program]. (

,? - NP1

- ? VP

Extrapos ` -

3 A

3 . 7 :
Y

A RC

- ( )V 3/3 ( )V 1 d

/ =B 3 VW ) ,1 3 B

b V $ x{1 3

NP " RC , $ S v "3 3- ? -3 . Extraposition -

8 . " 3 P ,b1 =b8

8 ? V" A It)

It is good to see you. (To see you is good)

99

:
=:b8 sW to A - ? $ RC ) P A

P Y x1 =:b8 VW -3 Extraposition 1 " P A 8 ? V" A " =

$ A It

bu 1

,? , -

=\K <=s

-3 =:b8

BA -3

.( P A =B. was Ali who broke the window.

a)She

b)He

. $ A 1

c)It

d)They

,? 8 ? V" A It . "

P Extrapos =

3 A Who broke the window was Ali. =:b8 c

=A A-

3) Compounding:
.3 P ,?
.3

` :8 =B0

/" A / " 3

- t1W =1 s R 8 MR Dm

A-

R =A t1W D2R 3

e $ (conj) A- ! # =:

9d

2Nb8 , $

(" ) M d@ A (" ) e 9.- M d@ =1 s =A ,:@ : m?

4) Complexing (Embedding):
/

w/

,? ,1 ?/ .

A-

=A

e lS8 $ (R)

? =:

2Nb8 , $ (
.

BA -3 - =
.3 P 3 RB

? -3 - B{` B{? NP /

=:b8 "3 V3 3 A-

A (= ,; # -3)

xA 9

.9P 3 U =A , - ?
Decomplexing $ Decompounding VW c#

- " 3 P ,?

d; <n
t

3 RB

{# Y"3 C "

.9.- M d@ =1 s =A /" $3 9P 3 U =A , - ?

.9

w
C : m?

B{? NP C Z . =:b8 -3

U0b? .3 P ,? !X# " 9

.9P 3 U =A , - ?

d; C VW .9.- M d@ =1 s =A /" $3

A .70@ A $ 3"- ,? " =:b8 cs 3 Y"3 =:b8 $ .9

e lS8 / =

=1"-3)

P A =BP 3 B{? NP 5$ =:b8 "3 -3 =

.9P 3 U =A , - ?
=:b8

` =1 < /

,? -3

d; <n

UDp l0 9.- M d@ =1 s =A /" $3

C VW

d; 9.- M d@ =1 s =A /" $3 =

:A # / A Complexing $ Compounding =:

A =:b8

5) Decompounding:
.A$ A NP1)

3 A-

=A - =:b8 "3 Y tR?

=BP X` A-

e =1 /

A <( 1 {1 =BCC` =:b8 "3) 3" 1 U A / =:b8 "3 ,$

. ... 9t8 U b =A. ... # U$ A .3

100

e " A- ! # c? / ?

9d

M d@ A " 7

=:b8 9C0P
? d - =0 $

.9.- M d@ =1 s =A ,:@ : m? .(3 P - 0

6) Decomplexing:
.
/ 3

Y tR? ` .(3 .

1 =A =BCA)

$-"W ,? =$ =:b8

tB1 $

BA -3 =:b8 5$ V

?"

e lS8 c? /

@ =A B{? NP A

=:b8 9C0P

- RC " 3

!X# - =

.
- $ s =$ {1 U$ v _ B ,::b; U A

{$ b1 / [

BP 3

t@ A = tA _ B1 -3 - t1W ,b:@ 9$

,? 3 RB

= ] V {1 3 B

A-

b V $ x{1 3

.[ 13 A - 3- s A ,$ SCA ,b:@ /- / ,b = ] 13
. 13 A - 3- s A ,$ SCA ,b:@ /- / ,b

13

- $ s =$ {1 U$ v _ B ,::b; U A
. BP 3

2 $ {1 = 9P 3 V @

$ A =Bd; . 13

{$ b1 / V {1 3 B

t@ A = tA _ B1 -3 - t1W ,b:@ 9$

- $ s =$ {1 U$ v ...

{$ b1 /

BP 3

t@ A ...9$

V {1 3 B

b V $ x{1 3
=0 $

= V {1 3 B

V$P

b V $ x{1 3

. 13 A - 3- s A ,$ SCA ,b:@ /- / ,b - X?
.

,?

.
7) Complex

,?

B 3 [ $ b1 ,? U =A UxtBC? M d; = ] -

3 . 7 :

B 3 - t1W S 1 7 : . $ b1 ,? U =A UxtBC? M d;

3 .

Compound

Compound =A - Complex Nb@ , $ .

3 ,? A-

=A A- ! # A - A"3 " $W ,? 3 8 A A- ,A "

,?

B 3 - t1W S 1 7 : "

=:b8

"3 3 P Decomplex ` , `

$ b1 ,? U =A UxtBC? M d;

3 . : m? .

,? c$ d

8) SAE (,$N - B{`)

=:b8
.

,?

B 3 [ $ b1 ,? U =A UxtBC? M d; = ] .

@ c$ d

3 . 7 :

B 3 - UxtBC? M d; A

3 . 7 : (PP)

,?

B 3 - UxtBC? M d; =A 7d:?

3 . 7 : (M2)

3 ,b1

- =:b8 , ? " 3 P xA 8 1

,?

- Bs

101

9) Movement (,$ xA 8)
` :8 VW V3 A , -3 , / ce # <

BC1 B1 ` .

.
(, -3 , PP
(9

= ) .9

P c$ d M3 =A

1 [1 =A - 0

$3

k e" =A U

/ ? -3

,? xA 8 1W "

k e" =A B{$- / 2- e =A ,d t? =;S;/ U -3

PP 5$) .9

,?

e
,?

tP -3

-3

tP -3 B{$- / 2- e =A ,d t? =;S;/

-3

::;2 <=>
-3)

=:b8 -3 VW 1 <PP ,$ xA 8 -3 9

Uab? .(

? BQ A

t1W )

.9
The flowers on the table are beautiful.

=B. { RT2 3- ? lS8

. BC

(On the table) The flowers are (on the table) beautiful on the table.
. BC

d$/

-" u e ? -3 ? <
d$/ S ?

BC S ?

a1 3 RB
PP .(9

Uab? #

- B{` U$ /

s bB# % ,$ xA 8

"- t:`

"- =Q ,$ t:`

which are

. RC
10) NP

A tB ? 9C

e Y"3 =:b8 -3 PP

RC
. Q ,?

` :8 c .

" =Q

/ - B{` U$
:beR j>d

. $- X` ,? (RC

BA ) =Q
. B. `

(- ?

8 " 3 Q - ?

[0

= S$- <- ? = V3 Q S$-) . B. `

$ - ? =A c$ d - c . " 3 Q !X# - =Q

Ml

Q / -SA

< ] ,?

V 3-

Q / -SA

Ml Y

V 3-

: e0 j>d
=A "

P Y 3 ,t NP A c . - ? 9; # U$ -3 .

3 ,b1 _ 8 " caP $3 (, - . -3 =w1W <S v cm?) P A ,t =Q / cde NP `

.3 P ,? c$ d

. P 8 1

=A

1? . - B 3

.3 d1 ? -3 A /

. P 8 [ 3 A 3 3 - B 3 1

b# =B

s
102

.3 d1 ? [ 3 A =B

=A

s -3 A /

1 ? . =Q ] =w1W

b# =Q ]

Sv

11) ADV

Compound S
.7a@ A " Q ? =:b8 =A
.3 P ,? _ C? Complex
. 13 1 =? 3 3 s R

e =:b8 $/ <9

=A t1W < $- A ,?

. 13 1 =? 3 3 s R

=A /

Complex

[3 A

=A t1W MR Dm . $- A ,?

e =:b8 c$ d

Compound - B{` =@ bx? $/ - B{` U$

P / W =BPX` P / =Q ] ,1 - A <>HMDE q `R
=A /

<3 A

P / W =BPX` P / =Q ,1 - A

12) RT6B
" c . "

Q ,?

/ A .9

P !X# that Y"3 NP / cde 3 B. =Q ,e R <3 A (Expressive) ,1 A " c . NP V NP V - Bs

.3 P ,? RC
.( v =A -

-3 =1) 9
.

NP2 VW / 7 " 3 P ,? ,B . "3

- S v =v

-3 -3 =Q ,; . :,1 A .

- ,b1 S ? =A Q - A =Q 9P 3 3 B@ 9P 3 3 B@ - S v =v

(.9C 1 ,1 A 7 <9
-

RC V {

-3 `

3- s v -

U$ ) .3 P

=Q 3- s 3- s - S v =v

Expressive Verbs: say, tell, state, mention, note, express, explaine, illustrate, describe, declaire, announce, think, believe, offer,
suggest, hold, maintain, recommend, wish, hope, hear,
:<=>
. BC ,1 A UBP 3 3 B@ <V3 A B ?
V3 A B ? (
V3 A B ? (

They announced the poor people could receive subsidies.

. - =1 - $

? A t maintain " hold

V3 Q - S` A (

Q 9. $-3

V3 Q
1

,?

t: .

UBP 3 =1 (

: Hold

- t1 <V3 Q R# ( : Maintain

. 3 . =Q 13 Q YN@ t1W

that
She held the paper in the box should be discarded.

(:).3 P =Bs 1 -"3 $ A =Q =d 8 -3

that

X Q 9P 3 =1 "

(=d 8 3 s =1) .3 P =Bs 1 -"3 $ A =d 8 cs 3

X Q =Q 3 A B ? "

103

13) Expressive Verbs

PP
. Q ,? 3

- =:b8 "
.9

Q ,? !X# - (,1 A c . /
3 A 9e

=A - -

A) =Q z$ " c . z$

t; 3 A

=. u ! # " ` =A ,1 A . c$ d

?W t1W =1 s =A /" $3 =Q

C < 0

. ... /" $3 =Q
... U? 3 B@ =A

: lD=J lL=^0
(Compounding) (

A A- - VP "3 $ =:b8 "3 = ) A(Complexing)

$ A 1

? (

.3

- /

D;_p |Rl e

,? =:b8 ,:

9d

=m^ lL=^0 ISRLG

$ A c . / 7 Z . 3- ? "3 /

c . / 7 S v"3 t

A " 9.- 3 8 =1 s =A /" $3

[ .9
(9

C V} A - =A
... =Q Y B ? U?

.0Ld :=} jY+ < IMD <_./ -

e $ A- ! # (
e lS8 $

2 lLK r H

- b A -3 A = ] 9R` UC#

Sv

) .f^R )_ D l |`D^ -

( $- 3 {# = $ e =$ =:b8 -3 , $ ) {# = $ e =A !X# -
< $3 ` !- B? # / A - S` / 3 t1 =:

.-

U$ A = , (.3

-3 ) (

cB ? =:b8

tB1 =A - RC V

( $3 =:b8 5$ =A V3
13
(9C 1 =BCA "
(3 P cB ? /

=:b8

- $ s =$ {1 U$ v V {1 3 B

=A = 9

/ ? -3) ,:de =:b8 V"-3 =A B1 -

b =Bd; _ B ,::b; U A

,? B1 - B{` $ /

c$ d " UBC0P) Decomplexing -

{$ b1 / (,1 3 B

NP 5$ , $ {1 <3 P !X# RC ` ) [ . 13 A - 3- s A ,$ SCA ,b:@ /- / ,b

V"-3 =A $ A " 3- 1 3 8" {# = $ e) [ . BP 3

t@ A = tA _ B1 -3 - t1W ,b:@ 9$
104

= ] V {1 3 B

b ) V $ x{1 3

= ] , $ {1
A

b =Bd;

(
(

=:b8 3 -3 - PP "

!X# - = () $ (9C 1 {e ,: s)

P BA

- /

A c . " NP $ A () $

. $/ CA c . VW =. u ! # / " 3 A =:b8 3 -3 - PP <

13

. 13
5$ t1W =:

,? ,

- U$ -3 - t1W

BP 3

01 !X# - = () $

13 3 Y x1 ,1 3 B

PA

- 1W $ A

_TR jY+ `R

$ dA

{$ b1 / V $ x{1 3

- - 0 $ t1W =Bd;

t@ A = tA _ B1 -3 - t1W ,b:@ 9$

t@ A = tA _ B1 -3 - t1W ,b:@ 9$

. =0 $ =1) .3 P -3 dB? U =A t1W d - [1 5$ -3 =

Decomplexing -3

- $ s =$ {1 U$ v _ B ,::b; U A

. ... ,b:@ 9$
. BP 3

- /

V {1 3 B

=Bd;

<n V {1 3 B

=Bd;

s.n jY+ e |lR

`R 0D; <_TD+ -
.( P A Y3

.f\H t^Dm2 <_./ rDMD] l0 jY+ :nR K -

( 01 3 x$

-3

? - 1 = , P =A) Extraposition

Decomplexing

Compound

SAE

RC

Complex

NP

.f\H beRI=2
=:b8

=1 ` ? ,

` 9
W= )

0?

=:b8 sW V v <( 1 P ,?

3 ,? A-

^lD+ l0 (
Bs U $

URL=2 |DKLn lDH\ |D e) Im_ lDH\ V./ `R |0D1=^R -

1 =A "

P k" P A

1 /)9

V B.

=A Complexing " Compounding "- "3 =A - 2Nb8 =1 ` U$ .3 ` ,? 2.3 P ,? 3 RB

Decomplexing " Decompounding /

ds 2Nb8
=B0

:A 2Nb8

$ A ,; B?

A"(

,? 3 x$

105

.( $ A $ A
,? =b8 =

/ 3 $/ =: . A
= "3 ,B#) f\H t^Dm2 ^lD+ l0 <n e0 `R H :nR K -
- ,: . A - " = 2 d
e lS8 .
,? =b8 = - RC
NP " RC=M5 x{1 3
Decomplexing (
Complex

Compound (
SAE (
NP

(=:b8 " -3 A- ! # UBP X` "

e lS8 UBP 3 A) ADV

( ,1 A c . /

Compound S (
A =Q !X#) RT6B (

Expressive Verbs
@ 7 < B. ,? Z R M3 $ M2 3- ? -3 2 . u A .9

SAE VW c#

- .f^R )_

PP (

^lD+ l0 (Ip `R H | \n) VD+DzR - DK -

. 1 c$ d cA e " 1

V $ ,?N
.9P 3 :
.(

,? !X# - {# V A/ " {# = - 0 )

.3 {1 3 RB

,$ P

V $ ,?N

$? .

- tb8 =A = ,B{

- 33 s , -3 , " V C0$

RC (

- Bs

- tb8 ,B{

s 1 5e

-3

B 3 -

s 1 =A : B? 5e

-3 =A A ?

B 3 -

" V ` "

`- 0A / :(k

( /
bu) Pronominalization
(8 ?
2 - d@) co-refrence terms
9 , 2 #N
A :(!3 B? / 3 RB ) synonymy
{# = $ e =A !X#
( make " take ,t . ) Dummy Verbs

(
(
(
(
(

) variety jTR -

- 0 V ` "

Variety c

SAE (
Movement (
106
=. # | ? ) A 9 . =A . 9 . (

/
- 0

: /
.9

P !X#

P 2-" u =A

; =

3 A " $/ <

,b1 de - " V BC

.3- 3 9$3" ?

"

bu /

bu
.

3 RB

:8 ?
. ... " = ; - {? <

P 3 $ 3 . < 3 d? 1 < [1 3- ? 3 . <- X? P <" <UC# :9

,0$ V { 8 ? ,;"

BC 1

2 - d@
bu
:,t .

. BC b ? make " take . " 1 P ,? 3 RB

,$ P 5$ -3 " 2- 1 =A get, do, go

: A 9 . =A . 9 .

- 8 5$ < P A 5$ ,: . 9 . ` 7 . $W ,? =. u ! # A " 9

.3 P ,? c$ d NP =A " 3 P ,? !X# =. u ! # VW
.(9

k e" =A) 1 / ; - U
" , - . -3

.9

) Im=\H t^Dm2 |0D1=^R

3 RB

. 1 P ,? 3 RB

. 13 3 =? 3 3 s R

^lD+ lI2 :^R DM

V3 3 A-

IHG u / -

A complexing " Compounding

V - A (=a1W - =A) =v `

=A t1W (U$ A A) < $- A ,?

S D; q <MD] <

-3 : m?

vD2RK ) l { p e

=A t1W ( ? ) < $- A ,?

. 13 1 =? 3 3 s R
.f^R {p j DG 8f^R

$ A ,B . "3 c .

tP (-3) B{$- / 2- e =A ,d t? =;S;/

.(,C :1 -3

: "3

NP2 VW 3 / ? NP <,B . 5$ VW , - . " 3 A ,B . "3 ,: . `

k 2 l0D2 l0

V - A =a $ x1W /
lI2

- ? A = V3 3 <,A @ =$ A =

:V3 3

- ? A = V3 Q 8,A @ =$ A = z aR :V3 Q z aR

, - . =$ A = P Q </-" :V3 Q P Q <V3 Q /-"

107

( = + ,u ? UA = ,; R? 9R ) .f^R )_ <mM G reI e rD2`

jY+ rRLmS < (

ULY12 f1T)

9.- " 3- s , $

.3"- ,? "

"

"

"

9.- ,? " 3- s ,? , $

.9.- ,? "

"

"

"

s "

"

"

"

=B.- "

"

"

"

.3 A =B.- "

"

"

"

"

P A =B.- " P A 3- s , $ . P A =B.- "

"

"

"

"

s " 3- s

e lS8 <

s , $ .9.-

=B.- " 9

3- s , $ .9

3 A =B.- " 3 A 3- s , $

.f^R )_
(...

^lD+ l0 (

S L ) < DyH

? <A- ! # <=. u ! # :, $ 2 3 ).9. ` e $3

.9
.9

- =A .

,? -

- " 9
)

D; D ` VR0R `R |0D1=^R
e " 9R

=. u ! # ,:@ : - ,:@

=A A .9

s A <

<c . <

? <

! # :

,:@

; ? <c.NA <=:

.NA

$-"W ,? =Q / cde =A - - ) .f^R )_ jY+ `R IY Rl

. 3 P ,?

:A e =Q Rl

t1 A/ / V

d A $

7:xb; ,. <Ua ; <Ua; <(Y x1

3 Q V" A =1 s / 9P 3

.9.- = - ? =A " 3- s - $ X ,:@

3"- ,? " 3i- s ,? , $

9.{# = $ e =A !X#

1Te </e `R |0D1=^R

C b#

108

c ./

A - P A =BP 3 RC=M5 bP NP2 `

.3 Q V" A =1 s / Rl 9P 3

:A e =Q

C b#

-
-

.^R |e

.(,C :1 7a@ A) 9C 1 /- S # , - . -3 2 R
.
.

Q =b8

M3 / cde

Q xA 8

,? - M2 < Q ,b1

,;

,? 3 d1 ; 8
- M3 M2

rel0 MR Me

:beR |ISDG

M2 ,;

U$ A A

BC Ub? ,Be" : e0 |ISDG

Young smart Tehran university students

V t

{1 3 V 8

A V $ x{1 3

V 8

AV t

{1 3 V $ x{1 3
: L^ |ISDG

=b8

M2 2- A " 3 A

A - tBR

VW 7

Q !X# ,:Q =A - t1W

,?

BP 3 - - ? $ 3

.3 P ,? c$ d b8 =A
B{ A

" =Q ,$

<3 A - bP cA e t1W

d$/ V Bs3
3 $/

b1 9 bQ -3

d$/ Bs3

tA BQ

` .

B{ A 3

3 $/ 3

_ BQ

109

:(Impersonalization)

=A V {

"

P A =BP 1 by =Q

tB ? 3 P ,? Y : ? c . .3 Q ,P

d =A . U$ .( tx? c . A ,abQ c .)

- c . " 3 Q =b8

VW / cde - z$ , $ .3 Q 3 RB

@ e U$ / V

( .3 P ,? ,P ( 1 < $ < $ <3 <

This point
NP1

can be explained

in an easier way.

AuxPV

PP

This system must be organized in a new fashion.

(3 S ?3W

).

(,Q

) .3 Q $ {

(3 S ?3W

NP1

may be clarified

using such techniques.

AuxPV

<Y) =

1 ?/

The stones can be corroded in the river.

(=1 s3"- _W
(

Y/ c . /

3 RB

,? - =Ba1 U$

1 ?/

$ A BC

U$

P =A $ A - BC

U$

3 RB

AV

,? ca{?
,? - ca{?

) .=1 s3"- -3 1 P 3

,? t

) .=1 s3"- -3

,? t

A $ $

:(Y : ? =A (c R ?) tx? c$ d ) Passive

$ 3 01 9 P c . -3 =1 . c@ . = 3 P ,? 3 RB
=b8

Y : ? 2- A - =:b8

.,:@ 9

u ? e ? ,: s " 9C 1 - $ , - . -3 =0 ; # -3 9
.3 P ,? xA 8

Active

,1 ?/ (c R ? , $) Passive ,C :1 -3 ,;" <9C 1 Y : ? :@ . , $ tx? , - . -3

,? <3 P ,? Y : ? by, via, or through

The door was unlocked by Ali.

,? =Ba1 U$

A 3 P UP"- 1

.3 b1 UP"- ,$ ta a U v /

PP

,P"- =A V

$ 8
3 RB

z$

P A c . , - . -3) .,P

P =A 3 P ,

.,$ ta a U v /

d H

,? P A 3 S ?3W ,CQ =v

,P"- =A 3 P $ {

). $ 8
.3 Q ,

The problem

`D^

$- 3 (Auxiliary Passive Verbs) Aux PV - Bs

u ? M B

A P / A -3

c@ . ,Be" U$ A A . P A
.3

t? VW c@ . / R? V P Y x1

/ A - -3 cRe ,:@

u ? / W u ? ,C :1 -3 .3"- ,? U A / =:b8 -3
u ?

A V 1 s e ? .(3 P
.3/
110

1 sM B
? -P

= 3 P- 9

V" A ` ) 3 ` ,? - e
.3/ - P

U0b?
3- ? Y"3
? : m?

:(,: R ) The Comparative , the Comparative lD=J

. P A ,?

... < ... =v

@ e U$

VW =b8

.9

P !X# however

P d1 =:b8 " ` ) $ A =:b8 "

$A= 9

NP3 $ NP2

However

adv

,: R

VW ,A3

M2

NP2

VII M2

"3 " `

8 the comparative ` :=B01

? = $ e =A !X# :cm? 1

. 1 bA ,: R 9bCe . " 3 P !X# 1

The sooner, the better.

NP2

A = =:b8

?W , ,C :1 =A 2 A3 / - B{` U$ V v

to be c . t =1 U$ A A .

NP1

/ ?

Y"3 =:b8 3- ? % -3 P A ,: R " =:b8 `

- B{` <

The bigger (the boat) (is), the safer (the cruise) (will be).
However

8 , ` ,;" 9C 1 ,:0{? P A NP1

.9

more adj
less
adv
adj-er

ADV

.(9C 1 - `/

The Comparative , the Comparative

more adj
less adv
adj-er

e lS8 <3 A the comparative 1

.3 A

?W VW
,?

b
NP =0:A

. BtA < 3"/ =v

U? ,$ $-3 R

< P A B`-SA $ e =v

VII

NP1

The more expensive car you have bought, the less quickly you can sell it.
NP2

However

VII

NP1

adv

NP1

VII

NP2

. P" RA 1W

,?

$3 < P A

$ s

V ` U P ? bP =v

The larger the particle size, the longer it takes to eliminate this residual pore; the benefit of small particle size .
However

adv

NP

adv

VII

NP1

.
The more I see you, the less I like you.

NP2

!X# -

1 b e A (XR ?)

. $W ,? P s bP / Bb <

APP

R# U$ =

{ ,? B{ A VW <( P A) B`-SA - / 1 =v

A ,? - bP B{ A =v

111

` . PA 1

,? S 1 (R)

2" R t1W =b8

adv
R

adv

? $

# U$ A .9

However
Whether
Whoever
Whatever

- e

e lS8 (
?

?W Nde

VW =b8

{ cA e ,`3

e lS8 e $ 1 to ` " (

s ,? NP " 9

=A) P A 1

,? A-

=. u ! # V v) 9

:(=? 3 ) IHG u /
e =0 $ A "N@ however

? R e $ A to VW / cde

. P A ,? - e

<=v

= ,C
= =v

,b1 ,e . =b8

-3

P A =v

provided that book cm? =01W ? 9

< 1

<=v

Whatever we told her, she rejected. ( ? adv )

Whatever we told her was useless. ( ?R)

.3

3- " <" =A

.3 A

,b1
-

e lS8 3- ? % -3 < ?W that A ` provided

.9C 1 tx? = =:b8 V v . $ 1

.(

"

?W c BC? -3 = 3- ? - tv

. P A =BPX` c . ( - _ B VW 3

provided (that) =01W P =A

providing
=01W A " {?
incase
once

Whatever book

"9

.)

. $W ,b1 that A providing

dBP RT5 $ RT2 A - providing " Provided

P =BR` Nde) 3 P ,?

e lS8 < $ A or A Whether

BR` ? = =v

$ . ,A " =A

BR` ? = =v

= ,A B

(RT5) Provided you study hard, you can pass my exam.

. 1 -XA 9 . ? A ? V B?

,?

= ; ? 9

=01W P =A

You can pass my exam, (RT2) providing you study hard.

Once I went to my uncles home.

3 d1 ,0$ 3 A ,0$ <,1 ?/ < - `/"- < /"-

I saw her just once.

adv
=d ? 5$ <= . 0$ <- d0$

Once

adv

/"-

.Y $3 - " - d0$ . U?

I studied this book once.

=01W / 7 <(=01W / 7 , ? A) =0 ?

.Y 1 s - d0$ - _ B U$ U?

Once you finish your homework, you can watch TV.

.

Once you answer my question, you can leave the class.

. $ b@ S ? Y3 A =B.-

P b V $S$ :
.
112

- MN

,? $3
1

Y b - V BR ; 0 bP (=01W / 7) =0 ?

,? $3 3 ?

(=0 ?

) =01W / 7

: Grammatical Jokers
etc (et cetra)
and so on
and so forth
and bla bla bla
and the like

. 1 P ,? k 1 V b /

$ A =v

Abbas, Taghi, and Jafar and so on.(NP)

A , $ 1- 3 -

.9

In the park, at home, in the office, etc. (PP)

/ A Z-" -3 Joker 1 V b - B 3 -3

" =b =b8

. ... " 1 P ,? NP $ A NP A `

(V - ab " , $ et al) .and , $ et V v 3- 1 and =A B# etc t

Carefully, optimistically and so forth. (adv)

Studied, analized and bla bla bla. (verb)

:(Interrogative Sentences) -J^ ] V./

Yes-No

. W? Wh {

Aux S (Aux NP VP)

=b:

A 9

Yes-No 2-

=A < - 3 {

=:b8 k 1 "3 c -3
: Yes-No Question

Sint

. -"W? =:b8 " =A 3 8" 2-

Wh Aux S

3 A

Wh
Wh VP

(NP1 =?)

-3 - (Aux) 0b c . {

?W c .

NA

"

2- A c . " (3 P? Did Does) -"W? Do

? ;

=:b8 k 1 U UBs
Do A

- 1 0b c . Be"

<(3 A =BPX` 3 A =B. ` P Y

s)

. W? 3
:<./ K

el

.3 P? =. u VW BA =A W
Ali can plays the piano well.

.3/

A _ s - 1 1 ? :@

Can Ali play the piano well?

3/

A _ s - 1 1 ? :@ W

Ali plays the piano well.

.3/ 1? _ s - 1 :@

Does Ali play the piano well?

3/ 1? _ s - 1 :@ W

113

:Wh Question
3- ?

A =:b8 NP1 =w1 v .

? =. u VW " Wh 5 7

.(9C 1 8 B# ... " Aux =A) - X`? 8 - {

=b: " 3

? ;

Yes-No 2-

!X# - NP1 t <(3 P

=A - =:b8

BA <{

NP1 / {

2 b: /
=b:

3 RB

)3 `- e
:<./ K

.
Ali plays the piano well.

.3/ 1? _ s - 1 :@

How does Ali play the piano? (well)

- 1 3/ 1? :@ =1 v

What does Ali play well? (the piano)

_ s 3/ 1? :@ - S v=v

What does Ali do well? (plays the piano)

_ s

? =. u VW BA =A - {

=b: <=:b8 =b8

el
/ 7

3? Y x1 :@ - - =v

Our four computers calculated the necessary amount of public subsidy quickly in the research center last year.
.=BPX`

2 S ? -3 - B;"3 =1 - Y/ V S ? 13

=d

? ?

- tv

Where did our four computers calculate the necessary amount of public subsidy quickly last year? (in the research center)
When did our four computers calculate the necessary amount of public subsidy quickly in the research center? (last year)
How did our four computers calculate the necessary amount of public subsidy in the research center last year? (quickly)
What did our four computers calculate quickly in the research center last year? (the necessary amount of public subsidy)
How did calculate the necessary amount of public subsidy quickly in the research center last year? (our four computers) ... 3

How many computers calculated the necessary amount of public subsidy quickly in the research center last year? (four)
How many of our computers calculated the necessary amount of public subsidy quickly in the research center last year? (four)
Whose four computers calculated the necessary amount of public subsidy quickly in the research center last year? (our)

114

=d

? S v =v

The four computers calculated our five errors in the research center last year.
.=BPX`

2 S ? -3 - ? s 13

=d

- tv

Where did the four computers calculate our five errors last year? (in the research center)
When did the four computers calculate our five errors in the research center? (last year)
What did the four computers calculate in the research center last year? (our five errors)
What did the four computers do in the research center last year? (calculated our five errors)

What calculated our five errors in the research center last year? (The four computers)
How many computers calculated our five errors in the research center last year? (four)
How many errors did the four computers calculate in the research center last year? (five)
How many of our errors did the four computers calculate in the research center last year? (five)

... 13

=d

U - s 3

=v

Whose five errors did the four computers calculate in the research center last year? (our)

how many ) ? (what, where, ) 3

1 ? Ubu -3 .

NP /

{1? NP1 8 <3- 1 B{ A

- "3 Wh

. P A (errors
:3- 1 ;
What if Ali did not answer my question.

1-

=:b8 =A A- What if

:@ ` 3 P? =v

115

:<.UDs2 lLK
:9

P c 0{

/ A - tv / =b; 0?

Questions -
Answers -
(... " 9 1 <1

:cm? .

(3" ? " 1 ={ : ... " 9 :C <

9d

? 9d

s-X@ < 0{ cm? ._ 8 =1 1

" BC A P A _ 8 "

Conversation

=A k" P bP <3 Pb1 bP / ; ) Lectures & Narrations -

=1 <1 A/ 3 -

A =b; 0? MN Y b " 3 A 3 - ;
.9

Language Functions -

=:b8 9s

3-"W - 1 A/ 3 -

A . < ? ` -3 x{1 3 U A A

={ : Function of Language _ B

: Y
:3 P? / 3- ? c? P " 9

9@

/ A .3 P? - S` A - d0

1 t8 Y 8 cm? =b8

B?

U. Y- tv Y

=. # " -
=. # =b8
=b8

1 -

" 1 -
Writing -
C :1 =A - . =b8

116

MDmY2 MR Me
:<2I*2

=b8

= 9

U V {. # < `? ! sS? =Bs ?W

unconscious knowledge V A/ 1 3 < P =BR` 5 Y

`? =

{1 3

-3 = - V b .9

s A .

P 3- = 9

? [R:; 9 =b8

=A Y 0? - ? 3 /

Nb@ ( Grammer translation) - B 3 d? A

.9

1 b1 v

A bP/ C

U -3 = - B 3

A unconscious 1 3 =A

` .

? @3 " 9

< P master VW -3 "

U b < B. ? bP U -3 = e R

1 A

= ; #-3 <3

=b8

k .3

1 ? "

V ? unconscious 2- A

. conscious 2- A
Bs

? S ; 1W e3 - B{` =b8

/ =:b8 (..." c . <=

VW <

9 -3 bP =b8

1 s C :1

) " - B{` / s A /
.9

=b8 ) meaning translation =A

: A 1 b1
? " /

3 RB

1 s - V A/ VW

# "

9s

3 RB

1 ? "

=b8

? " A Be" .

3? 3 - - ?
.

1 =b8

? =b8

"

A=

- =b8

V A - 1W

- tB ? <

s? "

- A : `}"

2 ?-3 <=Bs ?W MN -3
=B. ` 3 = S v U ;"

? Bs

? " <9

`W3 s 1 9; #-3 : `}"

`W3 s 1 9; # =A V

/ =0:A <9C 1 =b8 /

1W

A U A A . d:?

3 RB

= 3 . 1 3 =A ( AV ? 2- A) 9@
A"9

- "3 bP

=0 A < -" A c ;3

U? - B 3 < B. ? Z R ( `W3 s 1) bP

-3 = ; #-3 < - 1 3 s =BR` A @ .3

VW < P master VW -3

-?

`W3 s 1

- ?"3 V A/ =0 < - 3

`? 0C? v .9C
.9

. -" A c ;3 "

"- =:b8 =A c d - (9-A)

btR1 " 1 A 1W C =01W A

-? =BR` V

; 1 s = (- ?

BC 1 - B 3 d? A =b8

1 s - =:b8 .9

3"

?
7

? A <3 P? ?

117

:3- 3 - / = =

1. Semantics

Meaning

2. Pragmatics (
3. Discourse

?)

=:b8 5

P- [ ?)

-3 2 b: 1 ?

(9C 1 [1 ?

(V bBR`)

.9

?) =:b8 5 V A /

1 A//0S . 9. A -3 =:b8/

(3- 1 UB? =A k 8- " 9C 1 A ? UB? =A)

/ c

`/

S ; 1W 1W "
=:b8 5

t1 A/ Y b -3 DmY2

? - A

`/

C 1 [13- ?

C 1 [13- ?

tA - UB? / =:b8 5 :
-3

/ A :(

P3 A- )

? -

P- [ ? -
: m?

1- Did Ali find this book?

2- Can you climb that high mount?
3- Must she study hard?
4- Can you pass the salt?
N

(Can you pass the salt) Y- tv =:b8 ;" .3"-? t1W /

. P A? I am sorry of course, here you are VW -

5 <(UB? V3 A V" A) =:b8 U b V A / ? - [ ? .9

s/=:A "9

(request) 9

- [B1 " 9

Yes-No Question (Aux S)

A UbA - 5b1 U R; VW

?"9

s-3 5 Pragmatic [1 / ;" 9

-3 Z . 2Nb8 - Bs
9

s-3 " 9C 1

=:b8 5 Semantic [1 /
.9

V3 ? ? =A N

5 pass the river ? .9

9PX` =1 s3"- / /" 3 :@ VW Semantic

.9

.9C 1 ? [1 ? 2 b:

/ c

#
118

? [1 ? VW Pragmatic

? =0 A <9

s-3

? Ali passed the river yesterday =:b8 -3

? < P A 3 ? /" 3 :@ ? - [ ? ` " 9

Pragmatic

? =b <2 #N

1 ? 7

:=B01
A <3- A UB? =A "3

` =0 A .3 P? ? Pragmatic ={ b =Bd; <9C 1 Pragmatic ={ b V P3 8" 9:@ < BC

:t"3 = Nb8

.9C v :? U /

C 1 - [ ? 3
:V bBR` -

You should not park your car near the bank.

U; "

- =1 s3"- c#

tv | s 9; # 5 A Nm? .9C 1 c? 5S . . 0S . 9. A =Bd; .3- 3 VW 0S . V 0? =A BCA Z . =:b8

s <" A 9; # ) V A "

.9
.9

P V A d/ 9 t1-3 =

- =A " bt.? - = e - S
" =A . 1 A (hymn) = ?

/51 A 53S1 - 3 s "-3 s d1 bP

:@ V3 A Z B; e =:b8

P A? 3N ?

-3

!Ns A V - [ ? " Ali is a nice man

C0P - S

- 3 ." U ?/N? / 0 1 B1 - ? . 1/ 1 ? 1 bP3 V3 ` - cBe " =B{

P C8 A =

. 13 A 3 3 / 1

s? / 8 1 B1 - ? .3 A `=

/8

=A " P

s V-A

.but Brootus is a very nice man : `? VW /

= e V bt. Y3 ? 9 t1-3 .(3- 1 A- N

)9

A =:

U ?/N? =B 3

<

- " =
M " A.

-3 - S

- - t1W

--

--S

9dm? -

VW <3- 1 A- N

BC?

U bP A - S

= V bBR` 5-3 ;" <= A s : s Y3W M " A Pragmatic [1/

`?

/ 5

1 B1 - ?

`? "

? - 0 - 1W

. B{
Y : ? <3 P - 0

M ; 8 U ?/N?

{B? - . " 1SA u @ ! # =b: 5 `

.NA < `? =

A s : s Y3W M " A ? 3

A (| s

M ; 8 =? { b1 <1 A/ 9. A A m? U BtA

- M " A " 9C v

" Semantic [1/

=:b8 U

. Brootus is a person who killed caeser = 3 P?

:-DmY2 R e ISRLG
. BC " @ e

5 - 3 V A/

? = / Y

119

:Semantic ^ l0 -DmY2 R e ISRLG

:(-DmY2 D;H
( "W t `}") Phonetic Features =A <9

(labial) d;"3 "W 5 p

<9
.9

BR` .

"W " 1 ?W V

{1 "- . ... <h2 <h <h_ <" < <W <g <h <i <9

0P? 3 s / B0v

voicedless " 3 P? - s " 3 `? 2+voice < b = ; #-3 (

`}" =

- xR1

b1 M C# -

=A - h <9

"W YN

h # " U B0v

A " 3 P? 3" C? N?

e) Semantic Features .

" s Y

# " U B0v

A =0 xA

BR`? 1 ?/
BR`" . 13

V 8 <9

"W 9 # < - XA :` "- 9{1 R: e ? ` )

b1 9 # VW

c d

(stop) 3 C1
;

e ?

"W-

.h3 " h2 cm? <3 P? 3 x =m; -3 3 C1 - XA ( m;) alvealar < labial xA `

C`-SA "

labial

alveolar

stop

stop

voiced

voiced

X? <Y3W <- 1 8 =A V ? - man

BR` <

? # " U B0v

- Semantic Features ` " 13

? A

--

Ub U@
.9C0P

" RB? 1 ? =B 3 V
=b8

@ =A (words)

" ? . 1 P? =BR` 2-

A 1" ` " "3 / - d8 =A 7 < P A =BP 3 - 1 ? U =b

.( P d1 =b: 5 3 ? d13) 3

=b8

U A

1 ? U "

BC 1 ? c? # t1 A/ `? V

= 9C 1 " - . -3 ? <3- 3 3 8" C :1 -3 ox Nm? . BC

" 5 A - " 5 bB# = 3 Pb1 N

U A A .

? 3 RB

. 1- 3- s A Bb d/ / = 1 Bs3 3 P? less beautiful girls =b: "3 =b8

= 9

U 9

t? = S v .70 ; A " 3 P?

? " 3 A " 5 ` .3- 1 3 8"

.

120

; 1s

? -3 V ` " 3

V A V A/ "3

U A 5=A5 =A -

-3 - Semantic Features

Nm?

Man

boy

girl

woman

ox

animate

human

male

adult

cow

:(- D Re ) Rel) Lexical Relation .

:=? ?
0

? t `}"

A d - -3 1 ` " A "- =:

A < 1 `? - e

1 ` " A "- .VN. 3 P? t1W =b

? `}" "

"

5 =0:A < 1 Pb1

? {? - !3 B?
.9

" Nm? .( {#

s U -3 V P1 ? A

@eM

?W / -3 = 3 P? =

" =b

A) 1- ? U =A - t1W /

"

? bP <3 <!3

:({0R K) Synonymy
9. A =A =BCA ... " V3 - ?
<V3 9.

/ <V3 9.

<V3 "

/ 3 A =1 ? @ <V3 "

<V3 c ? <V3 !

/ V3- s 8=A Nm? .

? 3 / 3 RB

/ 3 A 9;R; : s <V3- s / 3 A 3 @ <V3 c ? <V3 !

/ 3 A A3 9. A ` .
.

.9

!3 B?

" / " -3
? 3 RB

? 3 RB

c? P

UB?

V3 db; <V3 - ?

" - SA U d/ / 0 U A A " k

- SA 5 Synonymy

121

{03 / t 3 B

.9C 1 {03 -3 3 B

=0:A <9C 1 S ? #" {03 -3

P=BP 1 " =

P =BR` 1 ? V v <9

.V3
Intrest <9
UB? 5d

?=eN@ "3

=A =8

3 RB

=B

keen on " interested in Nm? C :1 -3 .

: I am interested in Ali. =:b8 . 3 AA UB? 5 -3 - V3 - ?

_ s {03

1 A .3- X`? 9; VW 8=A 3 s " =B. ` - Y tR? <

.

;" <S v =A V3 A

_ B1

? 3 RB

" UB? M

01 3 RB

V P A ? V P 7 .

/ " V3- s ? .9

? / #

. - CA

" / ; b ? UB? 5 A Overeditting

? Z .

A 0d

" 3 A-

;=A b ?

Synonym

;" 1 ?

`}" V3

crazy " fool A silly, stupid

-3 <3 P? 3 RB

A : s t1W / 0 ;" <- 3 A Y

? Z . 3 A-

/ 9 3 ? =A < 1 ?

.9. ` 3 3 / U b " 3 / V

..

(-=;/) directional

..

B0v

122

/ "

;=A t1W
/ =:b8"3

..

(j.s2 D f1/) complementary pairs D ((lI2 H) non-gradable

? 3 RB

; =A

P A A - 3 A-

:(0DK) antonomy
((lI2) gradable

3 RB

" 0d

M d; A - . -3 V P
.

.9

(Y ?=eN@ :@ =A U?) I am keen on Ali. =:b8 " 3"-b1 - =A Y3W A

U: 3 " 5 @ < N A - put on t1W = -

`}" U . Wb1 70 ; A ;" W? interested 8=A Keen . 1"-b1 - =A

=1 ? @ UB? -3 - crazy " fool 9e w

? 3 RB

C :1 =AC :1

A " / # VW -3 <9

.0d
.

? b ? x{1 3

- 1 - -SA Bb = less big apple cm? - ? 3

..

" 3 ? 3 B? " "3 -3 ;" 3

5 =b8

e ?

3 RB

-3 Nm? .

1 ? U A A . 1 cb0? 9R8 U b A <9

`? (9

.9C 1
/)9

/ V ? Y ` " 3

{? VW 9b

=. u VW =A

3 9dm? <0 R ?

1 ugly) She is ugly 8=A Nm? .3

1/ 3

"9

`? "

1 b1 = 9

3 RB

3 - ? 3

U -3 . - 1 =BCA " / A <

..

1/

VW 70@ R ? / <3- 3 cb0? 9R8 =

"

V3 ? / - . -3 She is not so beautiful

Bt8 t1W 3 ;" < 1 3 B? V s " UBs" . .9C 1 3 9dm? ? =A S`

.70 ; A " Bs" . = 9C 1 ? U =A S`

0 R ?

1 ` <(70@ A - s =A

..

P" .

V ?W " UB.- - (borrow)UB. ` e " (lend) V3 3 e

Iran finally sold its oil to US.
. s - V 9R1 Y x1
s A - CA 1S - A V ;" -3 . 3

: - 3 2-

0 ?

U A ds 70: 5 Nm?

B? 2 =A - BR1 9s" . Y x1

@ 1W ( . ) presupposition . 9C 1 : =b8

.9P 1 V 9R1 s S8 - v =

.9

0 "3

V
?

P 9A A V v 0 ? ?"3 -3 . P" RA - 3 s 9R1 9C1

I borrowed Alis book.

.3 3 e U? =A - A B :@
- . -3 = 9

9; b:3 .(

=b8

.( ... M bB; A) Y3

9; =A 9; U P ? cm?) 9C 1 b:3 8 B? = 9

. -"W? -3 S t /

<

=b8

e - :@ _ B U?

_ s 8 A

=b8

U @ =A U @ - - ds ` - S` ds cm? 8 -3 . P? 3 RB

U
e

:(-DmY2 bL.d) hyponymy

.3 P c? P 3 " 5

? -3 " 5

123

Creatures
(2 e :?)

inanimate

animate

animals

dog

poodles

cats

German chepred

/ e "-3 .3 A V A s =A 3 ` A -
P - 3 s =@ bx? / =b V v <

insects

humans

plants

horses

mare

pony

`? 9C 1 t?

`? (cover term) {P N
.9.- x1W =A d

A-

V3 A 3 ` He was walking with poodle on the street. =:b8 -3

VW =A "

? 3 RB

=b8

A (superordinant) A N

`? He went their on his pony. =:b8 -3 U wb .

3?

. ` subordinant - N

124

3? V {1 -

s k 1 / m? .3- 3 3 8" S 1

?/"- tB ; . =A A ?

" / - CA -3 <9C 1 U w 2 e :? 3- ?-3 t

Laughter
(

smile

s)

giggle

belly laught

grin
A

d; : smile

(V ` S P"3 cm?) V s 3 1 : giggle

=tte < 0P 9 # A
9

9b

S # 3- ? s A -3 . P A -"W- 8S1 " A

" 9dm?

1 ? .3- 1 - . 3 ? .

3? V {1 - t1 13 =
.

She grinned at me.

.3/

He grinned at the boy.

. P V b1

s : belly laught
A

d; : grin

V A 1W 9; # =

d; U? =A "
Sb{? t1 13 = 3-"W ; =A BP/
.9

d; V v
P 3 RB

grin "

? t `}" / Z . =b8

125

:(<Dmn) metonymy

Nm? .

? 3 RB

-3 1W U @

?" 3

U v - .
/ =

Vb / =
3 RB

t? R

c d?

A "

t? =1 s Y 3 1 s A

BC1

({e 2 e { ) container-content

..

(< DJ e 0D. ) symbol-representation

..

Y"3 V A/ -3 - VW U @ ` <9

/ =

- V ? . on the wheel 2- d@ Ali was on the wheel yesterday. =:b8 -3

Y 3 1s A

s A

..

- 3
BC1

- .-3 . 1 - 3 " s
BC1

(jn < u /) part-whole

3 RB
s A

c V ?- [ ? "

1/? m? - S8 5

s A =:b8 ` ? .3 A V ? . 9{ /" 3 :@

v=

3 RB

=b8

A < - 1 1W U @ C :1 -3 V v " 9

(metonymy) =

A " .

t?

..

- 3 - .

1 s? =te 9:? I was finally to provide a roof

(Synonymy) !3 B? " /
A "

`? "

9e" : s

=1 s

Y 3 1s
.

Ali ate the whole bowl

A " 3

3 RB

A ` .3- s - =
!" [? /

=b :@

A .3- 1 3 8" C :1 -3 =

=:b8 -3 " .3- s - ! VW cs 3 X =b :@

V / -3 ` . {

- ={ P =b =wA
.

? =b8

-3 7 .7 :1 =0:? A 9
. ... 3
. ... 3
9d

YN@ /" 3

U? A /" 3 3SA VW

A " 3

3 RB

`? < - 3 - . -3 - =

`? =0:A ... 3

YN@

!" [? V ?- [ ? "

U . 3- s - =

- !" [? <! 8=A =1 `"

3 b1 C :1 -3 Nm? .9

YN@ 7 :1 =0:?

`? Nm? .9

v=

? t `}" /

`? - !

? x

1 P/

9e" : s
1 s

A " 3- s - X =b :@

U @ V v The baby drunk the whole bottle.

? 3 RB

| s S v 5 =1 {1 =

V b / < - 3 - =
? 3 RB

V b U @ Y"3

- 3 b1 5

9e" : s

`b1 The Crown yesterday announced that =:b8

`? - White house yesterday announced that Nm? . - 3 1W U @

`? The yellow was talking to me yesterday. : - 3

3- ? s A-3

Y3W =A A ? " =1 ? @ V B? -3 Nm?

.(9

126

..

/ =

3-/ ) .3 ?

..

-3

:Pragmatic ^ l0 -DmY2 R e ISRLG

(L D lD=}D^) Syntanctic structures .
Idioms .
Expression .
(|lDY=^R) Metaphores .
(<HkJK) Similes .
(jc.UR z) Proverbs .
( VD._n) Saying .
Symbol .
:(L D lD=}D^) Syntanctic structures .
=:b8 A Can you pass the salt =:b8
U A A . A-3 9

=0

s-3 2- A - . -3 A " 9

:@ Nm? .3
9

=b8

1W Y tR? A " 3 P? 3 RB

s-3 5 <3- 3 -

s_=:A ;

. A U? =A "- 5b1

=:b8 - Bs

3 - [ ? =A ` - Bs
"9

s ={ ?

0 Can you climb the tree?

A U? =A - 5b1 R; :3 P? =b8
:Tag guestion
. BC Aux NP

.( ... ={ ?)

3? 9

s-3 ? " 9
.. ?

Ali studied English yesterday, didnt he?

(9C 1 - ) =1 =? < 1 s C :1 /" 3 :@

Go to the door, will you?

-3 9b

Close the window, will you?

dA "-

Lets study physics, shall you?

Lets go cinema, shall you?

-3

will you ={ b
? =A <9

shall

? =:b8
lets =b

A R; ={ ?
x ={ ?

1 A 5S . . ?
A . ?
127

:-kEYK V./
.
Me close the window!

!Y dA -

3? dx

? ={ b - Bs

NP1 8 ; R?

bu V ?W <dx

2Nb8 =1 {1

x U?

Me come to : A x{1 3 ` " Come to the board. : `? x{1 3 =A 3 B

.=1

U .9

bt. 9 -3 - 3 B

- [? 1 A

Nm? .3 P? 3 RB

s? <

S1

A V BB? s U? = 9

2Nb8 A - Bs

Ub / ?

U V - [ ? W the board.

: Idioms & Expressions .e

/

? Idiom ;" 9

(transparent) ! RP VW 9s

<9

? N

/ Expression = 9
.9

.! RP =v

PA-

=v < BC 1 Symantic meaning Y 0w

(opaque) -

VW 9s

U V {e . < 1 N

"3

" 9C 1 {?

< BC Pragmatic meaning Nb@ 2 #N

Yb

:Idiom m?
She ran out of gas.
II
V

NP1

NP2

Z . =:b8

? 7 <9

V3

Y b ? =A N

5 run out <3- sb1 3-3 =A " / ` / V" A "3 Z . =:b8 Symantic

- S A 3 Y b " :3 P?
:Expression m?
She ran into me on the street.
NP1

PP

PP

3- s A U? A V A s-3 :3 P? Z . =:b8 ? .9

V3 3- s A ? =A run into sb

:Metaphores & Similes .e

. BC 1 b:@ V B? -3 "
Nm?.9

= d{ 2 3 t1W U

t? "
.9

BC 1 - B
9

-3 t1W /

BC A3 V B? -3 t

"30 = ; #-3 < BC (simile) = d{ -3 =A=d{? " =d{? <= d{ 2 3 <= d{ =8"

= d{ =8" " 9

like = d{ 2 3 <
128

P = d{ ox =A she < She was working like an ox. =:b8 -3

. - 3 - V3 .

? = d{ 3 Acm?

s cm? ? . - 1 - = d{ U - . -3 ? ;" 3 ?-

cm? - . -3 ;"

P = d{ ` s =A V "3

1 " ` cm? " `? Z . =:b8

She was running fast like a rabbit. =:b8 -3

They were stupid like a donkey. : 1 ? . 1

. s `" 3- 3 3 8"
She extended the hand of courtesy toward her.

(9

- B

cm?

U @ V A/ "3 -3 `

- . -3 _3 9 3) .3

= d{

3- ? / : s

(Metaphore) - B

/ -3 "

3- ? -3

=A _3 9 3

The labirant of my heart is .

.

? 3 RB

... U? :e -3

=1 s / ... U? :e V"S:# 8=A Z . =:b8-3

(9C 1 A 0 8 <3 9 =1 s ... 9C 1 "-3 3 -3 <9 "3 e

/ =

V bv "

.9C 1 - B

t1W A ?

- B

V v<

3b1 _ 8 [R:; 9 =b8

. - X`? U? =A c ? <Ubvc ? 8 =A "

b1 Ubv c ? v U? V bv "

3b1

; S8)
3- ?-3

? U v x1W = ; #-3 9

:A e-

Why isnt my tall beloved incline to with me?

:Proverbs & Sayings .e
{?

?Proverb ;" 9

(transparent) ! RP VW 9s

<9

? N

/ Saying = 9

.9
V A V ?3 s V A/ Saying A - Saying .3 P? 3-"W 3 =A VW

` ? b@ V -3
.

. U? -3 R

Knowledge is power.

(( "3 .) 3 A 1 3 =
(3 P V 1

<3 P
.9

b ? " =BR` `-SA = 9

? c d Proverb =A

The bigger the boat is, the safer the cruise will be.
What goes up, was come down.

(opaque) -

P A =BP 3 ` "

U V {e .

VW 9s

" 9C 1

S1 - BR` Saying

? =b8

< B`-SA e =v

3 A 1 ) .9

:A V v - .) .9

2- e 1 3

3" . - / .

{? " 3 P? 3 . t1W /

? N?

V v < 1 (Saying) S1 - BR` Z . 2Nb8

129

Its like look in a gift horse in the mouth.

.{

=BR` 1W = 3 Pb1 3-"W 3 =A P "

3b1

? {

V 3 -3 V3

V 3 -3 V3

1 ?

-3 / <9

(Proverb) cmb; _ u Z . =:b8

. PA

:
:

P =b8

@"

?W - . =A s =

Its like look in for a needle in haystack.

- d1 -3 V/

/ cmb; _ u cm? .

? =b8

? c d Proverb =A - Saying -

(3- 3 e . =v) . 1 5 A BR A V 1/ =A 5 A BR A V 1/ =A
.8"

The problem doubled.

@ < - 1 1W 3 ? ` -

d13 UB{`
.70 ; A "

In for a penni, in for a pound.

/ tB; # =A Saying " Proverb 7

? =b8

=v 8" 5 =v <9PX`

/ = _W

. P A A"3 c0{?
.9CA? ?3 =A "- 8 <9.-b1 -

They buried the hatchet but left the handle sticking out.

. BP X` V" A s / - =B 3 ? V3

U.3 - d t1W
. BP X` -

- 2 .NBs

t1W
: Symbol .

( 1 w"

A M-3 3 B

130

{1 9e") .

xA 8 Metaphore A

1 ? e3 " 3- 1 3 RB

3 /

Cohesion
Coherence
Propositional Analysis
3-"W - Y xC1 <B
"9

=b8

Cohesion

2- d@ "3

A <M P# b?:@ B 3 # ? .9

`? (=Bs ?W B 3 cm?) 3 s A " B

. A 3 C :1 ?

- UB? sW

" / Be" ;" .UB? sW

Ubu-3 . 1SA ; =:b8 <

.3 P UP"-

1 s A

3 " 9

? " " =b8

C 1 9

Y xC1 Cohesion

`? s A .9

. 1 3? Y xC1 - Coherence

U 9:@ .9C 1

01 9 @- - Cohesion ` ` " 9C 1 V C0

P s < 1 s?

:B? V A/ "3 -3 Cohesion

P A =BP 3 {? S`8 ? d? V A/ -3 =:b8 " 9

" B? (s)

U0b? < BC

Z . 2- d@"3 A

! ` - =A ! ` - 2- A - UB? 3- ? s A

{1 9 @- Cohesion = 9

- P VW =A A Y"3 V A/ -3 =

. - 1 s =:b8 - . -3 = ; #-3 <9

bP = 3 Pb1 c ;3 " P A 3 01 9 @-

P R:B? =b8

V b =A " {1 / A U 3- " N

A? 2X; 3 s " / "

.9

2" RB? V A/ "3 -3 Binding

Discours ^ l0 -DmY2 R e ISRLG

:A =:b8 C :1 -3 .9

U@=

2" RB? t1 A/ -3

A < BC 1

=:b8

U @ V A/ "3 " @ e 7
.

01 9 @-

:(-y=^LH]) Cohesion
(1 ?/ @ 8- 2- d@) time deixis
(1 0? @ 8- 2- d@) place deixis
(3 . @ 8- 2- d@) person deixis

Deixis (deictic expressions:

-SD/lR VRlDkS ) .

Conjunction .
Co-refrence terms (-/ 2: VRlDkS) .
Cohesive links (DmY2 ) lIHG) .
Tense trend (=2 - D2`I el) .

131

:Deixis (deictic expression) .

- =:b8 " 9

1 0? @ 8- 2- d@ x1W-3 <3- 1 3 8" :

UB? -3 =

? =. u x1W-3 VW BA -3 "

? =b8
.

- =:b8 9e" 5 *
3? 1 cde =:b8 =A

Last Monday I decided to go to ministry of education. I hppen to be able to talk to the man who
.

9d

3 A ... C? = 3 ? A

BC1

e R /"- VW-3 .Y" A -" " / ?W 2- /" =A B. `

.9

. 3

.9

? " b

3 RB

"

1 ?/ k 8- /"- VW-3 2- d@ Z . =:b8 -3 *

3 . @ 8- 2- d@ / ...:9R` U? =A B.3 VW Y B? C?

P A =BP 3 3 8" =:b8 -3 =01W V" A <

b =d P"3

C A ` He told me cm? =:b8 -3 *

=. u =:b8 =A 3 . V 0? <V ?/ A @ 8- 2- d@ / x? ? 7

:Conjunction .
.( P A " =:b8 A 3 -3 Y"3 =:b8 = -

-3) ? A

? c "

=A " A - 9

=1 t1W U A = =:b8 "3

:Co-refrence terms .

.9

cde =:b8 -3 VW 8 ? < -"W? (which /

.9

A)

P !X# = NP1 it 8=A - =u e A [1 3- ? U

?W =bs3 cde =:b8 -3 V v <

? 3 RB

? Nm?

! ? 5- Z / there 8=A
:Cohesive links .

. ..." #U A <( P A =x B1 Y"3 =:b8 Be") U A A <=Bd; .( P A " =:b8 A 3 -3 Y"3 =:b8 Be")

? =. u U 3 8" A =:b8 BA Nm?

.IHms |0D1=^R |Dk=dR D;=m2

132

:Tense trend .
Nm? .3 Pb1 9 @- V ?/ ;

<BC 1

.3 P? ! sS? : s <3 P 3 RB

? t1 B

s V B? s A -3 .3 P? =BR`

VW 3 ? V ?/ / =b8

-3 Be" .c?

=BPX`

v2 A3 =

"9

c?

#
.

.3 P? 3 RB

BC 1

? V B? -3 . " 3 Pb1 3 RB

" . < A Y x1 3 sb1

<=BPX` -3

? Cb

A3 UB?

bP

<9

=:b8 V ?/ 9; # U -3

-3 V v .3 Pb1 3 3 M-3 A U

:( DE\ R) Coherence
The ability of the speaker and listener to fill the gaps between the sentences of text

UB? 5 2Nb8 U A s V3
.3 Pb1

UB? 3 s -3 <9

UB?

C 1/

1 s -3 " 9C 1 UB? -3 N

Coherence

. ` Background Knowledge U -3 1 3 U =@ bx? =A < - 3 {1 3 5 S v

/ =@ bx? bhP .3 P?

:B? (schema)

/ bP

bhP =A = ?/ 1 3 U

. ... " UB.- V - B - <UB.- Y b# <V3/ UR: Nm? .| s k u ? 5 = A 8 - = ?/ 1 3

3 P? . bP U -3 VW / {A < `? =:b8 3 . Be"
Script

< A - c C? =b

` 9C 1 Y/ 3 "

bt.? VW A bP "

bhP

. - 3 B{? = ?/ 1 3
=
Schema

B.- 1 bBs

=A /" 3 2- A - Y3- s 5 B

... " 9. `? X - R

" 9P 3 V

-3

`? script VW =A =
` A bP V v

V - B - -3 /" 3 =:b8 5 Nm?

- ` Y 1 =A R1 5 " 9P 3 ;

" S ? " -SA U;

.

Background Knowledge

V A A

133

: C 1? - / ; 3 study of languge _ B -3 - 8 eW
A: Honey, thats the phone.

Please pick up the receiver and answer the phone.

B: Im in the bath.

I cant come out like this and answer the phone.

A: OK.

I understood and I pick. I answer the phone myself.

` = ?/ 1 3 A V B

3 U / bP = ?/ 1 3 V v ;" <3- 1
.

=A A-

` (impliciture) bu - P =

? -

A _ 8 " - 3 A - P ` R; " 1/? 1/ UR: .

-3 = 9

=:b8 U U A s "

-? bP U =A UR: V3/ 1/ 9 0

=:b8 -

? 3 RB

Z . ; 3

VW / bP < 3 A

" R: =b; 0? bhP "

P A

.3 P? =BR` " 9bCe . " 3 Pb1 =BR` =:b8 U Y b = ; #-3

.

A - UR: _ 8 "

A V" A 9 u" U A

1 b1 < W? U -3 {B 3 =A A ? 9 0
.

P- b

5 " ` U A A .

3? _ 8 " Y- 3? A - P ` Y3 s " Y bt.

3? - e 8 5 -3 - =b # . 13 A
.(
: / ; 3

Y"3 =:b8 V

/ V v < {B 3 bath " 3 A Y b# bathroom

P A
=:b8

e -3

sb1 Y b# ") 3- 3 {B 3 I need to go to the bathroom. 9R` C

1?.

=b8

1W - dx? <3 d1 0

C 1 " bP backround knowledge

A: Im having the party on Thursday night.

B: I have my math exam on Friday.
A: What a pity.
= ; #-3 < A

bP = 9C 1 ? U =A N

.9C 1 ? = ?/ 1 3 -3 U = -

" =:b8 - . -3 =0 A .9

-3. A

? 2 @3
. -" A

.Y {A 3 ?W = b8 u - V B? A A < R B? :

? =b8

: - . -3 < C A 2-

/ Y- 3 1 bt? U? =0 =0:A . A
` Y P? P s <Y- 3 1 bt? =d {x :
- U A A . 1 A M-3
134

Ub

=A - Z . ; 3 `

`b1 N
? =b8

{ A A = 9C 1 ? U =A

C :1 -3
- U A A
Y"3 =:b8

:(Propositional Analysis)
"9

- S` 9C0P ,$

? $ $" -

U$ d$/ .9

? " :? c 3 ? 9 b

[1 / " 9

R |lR

f\sd

? " A U

t? " U sW

.9C 1 ,C
_B

b# =:b8 Nm? . ? " CA :9

k 1 "3 - S` .3 {1 =b8

VW / A " P A =BP 3 =:b8 c0P =

.3 A S? e b# _ B " 3 3

ADV

? =A - A B

ADV

? # " U B0v

b# :3- 3 - S` "3 3 3

=Bd;

: - S`

? =A - S? e

they are

Because no people can be truly happy though under the greatest Enjoyment of civil liberties if abridged of the freedom of their consciences,
adv they are
adv
adv
as to their religious and worship; And Almighty God being the only lord of Conscience, father of lights and spirits and the author as well as
who is
adv
object of all divine knowledge, faith and worship ,
who only enlighten the minds, and persuade and convince the understanding of
RC=M5

people , I do hereby grant and declare that no person or persons,

NP2

RC

inhabiting in this province or territories,

who shall confess and

who are

RC=M5

acknowledge one almighty God, the creater, upholder and ruler of the world;
3 /W /
<

1 P Y" ? t1W ` ,1 ?

t$3 /W /

:@ =b k u ? S 1 " k d? " t#"- " t $ P"- -

3 .

,? YN@ " $ =:

" - V t8

#"

.9 0; ? $
"

C$ 1 ,? 1W

tA U$ B{ A 9

-" A

t1W =v `

" 1 ? . t 9C = B?

$ A U? - 3 . -3

1- t1 " ; s , $ - # "

BC

,? @ B? "

s 5$

s " V P ,d X?

,?

,? $ "

P A P s e " 1

" -

?W "

e =:b8

BA V v . $-"W ,? -3 - ,:

- S` " .

=A

-" A " V b$ | s -3 V {$ -" A

" " b:e U$ -3

BC U

- S` 9C0P < P A
- S` $/

- S` .

" V b$

P t B? = V P3 s $ 3 s

3 ,?

. 1 ,:

=01W d

,? UP"- t = ,t; $ B

,? V @ = U ?/

3 . Z # " 1 ` - e d " - /W 3- ? $ d1 ,1 ? 9;"3 9 Y -W ,` 1/ =A 1

,b1 70w

3 . $
,? YN@

:A ,: s

=:b8 ,Be"

C$ 1 ,? - =$ =:b8 7

135

[" =:b8] () P A P s e " 1

,? YN@ " $ =:

[=$ =:b8] ()
.
( BC - 3 s A ,1 ?
,d X?

-" A " V b$ | s -3

,?

$ $" -

t$3 /W U$ B{ A / t1W =v ` ) ,1 ?

3 /W / t1W ` ) V P ,d X?

- S` =:# ? U b -3 .

t$3 /W /

,b1 70w

,?

tA U$ B{ A 9

-" A " V b$ | s -3 V {$ -" A

3 /W /

$ A U?

- $3

BC

- S` #

t1W =v ` ()

1 P Y" ? t1W `

()

( 1 P Y" ? V P
.9
d

"

,t; $ B

" V b$ <Y :@ =b k u ? S 1 " k d? " t#"- " t $ P"- - "

,? UP"- - V B?

s t ") - 3 . -3

,? @ B? "

" -

-" A

" 1 ? . t B?

s " ()

,? UP"- t B?

s " ()

(.33 ` ,? 3 . V P @ B? " -3
"

1- t1 " ; s , $ - # "

,? $ " V @ V t8

#"

s 5$

,? $ "

1- t1 " ; s " # "

,? V @ = U ?/
s 5$ 3 8" =A = U ?/

" " b:e U$ -3

BC U

" " b:e U$ -3 U

3 . $3 .

3 . $3 .

) - V t8

()
#

(
t B? Y -W ,` 1/ =A V P3 s

,? YN@ =

3 . $3 .

") Y -W ,` 1/ =A 1

P t B? = V P3 s $ 3 s

,? YN@ " ()
(. 1

9;"3 9 9 0; ? $

3 . Z # -3 d " - /W 3- ? $ d1) 9 0; ? $

3 . Z # " 1 ` - e d " - /W 3- ? $ d1 ,1 ? 9;"3 9 ()

(. 1 ` - e ,1 ?

<

,?

$3 A Y

=:b8 d - .9R`

$3 $ A) 3 3 A-

=A , ? "- 5$ M

=A - Y"3

=
=

$ "

$ "3 "3 V

- tv $ 9R` ,0$ ,0$ - Z .

,? ,B# . BC

- S` V

$3 2Nb8 =x B1

=:b8 ,s A
.(9

-V = 9 " t "9
3 P Y" ? ,d X?

,t; $ B

" V b$ <Y :@ =b k u ? S 1 " k d? " t#"- " t $ P"- - "

-" A " V b$ | s -3

3 /W / ,C

-" A

" 1 ? . t B?

` # 33 ` ,? 3 . V P @ B? " -3 d
136

"

,? #
Y ?
s (

,? UP"-

,? YN@ " $ =:
$ " V @ V t8

$ A U? U$ A A P A P s e " 1

#"

1- t1 " ; s " # "

.3 ` - e ,1 ? 9;"3 9 9 0; ? $
-V = 9 " t "9

,t; $ B

,b1 =8"

s 5$ 3 8" =A = U ?/

=A P A - 3 s A ,1 ?

" " b:e U$ -3 U

3 . Z # | s-3 d " - /W 3- ? $ d1

t$3 /W U$ B{ A / =v `

3 . $3 .

" V b$ <Y :@ =b k u ? S 1 " k d? " t#"- " t $ P"- - "

-" A

/ A P A - 3 s A ,1 ?

t$3 /W U$ B{ A / =v ` 3 P Y" ? V P ,d X?

-" A " V b$ | s -3

"

3 . Z # | s-3 d " - /W 3- ? $ d1

3 . $3 .

,? YN@ " $ =:

s (

,? UP"-

3 /W / 3 . ` #

. P A P s e " 1
9;"3 9 9 0; ? $

,?

" 1 ? . t B?

.33 ` ,? 3 . V P @ B? " -3 d
S`

2- $ -3 =

,? t B? Y -W ,` 1/ =A - 3 s "

,b1

$ A U? U$ A A
.3 ` - e ,1 ?

,` 1/ =A - 3 s "

$ " V @ V t8

#"

1- t1 " ; s " # "

s 5$ 3 8" =A "

P A U ?/

" " b:e U$ -3 U

. $ b1 t B? Y -W

137

amir.r1388@gmail.com

P=t
. P A . ?

138