Various TV Systems Being Followed

NTSC (National Television System Committee)

The National Television System Committee (NTSC) standard was introduced in the US in 1941 as the first set of standard protocols for television. It is used predominantly throughout the USA, Canada, & Japan but has also been adopted elsewhere. NTSC has 525 lines displayed at 30 frames per second in a 2:1 interleave. It has a lower resolution than PAL or SECAM but a faster frame rate, which reduces flicker. Though color stability is acceptable in a closed system (ie: direct video to video), broadcast of the composite signal often results in reflections and multi-path signals being received by the antenna. The result: Phase distortion resulting in varying color. The first broadcasts were made in 1939, transmitting 340 lines at 30 frames/sec, as demonstrated at the opening of the New York World's Fair. As there were no standards set at that time, there were a mish mash of other systems soon to be adopted - each one incompatible with the other. This was clearly going to be a format disaster if the various manufacturers were left to their own competitive devices. Initially adopted in 1941 and modified in 1953 to include the standards for color. Additional stereo specs were adopted in 1986 and the digital standard adopted in 1996.

NTSC countries are:

USA, Antigua, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Bolivia, Burma, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Greenland, Guam, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Jamaica, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Puerto Rico, St. Vincent & the Grenadines, St. Kitts, Saipan, Samoa, Surinam, Taiwan, Tobago, Trinidad, Venezuela, Virgin Islands.

Technical Specs:
Line Frequency - 15.734 kHz Lines - 525 Field Frequency - 60 Hz Color Signal Modulation System: Suppressed Quadrature Modulation System Color Signal Frequency - 3.579545 MHz (also known as the color burst freq.) Burst Signal Phase settled

Video Bandwidth - 4.2 MHz Sound Carrier - 4.5 MHz

PAL, PAL-N, PAL-M (Phase Alternation by Line) :

PAL is used in much of western Europe, Asia, throughout the Pacific and southern Africa. PAL has a higher resolution than NTSC with 625 lines, but refreshes at only 25 frames per second. Thus, folks in the States may notice the slight flicker of a PAL video, having become used to the higher frame rate of NTSC. However PAL offers noticeably improved resolution and color stability. After several minutes of viewing a PAL video, our brains compensate, and the flicker becomes un-noticeable.

PAL countries include:

Afghanistan, Algeria, Argentina (PAL-N), Australia, Austria, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Brunei, Cameroon, Canary Islands, China, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Ghana, Gibraltar, Greece (also Secam), Hong Kong, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, North Korea, Kuwait, Liberia, Luxembourg (also Secam), Madeira, New Zealand, Nigeria, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Paraguay (PAL-N), Portugal, Qatar, Saudi Arabia (also Secam), Sierra Leone, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Thailand, Turkey, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, Uruguay (PAL-N), Yemen (the former Yemen Arab Republic was PAL, and the former People's Democratic Republic of Yemen was NTSC, Yugoslavia, Zambia, Zimbabwe.

Technical Specs:
Line Frequency 15.625 kHz (PAL-M is 15.750) Scanning Lines - 625 (PAL-M is 525) Field Frequency - 50 Hz (PAL-M is 60 Hz) Color Signal Modulation System: Suppressed Quadrature Modulation System Color Signal Frequency - 4.433618.75 MHz Burst Signal Inversion by 1H Video bandwidth - PAL-B, G, H: 5.0 MHz; I: 5.5; D: 6.0; N, M: 4.2 Sound Carrier - PAL-B, G, H: 5.5 MHz; I: 6.0; D: 6.6; N, M: 4.5

Variations:
There are two variations that have been developed: PAL-M and PAL- N. The main differences between PAL and PAL-M are a lower resolution (525 lines instead of 625) and a higher frame count (30 frames per second at 60Hz versus 25 frames per second at 50Hz). PAL-M grew out of NTSC as an attempt to correct the inherent color problems of NTSC. PAL-M is essentially PAL at NTSC line and frame rates. The only major difference is how the color is processed. ie: the sub-carrier frequency.

PAL-N is effectively PAL (identical frame/scan rate), but uses a 3.582056 MHz chroma subcarrier. PAL-N in engineering circles is known as "Chrominance Lock Technique". PAL-N was simply a more sophisticated delay-line technique which could better track and cancel differential phase distortions especially encountered in remote/mountainous areas The only countries employing PAL-N are Argentina, Paraguay & Uruguay. Note that attempting to display a PAL signal on a PAL-N monitor will result in only a monochrome image.

SECAM (Sequentiel Couleur Mmoire"):

SECAM was developed in France and is used in France and its territories, much of Eastern Europe, Russia, the Middle East and northern Africa. This system uses the same resolution of PAL, 625 lines, and frame rate, 25 per second, but the way SECAM processes the color information is not compatible with PAL . SECAM uses an FM color subcarrier that carries the color difference signals somewhat similar to PAL. But instead of all the color difference information being transmitted all at once, in SECAM the color difference signals are transmitted sequentially ...... that is: R-Y on one line and B-Y on the next. A delay line in the receiver provides the necessary time delay for making R-Y and B-Y available for display at the same time and thus the term "Memoire" as part of the standard's name. SECAM was not developed for any technical reason of merit (as was PAL) but was mainly invoked as a political statement, as well as to protect the French manufacturers from stiff foreign competition. In that regard, they were highly successful ! Likewise, no other foreign manufacturer in their right mind had any burning desire to commit economic suicide by having to deal with and support such a limited market that was incompatible with everything else on the planet. The Eastern Block countries during the cold war adopted variations of SECAM simply because it was incompatible with everything else !

Countries include:
Albania, Benin, Bulgaria, Congo, former Czechoslovakia, Djibouti, Egypt, France, French Guiana, Gabon, Greece (also PAL), Guadeloupe, Haiti, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Ivory Coast, Lebanon, Libya, Luxembourg (also PAL), Madagascar, Martinique, Mauritius, Monaco (also PAL), Mongolia, Morocco, New Caledonia, Niger, Poland, Reunion, Romania, Saudi Arabia (also PAL), Senegal, Syria, Tahiti, Togo, Tunisia, the former USSR, Viet Nam, & Zaire.

Technical Specs:
Line Frequency - 15.625 kHz Scanning Lines - 625

Field Frequency - 50 Hz Color Signal Modulation System FM Conversion System Color Signal Frequency - 4.40625 MHz/4.250 MHz Burst Signal Phase settled Video bandwidth - B, G, H: 5.0 MHz; D,K,K1,L: 6.0 MHz Sound Carrier - B, G, H: 5.5 MHz; D,K,K1,L: 6.5 MHz

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PCB

A printed circuit board, or pcb, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronics components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to as printed wiring board or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a printed circuit assembly, also known as a printed circuit board virtually all but the simplest commercially-produced electronic devices. They are inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more layout effort and higher initial cost than either wire wrap or point-to-point construction, but are much cheaper and faster for high-volume production; the production and soldering of PCBs can be done by totally automated equipment. Much of the electronics industrys PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards that are published by the IPC organization

MAIN COMPONENTS USED IN PCB OF CTV

There are many components used in CTV but main components in CTV are :1. FBT 2. HEAT SINK 3. VERTICAL 4. HORIZONTAL 5. S.M.P.S Description is as follows:-

1. FBT :A flyback or line output transformer (FBT or LOPT) is a type of transformer used in the power supply of a cathode ray tube that generates the high voltage needed to drive a CRT type monitor. It generates a voltage ranging from a few kilovolts for a monochrome tube, or 10 to 30 kilovolts for a color tube. Unlike a mains (line) transformer, which works with sinusoidal alternating currents at 50 or 60 hertz, a

flyback transformer operates with switched currents at much higher frequencies. The typical fly back or Line Output Transformer (LOPT) consists of two parts (you may also encounter the term IHVT - Integrated High Voltage Transformer): A special transformer which in conjunction with the horizontal output transistor/deflection circuits boosts the B+ (120 V typical for a TV) of the low voltage power supply to the 20 to 30 kV for the CRT as well as provides various secondary lower voltages for other circuits. A HV rectifier turns the high voltage pulses into DC and the CRT capacitance smooths it. The HV may be developed from a single winding with many many turns of wire or a lower voltage winding and a diode-capacitor voltage multiplier. The various secondary voltages power the logic, tuner, video signal, vertical deflection circuits, and CRT filaments. In fact, with many TV designs, the only power not derived from the fly back is for the keep-alive circuitry needed to maintain channel memory and provide startup drive to the horizontal deflection/high voltage system. A voltage divider that provides the focus and screen supplies. The pots are in this divider network - and these things fail resulting in poor focus, uncontrolled brightness, or fluctuating focus and/or brightness. A total short could also result in failure of other components like the horizontal output transistor. The focus and screen are generally the top and bottom knobs, respectively. .

2. HEAT SINK :An active heat sink used for the processor cooling on the pc mother board. To its right is a smaller pin fin heat sink is used to cool the north bridge of the motherboard. A heat sink is a term for a component or assembly that transfers heat generated with in a solid material to a fluid medium, such as air or liquid. Heat sink also help to cool electronic and optoelectronic devices, such as higher-power lasers and light emitting diode LEDs. Heat sink is used to design to increase a surface area in contact with the cooling fluid, such as air.

3. VERTICAL :Vertical component is that component which is used to get the vertical picture in the picture tube.

4. Horizontal :Horizontal component is used to get the horizontal picture in the color picture tube.

5. S.M.P.S :A switched-mode power supply, switch-mode power supply, or SMPS, is an electronic power supply unit (PSU) that incorporates a switching regulator an internal control circuit that switches power transistors (such as MOSFETS) rapidly on and off in order to stabilize the output voltage or current.

In a switch mode supply the regulating elements consists of series connected transistors that act as rapidly opening & closing switches. The input ac is first converted to unregulated dc, which, in turn is chopped by the switching elements operating at a rapid rate, typically at 20 KHz. The resultant 20 KHz pulse train is transformer coupled to an output network which provides final rectification and smoothing of the dc output. A power supply is a buffer circuit that provides power with the characteristics required by the load from a primary power source with characteristics incompatible with the load. It makes the load compatible with its power source. For example: A power source might be the 60 Hz, single phase, 120 V ac power found in a home in United states or the 50 Hz, single phase, 220 Vac found in the United kingdom. The load might be a logic circuit in a personal computer that requires regulated 5v dc power. The power supply is the circuit that makes the 120 V ac or 220v ac power source and 5 V dc load compatible. A switching mode power supply is a power supply that provides the power supply function through low loss components such as capacitors, inductors, and transformers and the use of switches that are in one of two states, on or off. The advantage is that the switch dissipates very little power in either of these two states and power conversion can be accomplished with minimal power loss, which equates to high. A SMPS offers three main advantages over a conventional linear power supply: 1) High efficiency & less heat generation 2) Tighter regulation, and 3) Smaller size and weight.

Soldering wave machine :Solder wave machine is also called as Solder Port. There two heaters are used in solder wave machine named as Out heater and another is, In heater. To start the solder wave machine we apply 100 Hz by DC and 50 Hz AC. A single heater is consists of two rods which will work on 20 watt and at 440v. Temperature which is applied to this solder wave machine is 260oc 360oc. Solder is melt at 260oc. To measure the temperature, sensors are used inside the machine. These are used according to software designed by an engineers. FLUX PORT: Foaming tube is used inside the port. It has small holes and the diameter of these holes is 10mm or 5mm or it may depend upon flux. It contains 8 liter flux. Pre heater are used for flux. We also can change the value of heater and the temperature of this heater is 110oc. A container is used in which flux is store and with the help of motors it will go to machine. Inside the machine there is a center guard, means to not bend the small PCBs. But if large PCBs are move, then it will

bend so to avoid these bends we use center guard.to change the pressure regulators are used. There are two types are solder :1. Lead free: It may be defined as that solder in which lead is not used. Temperature is 260 degree. The life of this solder is more. Life is ~ 8 years. 2. Non lead free: 40% is lead and 60% is tin. It will damage after 3 to 4 years. Temperature is 250 degree.

BASIC FUNCTIONING OF TV SYSTEM

The antenna receives the various signals. From the antenna RF (Radio Frequency) goes to the tuner & then the tuner sends the IF (Intermediate Frequency) to the VCD chip. All the processes like the audio demodulation, video demodulation & sync separation take place. These all processes are synchronized. From the Tuner video IF goes for video demodulation & audio IF goes for audio demodulation. After demodulation the audio signal goes to the audio amplifier & video signal produces the R G B guns, which goes to the video amplifier & then to the CRT (cathode ray tube). Sync separation separates the signal into H-Sync &V-Sync, Processing which deflects the horizontal beam & vertical beam in a appropriate manner. SMPS is most important part of the power supply &converts the ac supply into unregulated dc supply & FBT provides the

heater voltage (required for the emission of the electrons), focus voltage &screen voltage. Heater voltage range 185V, Focus voltage range 45 V, & Screen voltage range 16V. In a television system, the picture signal is amplitude modulated Transmission of Picture: In it scanning is used. Here the conversion of optical information to electrical form and its transmission are carried out element by element, and in a sequential manner to cover the entire screen, which is to be televised. A lens assembly on the rectangular glass faceplate of the camera tube focuses an optical image of the scene to be transmitted. The inner side of the glass faceplate has a transparent conductive coating.

ELEMENTS OF TELEVISION SYSTEM

In most television systems, as also in C.C.I.R. 625 line monochrome system adopted by India, the picture signal is amplitude modulated and the sound signal is freq. modulated before transmission. The carrier freq. is suitably spaced and the modulated outputs radiated through a common antenna. Thus each broadcasting station can have its own carrier freq. and the receiver can be tuned to select any desired station. PICTURE TRANSMISSION The picture information is optical in nature and can be thought of as an assemblage of large no. of bright and dark areas representing picture details. These elementary areas into which picture details may be broken up are known as picture elements, which when viewed together, represents the visual information of the scene. Thus at any instant the there are almost infinite no. of information, existing simultaneously, each representing the level of brightness of the scene to be reproduced. In other words the information is a function of two variables, time and space. Which would ideally require infinite channels to transmit optical information to corresponding to all the picture elements simultaneously? Thus to avoid the difficulty of transmitting all the information simultaneously and decoding it at the receiver end, a method known as SCANNING is used instead. Here the conversion of optical signal to electrical form and its transmission are carried out element-by-element, one at a time in a sequential manner to cover the entire scene which is to be televised. SOUND TRANSMISSION The microphone converts the sound associated with the picture being televised into appropriate electrical signal, which is normally a voltage. The electrical output, regardless of the complexity of its waveform, is a single valued function of time and so needs a single channel for its transmission. The audio signal from the microphone after amplification is freq .modulated, employing the assigned carrier freq. Output of the sound FM transmitter is finally combined with the AM picture transmitter output, through a combining network, and fed to a common antenna for radiation of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.

 PICTURE RECEPTION The receiving antenna intercepts the radiated picture and sounds carrier signals and feed them to the RF tuner. The receiver is of the heterodyne type and employs two to three stages of intermediate freq. (IF) amplification. The output from the last IF stage is demodulated to recover the video signal. This signal that carries the picture information is amplified and coupled to the picture tube, which converts the electrical signals back into picture elements of the same degree of black and white. A pair of deflecting coils mounted on the neck of the picture tube in the same way deflects the beam produced in the picture tube and rate as the beam scans the target in the camera tube. The amplitude of the currents in the horizontal and vertical deflecting coils are so adjusted that the fast rate of scanning illuminates the entire screen, called raster.

The video signal is fed to the grid or the cathode of the picture tube. When the varying signal voltage makes the control grid less negative, the beam current is increased, making the spot of light on the screen brighter. More negative grid voltage reduces the brightness. If the grid voltage is negative enough to cut-off the electron beam current at the picture tube there will be no light. This state corresponds to Black. Thus the video signal illuminates the fluorescent screen from white to black through various shades of gray depending on its amplitude at any instant. The rate at which the spot of light moves is so fast that the eye is unable to follow it and so a complete picture is seen because of the storage capability of the human eye.

 SOUND RECEPTION The path of the sound signal is common with the picture signal from the antenna to the video detector section of the receiver. Here the to signals are separated and fed to their respective channels. The freq. modulated audio signal is demodulated after at least one stage of amplification. The audio output from the FM detector is given due amplification before feeding it to the loudspeaker.

SYNCHRONIZATION It is essential that the same coordinates be scanned at any instant both at the camera tube target plate and the raster of the picture tube, otherwise the picture details would split and get distorted. To ensure perfect synchronization between the scenes being televised and the picture produced on the raster, synchronizing pulses are transmitted

during retrace, i.e. fly-back intervals of the horizontal and vertical motions of the camera scanning beam. Thus, in addition to carrying picture details, the radiated signal at the transmitter also contains synchronization pulses. These pulses which are distinct for horizontal and vertical motion control, are processed at the receiver and fed to the picture tube sweep circuitry thus ensuring that the receiver picture tube beam is in step with the transmitter camera tube beam.

RECEIVER CONTROLS A typical monochrome TV receiver has a channel selector switch that is used for selecting the desired channel. The fine-tuning control is provided for obtaining best picture details in the selected channel. The hold control is used to get a steady picture in case it rolls up or down. The brightness control varies the beam intensity of the picture tube and is set optimum average brightness of the picture. The contrast control is actually the gain control of the video amplifier. This can be varied to obtain the desired contrast between the white and the black contents of the reproduced picture. The volume and tone controls form part of the audio amplifier in the sound section, and are used for setting the volume and tonal quality of the sound from the loud speaker. COLOUR TELEVISION Color television is based on the theory of additive color mixing, where all the colors including white can be created by mixing red, green and blue lights. The color camera provides video signals of red, green and blue information. These are combined and transmitted along with the brightness (monochrome) signal.Each color TV system (PAL, NTSC and SECAM) is compatible with the corresponding monochrome receiver system. Compatibility means that color broadcasts can be received as black and white TV broadcasts. At the receiver, the threecolor signals are separated and fed to the three electron guns of the picture tube. The screen of the picture tube has red, green and blue phosphors arranged in alternate dots. Each gun produces an electron beam to illuminate the three-color phosphors separately on the fluorescent screen.

The eye then integrates the red green and the blue information and their luminance to perceive the actual color and brightness of the picture being televised. COLOUR RECEIVER CONTROLS NTSC color television receiver has two additional controls, known as Color and Hue controls. The color or saturation control varies the intensity or the amount of color in the reproduced picture. The tint or the Hue control selects the correct color to be displayed. This is primarily used to set correct skin color, since when flesh tones are correct, all other colors are correctly reproduced. PAL color receivers do not need any tint control while in SECAM color receiver, both tint and saturation controls are not necessary. COMPATIBILITY Compatibility implies that The color television signal must produce the normal black & white picture on a monochrome receiver without any modification of the receiver circuitry. A color television must be able to produce a black & white picture from a normal monochrome signal

ELEMENTS OF TELEVISION ANTENNA

An antenna is used for effective radiation of energy at the transmitter & effective picks up at the receiver. It is used to convert high frequency current into electromagnetic waves & vice-versa. Strongest signal is induced into the antenna if it has same polarization as the transmitting antennas. All TV antennas are mounted in horizontal position for better reception and favorable signal to noise ratio. RF&IF sections: RF section consists of RF amplifier, mixer & local oscillator & is normally mounted on a separate sub-chassis called the Front End or RF Tuner. The purpose of the tuner unit is to amplify both sound &picture signals picked up by the antenna and to convert the carrier frequencies & their associated bands into intermediate frequencies and their side bands. The signal voltage or information from various stations modulated over different carrier frequencies is heterodyned in the mixer with the output from a local oscillator to transfer original information on a common fixed carrier frequency called the Intermediate Frequency (IF). RF TUNER:

The RF amplifier, local oscillator and mixer stages forms the RF tuning section. This is commonly known as TUNER or FRONT END. It is the same for both monochrome & color receivers except that automatic frequency tuning is provided in color receivers. The function of tuner is to select a single channel signal from the many signals picked up by the antenna, amplify both the sound & the picture signals, mix it with the CW (continuous wave) output of the local oscillator to convert the channel frequencies to a band around the intermediate frequency of the receivers. It is the local oscillator that tunes in the desired station. Its frequency is unique for each channel, which determines the RF signal frequencies to be

received and convert it to frequencies in the pass-band of the IF section. The standard IF for the 625-B system are Picture IF= 38.9 MHz, Sound IF= 33.4M EEPROM:

This I.C. stores information about color & channel. This IC is memory storage of various information. MICRO PROCESSOR:

The heart of the TV system is the microprocessor. It process the data fed to it and generates digital output, which is used by the chroma I.C. to generate proper video and audio signals continuously. The memory units (RAMs and ROMs) inform the microprocessor how to process the data & send appropriate command signals. The microprocessor decides the nature of sound to be produced & sends a command signal for a generation.

SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply):

In a switch mode supply the regulating elements consists of series connected transistors that act as rapidly opening & closing switches. The input ac is first converted to unregulated dc, which, in turn is chopped by the switching elements operating at a rapid rate, typically at 20 KHz. The resultant 20 KHz pulse train is transformer coupled to an output network which provides final rectification and smoothing of the dc output. Regulation is accomplished by control circuits, which vary the duty cycle (on-off periods) of the switching elements if the output voltage tends to vary. CHROMA I.C.: This package consists of video demodulation, audio

demodulation & SYNC separation. In demodulation Intermediate Frequency is converted to carrier frequency and original

frequency. In audio & video demodulation process takes place on audio & video signal respectively. Video signal consists of a

camera signal corresponding to the desired picture information, blanking pulses to make the retrace invisible, and synchronizing pulses to make the retrace invisible, and synchronizing pulses to synchronize the transmitter and receiver scanning. A horizontal synchronizing (sync) pulse is needed at the end of each active line period whereas a vertical sync is required after each field is scanned. The amplitude of both horizontal and vertical sync pulses is kept the same to obtain higher efficiency of picture signal transmission but their duration (width) is chosen to be different for separating the at the receiver. Since sync pulses are needed consecutively and not simultaneously with picture signal, they are sent on a time division basis and thus form a part of composite video signal.

CPT (COLOUR PICTURE TUBE):

The color picture tube is coated with three different phosphors, one for each of the chosen red, green and blue primaries. The three phosphors are physically separated from each other & each is energized by an electron beam of intensity that is proportional to the respective color voltage reproduced in the television receiver. The object is to produce three coincident raster, which produce the red, green & blue contents of the transmitted picture. While seeing from a normal viewing distance the eye integrates the three-color information to convey the sensation of the hue at each part of the picture.

FBT (Fly Back Transformer):

The circuit employs an autotransformer because of its higher efficiency as compared to one having isolated primary and secondary windings. It is wound on a ferrite core to minimize losses. A small air gap is provided between the U and I sections of the core to prevent magnetic saturation due to heavy plate current that flows through a section of the windings. The EHT windings and other sections of the autotransformer winding are wound on opposite limbs of the core to obtain higher leakage inductance. This component provides three voltages, which are heater voltage, focus voltage &screen voltages. It provides EHT (Extra High Tension), which is around 24 kV. SPEAKERS: Speakers are the most visible and most crucial components of any audio system. More than any other component, the speakers impact the sound, character, feel and power of reproduced sound. An audio system is much more than the sum of its parts. In essence, a system is created from a mass of plastic, silicon, metal, wood, and numerous other raw materials. Each of these basic parts are shaped and blended to create usable elements, which are in turn combined to form separate audio components - speakers, amplifiers, preamplifiers, CD players, etc. And yet still these components do not approach the total sum of an audio system. The CD player runs the disc, the preamplifier adjusts the volume and balance and selects the source, the amplifier provides electrical power to the audio signal, and the speakers use that power to create sound waves by vibrating various materials and, in turn, creating vibrations in the air. This complex string of electrical signals and various components results in the magic of sound. A well-designed audio system can take us beyond our living rooms into the great music halls of Europe The Jazz clubs of New Orleans, the fictional battlefields of the future. The sound transcends the elements used to create it resulting in a truly moving, powerful

experience for the listener. And more than any other single component, the speaker is most responsible for the sonic experience. Speakers are so vital to the sound of an audio system because they are the actual reproducers of the sound. Every piece of an audio system may (and does) affect the sound in some way, from the CD player to the amplifier to the simple wiring that carries the signals. But none of these components reproduce the sound waves, that all-important task falls to the speaker. An excellent speaker can produce stunning sound when coupled with a top-notch system, but a poor quality speaker working with the same system will still produce poor results. Conversely, dismal electronic components will hamper the sound of an excellent speaker, but the speaker will still retain good quality sound. Speakers cannot reach their ultimate potential without good quality accompanying components, but the world's best amplifiers, CD players, preamplifiers, and other components cannot make a bad speaker sound good.

So, why do speakers have such an impact on the sound of a given audio system? Because they are the physical components that actually create sound waves in the air. It is much more difficult to efficiently and effectively move air with little distortion thereby reproducing an audio signal in the form of sound waves than it is to reproduce small electrical signals that mimic those sound waves. It's like trying to create a great work of art. Anyone may be able to envision a beautiful landscape scene with rolling hills, a slowly setting sun, a small pond shimmering in the fading sun, but very few of us can put that image on canvas. Our image is like the audio signal in its electrical state flowing through an audio system. Our ability to use a brush and paint to recreate that image is like the speaker. The image is easy to see in our minds. It is easy to manipulate, to alter, and to envision. However, the reality of recreating it is a totally different matter. For that it takes an artist. Essentially, the speaker is the artist of the audio system.

STUDY OF TV CHASSIS MC049A

Basic sections in MC049A 1. POWER SUPPLY 2. FBT 3. TUNER 4. UOC (MICROCONTROLLER + CHROMA) 5. AUDIO AMPLIFIER 6. AV STEREO SOUND PROCESSOR 7. CPT DRIVE (VIDEO AMPLIFIER) 8. HORIZONTAL DEFLECTION CIRCUIT 9. VERTICAL DEFLECTION CIRCUIT 10. FRONT PANEL KEYS CIRCUIT

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MC 049A:

POWER SUPPLY SECTION SMPS: Switch mode power supplies (SMPS) have been used for many years in industrial and aerospace applications where good efficiency, lightweight and small size were of prime concern. Today SMPS (often called choppers or switchers are used extensively in A powered electronic devices such as computers, monitors, television receivers, and VCRs. A SMPS offers three main advantages over a conventional linear power supply: 1) High efficiency & less heat generation 2) Tighter regulation, and 3) Smaller size and weight.

Of these, greater efficiency is the biggest advantage. Conventional linear power supplies are inefficient because they regulate by dumping the excess power in to heat. The AC power transformer, operating at60 Hz, also contributes to the inefficiency of some power supplies. When all the inefficiencies are added, conventional, linear power supplies are typically 40-50% efficient, while switchers have efficiencies from 60 to 90%. This is very important when the designer wants to reduce generated heat, reduce power costs, or increase battery life. Although this fly back circuit is not commonly called a switch mode supply, it is a type of switcher.

BASIC SWITCHER OPERATION Lets take a closer look at the basic switcher block diagram shown in Figure .The heart of all switch mode supplies is the switching transistor and switching transformer. Raw (unregulated) B+ is supplied to the switching transistor through the primary winding of the transformer. The switching transistor (SOT) is a switch. When the switch is closed (the transistor is turned on) it provides a path for current to flow through the transformer primary to ground. As well see a bit later, changing how fast or how long the switch remains closed regulates the output voltages. The current flow in the primary winding of the transformer produces an expanding magnetic field, which couples to the secondary windings through the core. As the transistor is switched on and off the magnetic field alternately expands and collapses in all of the transformer windings. By designing the transformer with different secondary turns ratios, various amplitude pulses are produced. The output of each secondary winding. The output of each winding is applied to high speed switching diodes and filters which produce the DC output voltages of the SMPS.It is important to remember that all of the windings are mutually coupled by the magnetic field. If more power is applied to the primary winding, more power is delivered to the secondary windings; if the voltage at one secondary winding increase (or decreases) the voltages at the other windings change by an amount equal to the turns ratio

PWM regulators vary the on or conduction time of the switching transistor. Figure 4 shows an example of pulse rate modulation. Note that the frequency of the signal remains constantan only the duty cycle varies. As the width of the pulse is increased, the switching transistor stays on longer, and more energy is applied to the switching transformer.

This produces an increase in the DC output voltage (Unless the load is shorted, or draws excessive current). Likewise, as the pulse width is made narrower, the transistor is on for a shorter amount of time, and less energy is applied

PULSE RATE MODULATED REGULATION: Figure shows an example of pulse rate modulation. The PRM regulator varies threat (frequency) at which the switching transistor is turned off and on. Notice, however, that as the pulse rate increases, Fig. 5: The PRM regulates by varying the frequency of the pulses, which varies the switching transistors conduction time. the on time decreases. Thus, if the output voltage is too high, the switching transistor is turned on and off at a faster rate. This results in less energy being applied to the switching transformer. Atypical PRM supply may operate at frequencies as high as 90 kHz under a no-load condition, but slow to 40 kHz under full load. The blocks can be grouped in to four sections 1) Unregulated input, 2) Startup &Drive, 3) Secondary circuits, and 4) Feedback & Control. Power supply for the chassis: Input AC supply (230V, 50Hz) is connected to the power switch, which act as open circuit in off condition, A fuse of current rating of 4000mA is, which burn in case of short circuit, varistor, and X capacitor are connected to remove any voltage spikes present, Line filter is there to provide isolation and smoothing of input voltage, this input voltage is also applied to the degaussing coil with PTC (positive temperature coefficient) in series, initially as PTC is cold it act as a short circuit and allow the current to flow in the degaussing coil, as it heats up it act as open circuit and isolate the degaussing coil from the circuit, so no more current flow in it.

Ac supply is further rectified using bridge rectifier, and is supplied to the primary of transformer; this is filtered. A switching IC controls the duty cycle of transformer i.e. provide regulation, feedback is provided from secondary to primary by two opto couplers. Secondary windings are tapped for different voltage levels. TUNER SECTION: The purpose of the tuner, and the following intermediate amplifier (IF), is to select the desired radio frequency (RF) signals in a 6 MHz channel, to the exclusion of all other signals, available from the antenna or cable

system and to amplify the signals to a level adequate for demodulation. Channel selection is accomplished with either mechanically switched or manually tuned circuits, or in varactor tuners with electrically switched and controlled circuit components. A simple block diagram of tuner can be drawn as shown in figure below:

This is a very simple block diagram over a tuner. The RF signal is entering band filter before it enters the mixers. There are two mixers, one for the UHF and one for the VHF. Two oscillators are connected to the two mixers. One for the UHF and one for the VHF .The VHF oscillator is divided into two band BL and BH. The band can be selected with the input called BL, BU, and BH. The frequency of the oscillators is controlled by a voltage called VT (tuning voltage). The output from the mixers is the IF signal. The input called ACG (Automatic Gain Control) controls the gain of the signal.

FLYBACK TRANSFORMER: The typical fly back or Line Output Transformer (FBT) consists of two parts:

1. A special transformer which in conjunction with the horizontal output transistor/deflection circuits boosts the B+ (120 V typical for a TV) of the low voltage power supply to the 20 to 30 KV for the CRT as well as provide various secondary lower voltages for other circuits. A HV rectifier turns the high voltage pulses into DC and the CRT capacitance smoothes it. The HV may be developed from a single winding with many turns of wire or a lower voltage winding and a diode-capacitor voltage multiplier. The various secondary voltages power the logic, tuner, video signal vertical deflection circuits, and CRT filaments. In fact, with many TV designs, the only power not derived from the fly back is for the keep-alive circuitry needed to maintain channel memory and provide startup drive to the horizontal deflection/high voltage system. 2. A voltage divider that provides the focus and screen supplies. The pots re in this divider network - and these things fail resulting poor focus, uncontrolled brightness, or fluctuating focus and/or brightness. A total short could also result in failure of other components like the horizontal output transistor. The main difference between a fly back transformer and a regular transformer is that a fly back transformer is designed to store energy in its magnetic circuit, i.e., it functions like a pure inductor, whereas a regular transformer is designed to transfer energy from its primary to secondary and to minimize stored energy. Secondly, a fly back transformer in its simplest form has current flowing either in its primary, or in its secondary (but not both at the same time).(This is more complicated in practice because of finite turn-off times for transistors and diodes, need for snubber circuits, etc). Thirdly, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit of a fly back transformer is usually much higher than that of a regular transformer. This is because of a carefully calculated air-gap for storing energy (it's an inductor). Fourthly, the voltages applied to a fly back transformer on the primary side are almost always rectangular (pulsed) whereas regular transformers usually have sinusoidal voltages applied to them. Fifthly, the currents flowing through either side of a fly back transformer are either increasing or decreasing linear sawtooths, whereas a regular transformer usually has sinusoidal currents. Finally, due to the properties of core materials, fly back transformers are most conveniently operated in the range from 10^3 to 10^6 Hz, whereas regular transformers have a much wider range, from a few Hz to 10^12 Hz. The term 'fly back' probably originated because the high voltage pulse that charges the CRT capacitance is generated by the collapse of the magnetic field in the core of the transformer during the short retrace period - when the electron beam in the CRT 'flies back' to the start of a new scan line. The flux in the core changes slowly during scan and is abruptly switched in polarity by the Hout turning off and damper diode turning on during this fly back or retrace period.

HORIZONTAL/VERTICAL DEFLECTION SECTION:

How Does the Horizontal Deflection Circuit Work? Although there are many variations, the basic operation of the horizontal deflection/high voltage power supplies in most TVs, monitors, and other CRT displays is very similar. For understanding the working of the deflection circuit regard the flyback transformer as an inductor. The airgap stores energy, some of which may be tapped off during flyback by secondary rectifiers (e.g., vertical deflection, signal circuits, and high voltage supplies) and non-rectified loads (e.g., filament supply) but these have hardly any influence on the basic working principles. The scenario described below is only true in the steady state - the first few scans are different because the picture tube capacitance is still discharged. This represents a short-circuit at the secondary side of the flyback. It prevents proper demagnetizing, hence the core will go into saturation (unless special soft-start measures have been taken, like a B+ supply that comes up slowly). Generally, a hard start of the line deflection circuit represents a very heavy load on the HOT. This will happen after a picture tube flashover or if the B+ is connected suddenly (due to intermittent contact) and can mean instant death to the HOT due to secondary breakdown EHT (High Voltage) Generation The EHT (Extra High Tension or HV to the CRT ) is generated from a secondary winding on the flyback transformer having several thousand turns of very fine wire. Being a flyback supply, the actual output voltage is many times what would be calculated based on turns ratios alone. The HV rectifier consists of a stack of silicon diodes with a total PIV rating of 50 kV or more. Because the flyback pulse is so narrow, the rectifier diode will conduct only a short time. Thus the peak current in the winding will be quite high, resulting in a significant voltage drop when loaded. The internal impedance of the EHT source is in the order of 1 MOhm, so with a load of e.g. 1 mA the EHT will drop 1000 V = -3%. Usually the EHT voltage is far from stable, 10% drop is quite normal.

If the EHT voltage drops, then the electrons will be accelerated less and will move through the deflection field at a lower velocity. As a result they will be easier to deflect by the magnetic field, and the picture size will grow. Without special measures, brighter pictures will be larger. The measure is to feed some EHT information or beam current information to the deflection circuits, reducing the deflection current amplitude a bit for bright pictures. For horizontal deflection this is done by the E/W modulator. This is called anti-breathing. Sets with raster correction free picture tubes don't have an E/W modulator. There the correction may be done by means of a power resistor in series with the B+ supply. A large beam current causes more power consumption, this lowers the B+ supply voltage and thus reduces the line deflection current. That also reduces the EHT even further, but the deflection current has a stronger effect on the picture width than the EHT. Better methods exist too. The EHT information is also used to protect the flyback transformer from overload. As the load increases, the average primary current rises. Ultimately it may reach a level where the transformer core may go into saturation. This causes large peak currents in the HOT which might lead to destruction. To prevent this, some EHT information is fed to the contrast controller, to automatically reduce the picture brightness whenever the white content is too much. This is called the average beam current limiter. A failure in the video path, like a video output amplifier stuck at 0 V, causes a high beam current that will not react to the contrast controller. In that case the beam current limiter will not work and the set should switch off automatically, usually within a few seconds after applying power. When the cathodes heat up, you'll see an even picture with diagonal retrace lines and then it will switch off. Horizontal Output Transistor (HOT) Information TV's for Europe DO get higher scan rates, you know. Our entire high-end range runs on 31250 Hz. Sets with VGA capability often run even higher. 100 Hz HDTV was supposed to run on 62500 Hz but that is a big technological problem as you might imagine. Larger screen sizes (32" 16:9, 33" 4:3) do tend to have less sensitive deflection coils, so the peak-peak amps go up. Combined with the higher scan rate this often means that some new transistor must be found, even if it is only a higher rated selection from an existing type. There are also 1700 V Vce types next to the regular 1500 V. And in USA it is known that setmakers (like ourselves) have standard transistors marked with a different type number, to prevent repairmen from putting in just any would-be replacement type. For a fact, it IS risky to put in the wrong replacement, the faulty drive conditions may destroy it early. So try and avoid this.

HOT Specs and Substitution Refer the article on deflection circuit design by David Sharples (Electronics World & Wireless World, June 1996). Every line transistor has its own requirements for:

Amount of base drive current, especially the Ib at end-of-scan. Waveform of base drive current (rising, steady, falling) Speed of reduction base drive current at switch-off.

The most effort goes into the optimization of the magnitude of the base drive current. The problem is: gain spread. In the ideal world, all transistors would come from the factory with exactly the same gain. In the real world, this isn't the case - it isn't even close. You have to find *one* optimum drive so that neither the high-gain nor the low-gain type will dissipate too much power taking into consideration the variations in other circuit components as well. There used to be other spread factors influencing the dynamic transistor parameters but fortunately, these have been mostly eliminated by better process control.

Overdriving causes a slow switch-off behavior, some collector current keeps flowing during the beginning of the flyback and will cause dissipation. Underdriving causes bad saturation, the collector voltage will start to rise before the flyback should start. This too causes dissipation.

Either condition is easily observed with an oscilloscope, a current probe and a 1:100 voltage probe (be sure to calibrate it for high frequency response!). The dissipation as a function of the base drive current is a more-or-less parabolic function with a global minimum. The minimum will be different for high-gain and low-gain types. By measuring the curves for both extreme types and combining them, an optimum drive for the random type will be found, with a figure for the worst-case dissipation.

All this will only be true if you insert a device which is a member of the population spread for which you optimized the base drive. If you just insert a random other device (different type, same type but different brand, same type and brand but much older/newer batch) then all bets are off. Dissipation may be way too high, with early failure as a result (and possibly a distorted picture geometry due to excess damping of the waveform). It is certainly not possible to substitute a standard HOT (BU508) in place of a more advanced type (in >> 15 kHz applications like a monitor). It is

also a very bad idea to substitute a BU508 in place of a much lighter type like a BUT11 (used in <= 17" sets). It will fail! With horizontal output transistors, it is *not* true that 'bigger is better'. If you substitute a heavier transistor (more amps, more volts, more watts, faster switching, whatever) for a lighter one, then there is a very big chance that it will fail earlier, not later. The reason is that the drive conditions will now be wrong (most likely underdrive) and the transistor will overheat from too high conduction losses (Ic * Vce,sat). So do yourselves a favour and get a correct replacement type.

Adjustment 1.APPLICATION This Adjustment specification is for MC-049A that is made in LG Company. 2.SAFETY PRECAUTIONS a) The adjustment of TV should be performed after warming up for 15 minutes. b) The adjustment must be done by the correct appliances. c) Unless otherwise noted, set the line voltage to 230Vac10%, 50 Hz. 3.ADJUSTMENTS Focus Adjustment a) Tune the TV set to receive the digital pattern. b) Single Focus CPT: Adjust the upper Focus volume of FBT for the best Focus of horizontal line A, vertical line B. c) Double Focus CPT: Adjust the lower Focus volume of FBT for the best Focus of vertical line B. : Adjust the upper Focus volume of FBT for the best Focus of horizontal line A. : Repeat above steps for the best overall focus. Screen Voltage and White Balance Adjustment a) Adjustment of screen manually 1.Receive the PAL or SECAM (NTSC) signal into RF mode. 2.If you press the ADJ button in LINE SVC mode (IN-START button), the LINE SVC mode changes to screen adjustment mode. 3.Turn the Screen Volume of FBT to change luminance of Horizontal Line. 4.Press the EXIT button to exit SVC mode.

 White Balance 1.Tune the TV set to receive a 100% white pattern with the help of pattern Generator. 2.Adjust LOW Light status in USER mode of Picture Standard Mode (PSM) by varying CONTRAST & BRIGHTNESS to nearly minimum Value to set the last parameter of RGB parameters in COLOUR ANALYSER to the value of 4.5. 3.The procedure in step 2 is performed to receive the maximum purity in Brightness and darkness. Now adjust the major RGB parameters-X and Y in the same mode according to the specifications mentioned below Through CR (red), CG (green) and CB (blue) given in the service mode. 4.Adjust HIGH Light status in STANDARD mode of PSM to the same Values of X &Y parameters mentioned below through WR (red), WB (blue) And WG (green) in the service mode.

WHITE BALANCE PARAMETERS EU 260 262 9000 Kelvin degree 13000 Kelvin NON-EU 268 273 degree

MENU X Y Color Temperature

WHITE BALANCE INITIAL DATA 70 70 70 WR WG WB 380 380 380

CR CG CB

Deflection Data Adjustment a) Preparation for Deflection Adjustment 1.Obtain the PHILIPS PATTERN on the screen. 2.At adjustment mode (IN-START button on SVC remote control), change To LINE SVC 2 mode to adjust the deflection.

3.Press Channel UP/DOWN button for desirous function Adjustment. 4.Press Volume UP/DOWN button to adjust the data. 5.Press the OK key to store the data.

Adjustment Features VA (Vertical Amplitude) Adjust so that the circle of a digital circle pattern may be located within the effective screen of the CPT. VL (Vertical Linearity) Adjust so that the boundary line between upper and lower half is in accord with geometric horizontal center of the CPT.

SC (Vertical S Correction) Adjust so that all distance between each horizontal line are to be the same. VS (Vertical Shift) Adjust so that the horizontal centerline of a digital circle pattern is in Accord with geometric horizontal center of the CPT. HS (Horizontal Shift) Adjust so that the vertical centerline of a digital circle pattern is in accord with geometric vertical center of the CPT. EW (Horizontal Width) Adjust so that a digital circle pattern looks like exact circle. ET (East-west Trapezium) Adjust to make the length of top horizontal line it with it of the bottom horizontal line. EP (East-west Parabola) Adjust so that the vertical line at every 4 corners of the screen looks like Parallel with the vertical lines of the CPT. ANGLE Adjust until inclination of left and right screen should be precise. PIP (PIP Position) Adjust until the distance between PIP and main picture becomes about 1~2mm. UPCOR (Upper Corner) Adjust so that the vertical sidelines and Cross-H pattern lines become Straight from center to top of the screen. LOCOR (Lower Corner) Adjust so that the vertical sidelines and Cross-H pattern lines become Straight from center to bottom of the screen

Picture mode PSM

MODE CONTRAST BRIGHTNESS COLOUR SHARPNESS

DYNAMIC 100 60 60 60

STANDARD 90 65 55 50

MILD 70 65 50 50

GAME 60 60 40 40

THE DIFFERENT STANDARDS USED IN TELEVISION:

PAL: PAL, short for Phase Alternating Line, is the analogue video format used in television transmission in most of Europe (except France, Bulgaria, Russia, Yugoslavia, and some other countries in Eastern Europe, where SECAM is used), Australia and some Asian, African, and South American countries. PAL was developed in Germany by Walter Bruch, and first introduced in 1967. The name "Phase Alternating Line" describes the way that part of the color information on the video signal is reversed in phase with each line, which automatically corrects phase errors in the transmission of the signal. NTSC receivers have a tint or hue control to perform the correction manually. Some engineers jokingly expand NTSC to "Never The Same Color" while referring to PAL as "Perfect At Last" or "Peace At Last"! However, the alternation of color information - Hanover bars - can lead to picture grain on pictures with extreme phase errors. The PAL color system is usually used with a video format that has 625 lines per frame and a refresh rate of 25 frames per second. Like NTSC this is an interlaced format. Each frame consists of two fields (half-aframe), each field has half of the lines of a frame (one has all the even lines, one has all the odd lines). Fields are transmitted and displayed successively. There are 50 fields per second. At the time of its design, the interlacing of fields was a compromise between flicker and bandwidth. There are many variants of PAL. PAL-M is a hybrid of NTSC and PAL with 525 lines/60 Hz used in Brazil and PAL-N is a variant of PAL with narrow bandwidth, which is used in Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay. PAL-I is the version used in the United Kingdom. Other European countries use PAL-B/G. A variant named PAL60 uses, like NTSC, 59.94 fields per

second. It is used mainly for displaying NTSC video or DVD on a PAL TV set.

NTSC: The National Television Standards Committee sets the analog television standard for the United States; this format itself is also informally called "NTSC". While a standard for the United States, it has been adopted in other countries as well, for example Japan. The current version replaced an older NTSC standard by adding chrominance information on a 3.579545 (exactly 315/88) MHz sub carrier, retaining compatibility with older black-and-white NTSC television receiver The NTSC format consists of 29.97 interlaced frames of video a second, each consisting of 480 lines of vertical resolution out of a total of 525 (the rest are used for sync, vertical retrace, and other data such as captioning). NTSC interlaces its scan lines, drawing odd-numbered scan lines in odd-numbered fields and even-numbered scan lines in evennumbered fields, Which gives a nearly flicker-free image at approximately 59.94 hertz (nominally 60 Hz / 1.001) refresh frequency, which is close to the nominal 60 Hz alternating current power used in the United States. (Compare this to the 50 Hz refresh rate of the 625-line PAL video format used in Europe, where 50 Hz (25 hertz is resonant) AC is the standard; PAL has noticeably more flicker than NTSC.) Synchronization of the refresh rate to the power cycle helped film cameras record early live television broadcasts, as it was very simple to sync a film projector to capture a frame of video to a film cell using the frequency of the alternating current. Also, it was preferable to match the screen refresh rate to the power source so as to avoid wave interference that would produce rolling bars on the screen. An NTSC television channel as transmitted occupies a total bandwidth of 6 MHz. A guard band, which does not carry any signals, occupies the lowest 250 kHz of the channel, to avoid any known possibility of interference between the video signal of one channel and the audio signals of the next channel down. The actual video signal, which is amplitude-modulated, is transmitted between 500 kHz and 5.45 MHz above the lower bound of the channel. The video carrier is 1.25 MHz above the lower bound of the channel. Like any modulated signal, the video carrier generates two sidebands, one above the carrier and one below. The sidebands are each 4.2 MHz wide. The entire upper sideband is transmitted, but only 750 kHz of the lower sideband, known as a vestigial sideband, is transmitted. The color sub carrier, as indicated above, is 3.579545 MHz above the video carrier, and is quadratureamplitude-modulated. The highest 250 kHz of each channel contains the

audio signal, which is frequency-modulated, making it compatible with the audio signals broadcast by FM radio stations in the 88-108 MHz band. The main audio carrier is 4.5 MHz above the video carrier. Sometimes, a channel can contain an MTS signal, which is simply more than one audio signal. This is normally the case when stereo audio and/or SAP signals are used.

SECAM: SECAM (Sequential Couleur avec Mmoire, French for "sequential color with memory") is an analog television system, using frequency modulation to encode chrominance information. It is so named because it uses memory to store lines of color information, in order to eliminate the color artifacts found on systems using the NTSC standard. It was developed for the same purpose as PAL, but uses a different (and many would argue inferior) mechanism to do so. R-Y and B-Y information is transmitted in alternate lines, and a video line store is used to combine the signals together. This means that the vertical color resolution is halved relative to PAL and NTSC. SECAM was introduced in France in 1967, where it is still used; it has also been adopted in many former French colonies, as well as parts of Eastern Europe (Bulgaria, Hungary) and the former Soviet Union. Many have argued that the primary motivation for the development of SECAM in France was to protect French television equipment manufacturers and make it more difficult to view non-French programming. Political factors from the Cold War have also been attributed to the adoption of SECAM in Eastern Europe, as its use made it impossible for most Eastern Europeans to view television which was broadcast from outside the Iron Curtain, which were mostly using PAL. There are three varieties of SECAM: French SECAM is used in France and its former colonies MESECAM is used in the Middle East D-SECAM is used in the Commonwealth of Independent States and Eastern Europe.