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DOI 10.1002/mawe.201100806

Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2011, 42, No. 5

A one-dimensional implementation of a coupled elasto-plastic model for ductile damage

Eine eindimensionale Implementierung eines gekoppelten elastisch-plastischen Modells fr duktile Schdigung
M. Esmaeili1, A. chsner1,2
A one-dimensional numerical implementation of the Lemaitre damage model is presented. The implementation is close to classical finite element schemes but can be realised by simple codes or by the application of commercial computer algebra systems. Based on the presented theory and computational algorithm, the elasto-plastic deformation of a one-dimensional bar is simulated. The damage evolution is evaluated for different isotropic hardening behaviour and stated as a function of the plastic strain. The described algorithm allows a simple investigation of the influence of different parameters on the damage evolution.
Keywords: damage / Lemaitre model / plasticity / numerical mechanics / finite element method /

Eine eindimensional numerische Implementierung des Schdigungsmodells nach Lemaitre wird vorgestellt. Die Implementierung orientiert sich an den klassischen Finite-Elemente-Formulierungen und kann durch ein einfaches Programm oder durch die Anwendung kommerzieller Computeralgebrasysteme realisiert werden. Basierend auf der vorgestellten Theorie und des numerischen Algorithmus wird die elastisch-plastische Verformung eines eindimensionalen Stabes simuliert. Die Schdigungsentwicklung wird fr verschiedene isotrope Verfestigungsverlufe ausgewertet und als Funktion der plastischen Dehnung angegeben. Der beschriebene Algorithmus erlaubt eine einfache Untersuchung des Einflusses verschiedener Parameter auf die Schdigungsentwicklung.
Schlsselwrter: Schdigung / Lemaitre-Modell / Plastizitt / Numerische Mechanik / Finite-ElementeMethode /

1 Introduction
Ductile damage of metallic materials occurs simultaneously with plastic deformation larger than a certain threshold. It results from the nucleation of cavities caused either by pre-existing pores resulting from the production process by inclusions that tend to fracture or form decohesions from the matrix, respectively depending on the mechanical properties of the particles concerned and the face boundaries. The described generation of voids is followed by their growth and coalescence through the phenomenon of plastic instability. As a consequence, the degree of localisation of ductile damage is comparable to that of plastic strain [1]. Experimental investigations [2] using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed that in engineering wrought
1

Department of Applied Mechanics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Malaysia, UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia 2 Centre for Mass and Thermal Transport in Engineering Materials, School of Engineering, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia Corresponding author: Andreas chsner, Department of Applied Mechanics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Malaysia, UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia E-mail: andreas.oechsner@gmail.com

aluminium alloys damage to the microstructure is highly localized near the usually brittle precipitates. These particles (l 1 lm in diameter) can break or separate from the matrix both resulting in the formation of pores. Under tensile load, these voids join together and grow. This mechanism leads eventually to microcracking and subsequently to the formation of an internal crack which usually results in the failure of the residual material. The later stages of this process can be described by means of fracture mechanics [3]. In continuum solid mechanics applied to the considered materials, the phenomenological description is based in the elastic range normally on Hooke's law which is extended in the plastic range by the concept of a yield condition, a flow rule and a hardening rule [4]. Without a precise specification of the micro-structural processes, the concept of internal damage is introduced as a state variable for the loaded body and the theoretical description is then known as continuum damage mechanics. This theoretical foundation combined with computational methods yields to the discipline of computational damage mechanics which aims to finally predict the life or failure of engineering components. There are two major models which describe the coupling of the constitutive equations of elasto-plastic material behaviour with damage. The first one was proposed by Lemaitre [5, 6] and will be described in the next section of this article. The general finite element implementation of such a constitutive

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estimates for the minimum size of RVEs for different materials are given in [1]. Let A be the overall cross-sectional area of the specimen (marked in grey in Fig. 1) and AD be the total area of the micro-cracks and voids in the considered area which is in Fig. 1 marked in black. The effective resisting area is denoted by A. Based on these quantities, the damage variable D can be introduced as Ri AiD AD AA : 1 A A A If this definition is based on a RVE, then the same damage variable is obtained based on the volume of the micro-cracks and voids [12]: D = VD /V. A state D = 0 corresponds to the undamaged state, D = 1 represents the rupture of the specimen into two parts and 0 < D < 1 characterises the damaged state. In the scope of this paper, an isotropic damage variable is assumed. This means that the defects are equally distributed in all directions of the specimen. Thus, a scalar description of the damage is sufficient under the hypothesis of isotropy. If the resisting area in Eq. (1) is used to calculate the stress in the specimens, the concept of effective stress is obtained which states that the effective stress in the specimen is given by: D r
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of an undamaged and damaged tensile specimen. Bild 1. Schematische Darstellung einer ungeschdigten und geschdigten Zugprobe.

r : 1D

model can be found for example in [7, 8]. However, it must be noted that the theoretical and mathematical requirements are quite high for the general case. The other model was originally proposed by Gurson [9] and later further developed by Tvergaard in [10, 11] but does not affect the elastic range and only the yield condition is modified by the damage variable. The scope of this paper is to present a simplified version of the Lemaitre model for a one-dimensional state which can be easily programmed. Based on the proposed scheme, the influence of the elasto-plastic material behaviour on the damage evolution can be easily investigated.

It must be stated here that this definition of the effective stress holds only in the tensile regime. Under compression, some defects may close again or in the limiting case, all defects can be closed again so that the effective stress is again equal to the usual stress r. However, this effect in the compressive regime will be not considered within this paper. In the case of the strain, the hypothesis of strain equivalence is applied which states that the strain behaviour of a damaged material is represented by the virgin material: e e: 3

Based on these assumptions and simplifications, Hooke's law can be written with the effective stress r and the elastic strain eel as: r E N eel ; 4

which can be written with the definition of the effective stress given in Eq. (2) as:

2 Ductile damage model

The following section summarises briefly the major ideas of ductile damage based on the concept given by Lemaitre in [5, 6]. Let us consider a uniaxial tensile sample as shown in Fig. 1 where the undamaged or initial tensile specimen is shown on the left and the damaged or deformed specimen on the right hand side. A pure uniaxial tensile sample is assumed in the following which means in this context that the specimen deforms only in its longitudinal direction (i. e. the x-direction as shown in Fig. 1) and does not show any deformation perpendicular, i. e. contraction, to the loading direction. This corresponds to the assumption that Poisson's ratio is equal to zero. It should be noted here that the size of the specimen must be in such a way that the considered volume represents a Representative Volume Element (RVE) for the considered material. Some

r 1 DE N eel : |{z}
E

The last equation offers an elegant way to experimentally determine the evolution of the damage variable D. Measuring during tests with reversed loading stress and strain based on the usual engineering definitions, r = F/A and e = L/L, the damage variable can be indirectly obtained from the variation of the elasticity modulus, i. e. stress over strain (E is the inititial (undamaged) modulus while E is the subsequent modulus of the damaged material): E : 6 E The classical continuum theory of plasticity is based on three equations, i. e. the yield condition, the flow rule and the hardenD1

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ing law. The yield surface states the onset of plastic material behaviour and can be expressed for a one-dimensional stress state as, jrj kj; 7 1D where | r |/(1D) is the equivalent stress which is compared to the experimental value k, i. e. the uniaxial yield stress. In the case of isotropic hardening materials, the yield stress is expressed as a function of an internal variable j. If the equivalent plastic strain is chosen as the internal variable (or in the one-dimensional case the absolute value of the plastic strain, i. e. j = | epl |), the concept is called strain hardening. The evolution of the plastic strains are described by the flow rule, which is given in its simplest form as F _ @F ; _ epl k 8 @r _ where k is called the plastic multiplier. Combining the flow rule with the yield condition and considering that the internal variable is equal to the absolute value of the plastic strain, the evolution equation for the internal variable can be written as: _ _ j k: 9

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the integration algorithm in the stress-strain diagram under consideration of damage effects. Bild 2. Schematische Darstellung des Integrations-Algorithmus im Spannungs-Dehnungs-Diagramm unter Bercksichtgung von Schdigungseffekten.

In the case of damage mechanics, there is in addition the evolution equation for the damage variable required. Following the notation in [13] and considering a one-dimensional stress state, the model for the ductile damage evolution can be expressed as   _ k Y S _ ; 10 D 1D r where Y is the so-called damage energy release rate which corresponds to the variation of internal energy density due to damage growth at constant stress, and r and S are damage evolution material parameters. For a one-dimensional stress state, Y takes the form: Y r2 2E1 D
2

eel; trial en epl en en1 epl n n1 |{zn }

eel n

14

or as eel; trial en1 en1 epl eel epl : n n1 n n1

pl

15

The elastic strain in the state (n + 1) is given according to Fig. 2 and Hooke's law as eel n1 rn1 1 Dn1 E 16

11

and Eq. (15) can be rearranged to obtain the following expression for the stress in the final state: rn1 1 Dn1 Eeel; trial 1 Dn1 E N epl : n n1 17

3 Numerical schemes
The numerical scheme to solve the problem is derived from the general finite element approach which is based on the predictorcorrector scheme [14]. In the scope of this approach, an elastic predictor is first calculated and in a corrector step iteratively projected on the yield surface. Let us have a look on the schematic representation of the predictor-corrector integration algorithm in the stress-strain diagram as shown in Fig. 2. The trial stress can be expressed as: rtrial n1 rn rel n rn E n N en : 12

In the last equation, the elastic trial strain can be calculated according to Eq. (14) and the plastic strain increment can be replaced by the flow rule for a fully implicit scheme, i. e. epl kn1 n to obtain: rn1 1 Dn1 E eel; trial kn1 E sgnrtrial : n1 n1 19 sgnrtrial sgnrn1 n1 kn1 ; 1 Dn1 1 Dn1 18

It should be highlighted here that the first expression on the right had side of Eq. (19) is unequal to the trial stress which is given according to Fig. 2 by: 1 Dn E eel; trial rtrial : n1 n1 20

Under consideration of the definition of E according to Eq. (5), the last equation can be written as: rtrial rn 1 Dn Een : n1 13

Looking at the strains indicated in Fig. 2, it can be concluded that the elastic trial strain can be expressed as

Only if there is no damage, Eq. (19) reduces to the classical statement for isotropic hardening without damage given in [14]. Summarising, we can state that in the final state (n + 1), the following four equations must be fulfilled:

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rn1 1 Dn1 E eel; trial kn1 E sgnrtrial ; n1 n1 jn1 jn kn1 ; Fn1 jrn1 j kjn1 ; 1 Dn1 kn1 N 1 Dn1
pl

m0 21 S :

3 2 3 r0 rtrial n1 6 j0 7 6 j 7 7 6 6 0 7 6 n 7 4 k 5 4 0 5 Dn D0 2

25

Dn1 Dn

Yrn1 ; Dn1 r

Given the set (rn ; en ; jn ; Dn ) at time n and the total strain increment e, (21) are a set of nonlinear algebraic equations for pl (rn1 ; en1 ; jn1 ; Dn1 ). 3.1 Matrix scheme

The set of equations given in (21) are only fulfilled in the final state (n+1). Out of this final state, a residuum r is obtained for or in its specific form as: each of these equations: 2 3 E 1 0 sgnr eel; trial n1 6 7 6 7 0 1 1 0 6 7 6 7 6 7 @m sgnr @k jrj 7 27 r; j; k; D 6 0 6 7 @v 6 7 1D @j 1 D2 6 7   s s 7 6 4 2k N s 5 r2s1 1 r2 2s 1 N k r2 N 0 N 1 N s 2s1 2s1 2s1 2E N r 2E N r 2E N r 1 D 1 D 1 D

can be used as initial value of the argument. The Jacobian matrix of the residuum functions is obtained from partial derivatives of Eqs. (22) in general as 2 3 @r r @r r @r r @r r 6 @r @j @Dk @D 7 6 7 6 @r j @r j @r j @r j 7 6 7 6 @m @j @Dk @D 7 7 r; j; k; D 6 @r 26 6 @r F @r F @r F @r F 7 @v 6 7 6 7 @j @Dk @D 7 6 @r 4 5 @r D @r D @r D @r D @r @j @Dk @D

rr r; k; D E 1 r 1 D eel; trial k sgnr 6 0; n1 rj j; k j jn k 6 0; rF r; j; D jrj kj 6 0; 1D  Yr; D r S 6 0 : 22

k rD r; k; D D Dn N 1D

Thus, the final state is the root of a vector function m which is composed of the residuum functions. Furthermore, it is useful to collect all variables in a single variable vector m:  1 m11 2s 1 N k 1 D2s1  N r2 2E N r ! S   @k N @j det 2

The inversion of the Jacobian matrix which must be evaluated in the converged state of the above mentioned Newton iteration gives in general 2 3 m11 m12 m13 m14 6 7  !1 6 m21 m22 m23 m24 7  6 7 @m 7 6 28 6 m31 m32 m33 m34 7; @v n1 6 7 4 5 m41 m42 m43 m44 where for example the first component is given by: 1 1 D2s1  N r2 2E N r S N jrj 1 D2 ! : 29

3 2 3 r rr m 6 rj m 7 6 j 7 7 6 7 m m 2 R4 ! R4 6 4 rF m 5; m 4 k 5 D rD m The root is found by a Newton iteration (iteration index: i): mi1 mi where  @m i m @v 1 m mi ;

3.2 Single equation solution 23 It is possible to combine the constitutive relations in a different way to obtain a single nonlinear equation to solve the problem. This is even for the general case possible as long as the contribution of kinematic hardening is disregarded. To start this derivation, let us combine Eq. (17) and (20) to obtain the following statement for the updated stress based on the trial state: rtrial kn1 E sgnrtrial rn1 n1 n1 : 1 Dn1 1 Dn 1 Dn1 30

24

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This last equation together with the evolution equation of the hardening variable according to Eq. (21)2 can be introduced into the yield condition at state (n+1) to obtain:    rtrial kn1 E sgnrtrial  n1 n1   Fn1 kn1 ; Dn1   1 Dn 1 Dn1 kjn kn1 0: 31

Table 1. Material parameters used for the simulation [13]. Tabelle 1. Verwendete Materialparameter fr die Simulation [13].

E in MPa v Hardening curve in MPa S r in MPa

210000 0.3 k(j) = 620 + 3300[1-exp(0.4j)] 1.0 3.5

Combining the damage energy release rate according to Eq. (11) with the expression for the updated stress according to Eq. (30), one can obtain the following relationship:   rtrial kn1 E sgnrtrial 2 n1 n1 1 Dn 1 Dn1 : Ykn1 ; Dn1 2E 32 Furthermore, Eq. (31) can be rearranged to obtain the squared value of the yield stress k which can be introduced in Eq. (32) to obtain the damage energy release rate only as a function of a single variable: Ykn1 k2 jn kn1 : 2E 33

In the following derivation, it is advantageous to introduce a new variable, the so-called material integrity x = 1 D, (34)

which is for the undamaged state equal to 1 and in the case of rupture equal to 0. Furthermore, Eq, (31) can be solved for the damage variable in the form 1 Dn1 to obtain together with the new definition the expression: xn1 kn1 1Dn1 kn1 E sgnrtrial n1 rtrial n1 sgnrtrial kjn kn1 n1 1 Dn 35 :
Fig. 3. Stress-strain diagram for nonlinear hardening: a) without damage; b) with damage. Bild 3. Spannungs-Dehungs-Diagramme fr nichtlineare Verfestigung: a) ohne Schdigung; b) mit Schdigung.

Let us write now the evolution equation for the damage variable transformed to the material integrity, i. e. multiply Eq. (21)4 by 1 and add 1 on both sides to obtain:   1 Ykn1 S N ; 36 xn1 xn kn1 N 1 Dn1 r which can be expressed for arbitrary k in the form of a residuum r as:   k Yk S 0: 37 N rk xk xn xk r A Taylor series expansion of first order, i. e.  i @r N dk 0 ; rki1 rki @k

This iterative scheme results in the value of kn1 which can be used to update the state variable r, D, k, ep and ep .

4 Application example
To demonstrate the algorithm, a one-dimensional tensile test as schematically shown in Fig. 1 is considered in the following. It must be highlighted again that the problem is pure one-dimensional, i. e. no effects from contraction or clamping of the specimen are considered. As a result, all state variables have the same value in the specimen without any spatial variation. The assigned material behaviour was taken from reference [13] where values for AISI 1010 low carbon steel were given, cf. Tab. 1. In addition to these values, the case of ideal plasticity with k = 620 MPa was considered to investigate a different hardening behaviour. A reversed load in the form of an end displacement was prescribed as boundary condition to simulate experiments with

38

with dk ki1 ki , gives finally the numerical scheme to solve this equation:  i !1 @r N rki : 39 ki1 ki @k

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Fig. 5. Displacement boundary condition as a function of time. Bild 5. Verschiebungsrandbedingung als Funktion der Zeit.

Fig. 4. Stress-strain diagram for ideal plasticity: a) without damage; b) with damage. Bild 4. Spannungs-Dehungs-Diagramme fr ideale Plastizitt: a) ohne Schdigung; b) mit Schdigung.

cyclic loading and unloading in the tensile regime. Staying in the regime with ' ! 0 definitely justifies that any effects of kinematic hardening are disregarded for a material. First of all, reference simulations were conducted where all damage effects were disregarded, i. e. D = 0 holds during the entire simulation. This can be easily introduced in the presented scheme by assigning in Eqs. (21)4 and (22)4 values such as S = 1 and r ! 1. The results for the hardening material in the form of stress-strain diagrams are presented in Fig. 3. In the scale of these two diagrams, it is clear that the consideration of the damage clearly reduces the value of the stress which is obtained for a given strain. However, the estimation of the variation of the elasticity modulus (cf. Eq. (6)) is difficult in this scale and must be evaluated separately. The trend of the ideal plastic material, cf. Fig. 4 is the same as in the case of the hardening material. However, the absolute reduction of the stress, which results in the case of ideal plastic material behaviour in a negative slope in the stress-strain diagram ( softening), is clearly smaller. The applied elongation of the specimen, i. e. displacement boundary condition, is shown in Fig. 5 for the case of the hardening material with damage. It can be clearly seen that the unloading requires much smaller displacements since the condition ' = 0 was chosen for the end of the unloading to avoid entering the compressive regime. These smaller values for the unloading displacement are a direct result of the plastic deformation. The simplest way to stay in the tensile regime (' ! 0) is to use small ,

Fig. 6. Elastic modulus as a function of time: a) at the beginning of the load cycles; b) at the end of the load cycles. Bild 6. Elastischer Modul als Funktion der Zeit: a) zu Beginn der Belastungszyklen; b) gegen Ende der Belastungszyklen.

displacement increments and to check in each step if the condition is still fulfilled. The variation of the elasticity modulus and the damage variable are shown in Figs. 6 and 7. Looking at the development of the elasticity modulus, i. e. Fig. 6, it can be seen that the modulus is decreasing with ongoing deformation. The small horizontal plateaus are related to the elastic unloading where the modulus is not changing. Comparing the early and late stages (Figs. 6 a and

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Fig. 7. Damage variable as a function of time: a) at the beginning of the load cycles; b) at the end of the load cycles. Bild 7. Schdigungsvariable als Funktion der Zeit: a) zu Beginn der Belastungszyklen; b) gegen Ende der Belastungszyklen.

Fig. 8. Plastic strain and internal variable as a function of time: a) at the beginning of the load cycles; b) at the end of the load cycles. Bild 8. Plastische Dehunung und innere Variable als Funktion der Zeit: a) zu Beginn der Belastungszyklen; b) gegen Ende der Belastungszyklen.

b) of deformation, it can be seen that the difference between the hardening and the ideal plastic material is increasing. The trend of the damage variable shown in Fig. 7 is inverse compared to the elasticity modulus which is of course the result of the relation between both variables as given in Eq. (6). The development of the plastic strain and the internal hardening variable is shown in Fig. 8. At an early stage of the deformation, both variables are practically the same since the influence of the damage is not very significant. In this context, it might be good to review the equations for the update of the internal variable, plastic and equivalent plastic strain under the influence of damage evolution: jn1 jn kn1 ; en1 en1 en1 en1
p p p p

39 40
Fig. 9. Damage variable as a function of plastic strain. Bild 9. Schdigungsvariable als Funktion der plastischen Dehnung.

kn1 sgnrn1 ; 1 Dn1 kn1 : 1 Dn1

41

If we compare this approach with the classical description without damage it is important that the internal hardening variable and the equivalent plastic strain are different if D 6 0. This can be clearly seen in a late stage of the deformation (cf. Fig. 8b) where the plastic strain is larger than the internal hardening variable. Comparing the hardening material with the ideal plastic

behaviour, it can be concluded that the increase is much higher for the ideal plastic for the chosen axes. The evolution of the damage variable with increasing plastic strain is shown in Fig. 9 where a quite different behaviour is obtained for the hardening and the ideal plastic material. The ideal plastic material shows a practically linear increase of the damage variable whereas the hardening material tends to exponentially increase which clearly increases the difference for

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larger deformations. It should be noted here that the functional dependency is given in terms of the plastic strain component. Fortunately, this plastic strain component is equal to the equivalent plastic strain and conclusions can be transferred to the general three dimensional case at least to a certain extend.

6 References
[1] J. Lemaitre, A Course on Damage Mechanics, Springer, Berlin 1996. [2] A. chsner, W. Winter, G. Kuhn, Adv. Eng. Mater. 2000, 2, 423. [3] J.F. Knott, Fundamentals of Fracture Mechanics, Butterworth, London 1983. [4] W.F. Chen, D.J. Hahn, Plasticity for Structural Engineers, Springer, New York 1988. [5] J. Lemaitre, J. Eng. Mater.-T. ASME 1985, 107, 83. [6] J. Lemaitre, Comput. Method. Appl. M. 1985, 51, 31. [7] A. Benallal, R. Billardon, I. Doghri, Commun. Appl. Numer. M. 1988, 4, 731. [8] I. Doghri, Int. J. Numer. Meth. Eng. 1995, 38, 3403. [9] A.L. Gurson, J. Eng. Mater. Tech. 1977, 99, 2. [10] V. Tvergaard, Int. J. Solids Structs. 1982, 18, 659. [11] V. Tvergaard, Int. J. Fract. 1982, 18, 237. [12] E.E. Underwood, Quantitative Stereology, Addison-Wesley, London 1970. [13] E.A. de Souza Neto, D. Peric, D.R.J. Owen, Computational Methods for Plasticity, Wiley, Chichester 2008. [14] J.C. Simo, T.J.R. Hughes, Computational Inelasticity, Springer, New York 1998. [15] A. chsner, J. Gegner, W. Winter, G. Kuhn, Mat. Sci. Eng. AStruct. 2001, A318, 328. Received in final form: December 12th 2010 T 806

5 Conclusion
A one-dimensional implementation of a coupled elasto-plastic ductile damage model was proposed. The advantage is that no commercial finite element software is required since the implementation can be easily realised with a classical programming language or a computer algebra system. The described scheme allows to modify the loading conditions and the elastic and plastic material behaviour in order to study the influence of the damage evolution. The algorithm can be easily extended to incorporate for example a damage threshold (ep < ep,D ! D = 0) below which no damage occurs or to consider kinematic hardening by adding the evolution equation for the internal variable of kinematic hardening. However, it must also be mentioned that some affects such as the influence of the stress triaxiality (ratio between the hydrostatic stress and the equivalent von Mises stress) on the damage evolution cannot be investigated based on the proposed algorithm. For the considered one-dimensional model, this ratio is equal to 1/3 and does not change during the simulated experiment. For real specimens, the ratio can increase up to l0.8 (necking of round tensile specimens) [15] or even up to 5 or 6 in the case of tips of sharp notches [1]. Nevertheless, many basic dependencies can be easily investigated based on the proposed scheme.

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