scientific research

Definition
Application of scientific method to the investigation of relationships among natural phenomenon, or to solve a medical or technical problem.
Scientific Research

Scientific research generally measures something, and often compares that measurement to something else. It is usually not possible or practical to perform the measurement on whole populations (for example, all women between the ages of 25 and 40). Therefore, samples are used to represent the whole population, and the measurements are made on those samples. The measurements are then analyzed, and conclusions are drawn. If the sampling was done appropriately, we can assume that what is true for the sample is true for the whole population. The Research Question Research questions are generated from different sources. An observation might lead a researcher to formulate a question, a review of what has been published on a given topic may point out an area that has not been investigated, or the results in one study may lead to further questions to be answered. For example, many health food supplements contain the ingredient XYZ. Some people think that XYZ has been causing weight gain in people regularly taking supplements containing XYZ. Dr. Smith wants to determine if rats fed XYZ gain more weight than rats eating their normal diet. Her research question is: Will a diet containing XYZ make rats gain weight? The Hypothesis The hypothesis is a prediction of the results of a study; it is a statement of the answer the researcher expects to find to the research question. Dr. Smiths hypothesis is: During the study, the rats that receive XYZ in their diet will gain more weight than rats not receiving XYZ. Experimental Design In order to determine if her hypothesis is correct, Dr. Smith plans a study that will allow her to determine if the rats receiving the supplement gain weight. Additionally, she must collect data on the weight of rats that do not receive the supplement so she can compare the two groups. It is important that the two groups be as similar as possible at the beginning of the experiment, so that any difference in the weight at the end of the study will be due to the supplement and not to some other difference that existed between the two groups. Dr. Smith must also ensure that the groups

are treated exactly the same way during the study, so that the only difference between them is the presence or absence of the supplement in their diet. The experimental design describes in detail what treatment will be used, how much, how often, and so forth. It also describes what, when, and how measurements will be taken. Common Scientific Research Terms & Concepts A variable is anything that can potentially affect the results of the experiment. For example, in Dr. Smiths study, temperature is a variable that can affect the results. If some of the rats are kept in a room where the average temperature is 64 F and others are kept in a room that averages 79 F, the difference in temperature may alter the growth rates in ways that are unrelated to the dietary supplement under study. Other variables include the gender, age, strain, and health status of the animals. The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the investigator. In Dr. Smiths experiment, the independent variable is the dietary supplement that will be added to the diet of the rats in the experimental group. The dependent variable is the variable that is measured during the study. Dr. Smith will weigh her rats at the end of the study. Weight is therefore the dependent variable in this study. In simple terms, the independent variable is what you think will cause the change that you described in your hypothesis and the dependent variable is what you measure in order to determine if a change has taken place. Variables are tested by using an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group is the group that receives the treatment (the dietary supplement XYZ in Dr. Smiths study) in a scientific study. The control group is a group of animals that is as similar as possible to the experimental group, but that does not receive the treatment. In Dr. Smiths study, the control group received a routine diet without the XYZ supplement.

How many animals are to be included in the study (the sample size) will depend on the type of study and the level of confidence that the investigator determines is needed. If you could include a very large number of rats in your experiment, you would be very confident that the results could be applied to the whole population of rats. Because of the 3Rs principle and other practical considerations, the investigator must determine the minimum number of animals needed to obtain results that one can have confidence in. For Dr. Smiths study, an important question will be: Is this a true representation of the effect of dietary supplement XYZ on rats? You cannot answer yes to that question with 100% confidence unless a very large number of rats have been tested, which is not a practical alternative. In reality, the sample size is as small as possible while providing enough statistical power to obtain conclusive results. There are methods that can be used to determine what sample size should be used to provide statistical confidence in the interpretation of the results. To ensure that any effect demonstrated during the study is due to the independent variable and not other influences, it is important to make sure that the experimental group and the control group are as similar as possible at the beginning of the study. For example, in Dr. Smiths experiment, all rats should be of similar weight at the beginning of the experiment. Other factors to be addressed are gender (males usually grow faster and larger than females), age (older rats dont gain weight at the same rate as younger rats), and stock or strain (Sprague-Dawley rats generally grow larger and faster than Long-Evans rats, for example). If Dr. Smith intends to prove that the supplement is the reason that the rats in the experimental group gain more weight, then she must start with rats of the same weight, age, gender, and stock or strain. If these factors are not controlled, they could influence the results of the study. What would you study if you were going to do research? Scientific research relies on the application of the scientific method, a harnessing of curiosity. This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines. Scientific research is a widely used criterion for judging the standing of an academic institution, such as business schools, but some argue that such is an inaccurate assessment of the institution.[1]

Research methods
The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge, or deepen understanding of a topic or issue. This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be obscure.):

Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems

Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence

The research room at the New York Public Library, an example of secondary research in progress. Research can also fall into two distinct types: Primary research Original findings Secondary research Summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research In social sciences and later in other disciplines, the following two research methods can be applied, depending on the properties of the subject matter and on the objective of the research: Qualitative research Understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. Asking a broad question and collecting word-type data that is analyzed searching for themes. This type of research looks to describe a population without attempting to quantifiably measure variables or look to potential relationships between variables. It is viewed as more restrictive in testing hypotheses because it is extremely expensive and time consuming, and typically limited to a single set of research subjects. Qualitative research is often used as a method of exploratory research as a basis for later quantitative research hypotheses. Quantitative research Systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. Asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to analyze utilizing statistical methods. The quantitative research designs are experimental, correlational, and survey (or descriptive).[10] Statistics derived from quantitative research can be used to establish the existence of associative or causal relationships between variables. The Quantitative data collection methods, rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize.Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research question, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments. If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics in order to statistically control for their influence on the

dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.[11] Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of research.[12] The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the methodology of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results

Hallmarks of Scientific Research

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13 Votes Main characteristics which will distinguish scientific research from common research. 1. Purposiveness Research should have a definite aim or purpose. 2. Rigor A good theoratical base and sound methodological design give rigor to the research. Rigor indicates carefulness and degree of exactitude in research. 3. Testability Scientific research lend itself to testing logically developed hypothesis to see whether or not data support the educated conjecture or hypothesis. 4. Replicability The results of the test of hypothesis should be supported again and again when same type of research is conducted in other similar circumstances. 5. Precision and Confidence Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to reality based on a sample. Precision reflects the degree of exactness and accuracy of the results on the basis of samples. Also known as confidence interval in statistics. Confidence refers to the probability that our estimation are correct so that we can confidently

claim that 95% of the time our results will be true and there is only 5% chance of our results being false. 6. Objectivity The conclusion drawn through the interpretation of the results of data analysis should be objective that is, they should be based on facts of the findings derived from actual data and not on our own subjective or emotional values. 7. Generalizability It refers to the scope of replicability of the research findings in one organizational settings to others, the wider the range of replicability of the solution generated by the research the more useful the research is to the user. 8. Parsimony Simplicity in explaining the phenomenon or problem that occur in generating the solutions of the problem is preferred as compared to complex research frame work. HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Successful managerial decisions are seldom made on hunches or on trail and error method. The sound and effective decisions are always made on the basis of scientific research. Scientific research focuses on solving problems in a step _by _step logical, organized and rigorous manner in each step of research viz., identifying problem, gathering data, analyzing it and in arriving at a valid conclusion. Organizations may not always be involved in the scientific research due to various reasons like - simple problems which can solved with previous experience, time contingency, lack of knowledge, resource constraints etc., However the scientific research performed in a rigorous and systematic way leads to repeatable and comparable research findings. It also enables the researchers to arrive at accurate, dependable and subjective findings. The hallmarks or distinguishing characteristic features of scientific research are as follows:

Purposiveness

The research is conducted with a purpose. It has a focus. The purpose of the research should be clearly mentioned in an understandable and unambiguous manner. The statement of the decision problem should include its scope, its limitations and the precise meaning of all words and terms significant to the research. Failure to mention the purpose clearly will raise doubts in the minds of stakeholders of the research as to whether the researcher has sufficient understanding of the problem.

Rigor

Rigor means carefulness, scrupulousness and the degree of exactness in research investigation. In order to make a meaningful and worthwhile contribution to the field of knowledge, research must be carried out rigorously. Conducting a rigorous research requires a good theoretical knowledge and a clearly laid out methodology. This will eliminate the bias; facilitate proper data collection and analysis, which in turn would lead to sound and reliable research findings.

Testability

Research should be based on testable assumptions/hypotheses developed after a careful study of the problems involved. The scientific research should enable the testing of logically developed hypotheses to see whether or not the data collected support the hypotheses developed.

Replicability

Research findings would command more faith and credence if the same results are evolved on different set of data. The results of the test hypothesis should be supported again and again when the same type of research is repeated in other similar circumstances. This will ensures the scientific nature of the research conducted and more confidence could be placed in the research findings. It also eliminates the doubt that the hypotheses are supported by chance and ensures that the findings reflect the true state of affairs.

Precision and Confidence

In management research the findings are seldom definitive due to the fact that the universe of items, events or population are not taken as such but based on sample drawn from universe. There is a probability that the sample may not reflect the universe. Measurement errors and other problems are bound to introduce an element of error in the findings. However the research design should ensure that the findings are as close to the reality as possible so that one can have confidence in the findings. Precision refers to the closeness of the finding to reality based on sample. It reflects the degree of accuracy or exactitude of the results on the basis of the sample to what exactly is in the universe. The confidence interval in statistics is referred here as precision. Confidence refers to the probability that the estimation made in the research findings are correct. It is not enough if the results are precise but it is also important to claim that 95% of the time the results would be true and there is only a 5% chance of the results being wrong. This is known as confidence level. If the precision and confidence levels of the research findings are higher then the findings of the research study would be more scientific and useful. Precision and confidence can be attained through appropriate scientific sampling design.

Objectivity

Research finding should be factual, databased and free from bias. The conclusion drawn should be based on the facts of the findings derived form the actual data and not on the basis of subjective or emotional values. Business organizations will suffer a greater extent of damage if a non-data-based or misleading conclusion drawn from the research is implemented. Scientific approach ensures objectivity of research.

Generalizability

It refers to the scope of applying the research findings of one organizational setting to other settings of almost similar nature. The research will be more useful if the solutions are applicable to a wider range. The more generlizable the research, the greater will be its usefulness and value. However it is not always possible to generalize the research findings to all other settings, situations or organizations. For achieving genaralizability the sampling design has to be logically developed and data collection method needs to be very sound. This may increase the cost of conducting the research. In most of the cases though the research findings would be based on scientific methods it is applicable only to a particular organization, settings or situations.

Parsimony

Research needs to be conducted in a parsimonious i.e. simple and economical manner. Simplicity in explaining the problems and generalizing solutions for the problems is preferred to

a complex research framework. Economy in research models can be achieved by way of considering less number of variables leading to greater variance rather than considering more number of variables leading to less variance. Clear understanding regarding the problem and the factors influencing the same will lead to parsimony in research activities. The sound understanding can be achieved through structured and unstructured interview with the concerned people and by undertaking a study of related literature in the problem area. The scientific research in management area cannot fulfill all the above-discussed hallmarks to the fullest extent. In management research it is not always possible to conduct investigations that are 100% scientific like in physical science as it is difficult to collect and measure the data regarding the feelings, emotions, attitudes and perception. It is also difficult to obtain representative sample; these aspects restrict the generlizability of the findings. Though it is not possible to meet all the above said characteristics of the scientific research, to the extent possible the research activities should be pursued in the scientific manner.

Scientific method
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.[1] To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.[2] The Oxford English Dictionary says that scientific method is: "a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses."[3] The chief thing which separates a scientific method of inquiry from other methods of acquiring knowledge is that scientists seek to let reality speak for itself, and contradict their theories about it when those theories are incorrect[4] (see Falsifiability. Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features distinguish scientific inquiry from other methods of obtaining knowledge. Scientific researchers propose hypotheses as explanations of phenomena, and design experimental studies to test these hypotheses via predictions which can be derived from them. These steps must be repeatable, to guard against mistake or confusion in any particular experimenter. Theories that encompass wider domains of inquiry may bind many independently derived hypotheses together in a coherent, supportive structure. Theories, in turn, may help form new hypotheses or place groups of hypotheses into context. Scientific inquiry is generally intended to be as objective as possible, to reduce biased interpretations of results. Another basic expectation is to document, archive and share all data and methodology so they are available for careful scrutiny by other scientists, giving them the opportunity to verify results by attempting to reproduce them. This practice, called full disclosure, also allows statistical measures of the reliability of these data to be established.

In the 20th century, a hypothetico-deductive model[9] for scientific method was formulated (for a more formal discussion, see below):

1. Use your experience: Consider the problem and try to make sense of it. Look for previous explanations. If this is a new problem to you, then move to step 2. 2. Form a conjecture: When nothing else is yet known, try to state an explanation, to someone else, or to your notebook. 3. Deduce a prediction from that explanation: If you assume 2 is true, what consequences follow? 4. Test: Look for the opposite of each consequence in order to disprove 2. It is a logical error to seek 3 directly as proof of 2. This error is called affirming the consequent.[10] Four basic elements of scientific method are illustrated by the following example from the discovery of the structure of DNA:

DNA characterization: Although DNA had been identified as at least one and possibly the only genetic substance by Avery, Macleod and McCarty at the Rockefeller Institute in 1944, the mechanism was still unclear to anyone in 1950. DNA hypotheses: Crick and Watson hypothesized that the genetic material had a physical basis that was helical.[18] DNA prediction: From earlier work on tobacco mosaic virus,[19] Watson was aware of the significance of Crick's formulation of the transform of a helix.[20] Thus he was primed to recognize the significance of the X-shape in photo 51, the remarkable photograph of the Xray diffraction image of DNA taken by Rosalind Franklin. DNA experiment: Watson saw photo 51.[21]

2. Deduction. Two stages:

i. Explication. Unclearly premissed, but deductive, analysis of the hypothesis in order to render its parts as clear as possible. ii. Demonstration: Deductive Argumentation, Euclidean in procedure. Explicit deduction of hypothesis's consequences as predictions, for induction to test, about evidence to be found. Corollarial or, if needed, Theorematic.

3. Induction. The long-run validity of the rule of induction is deducible from the principle (presuppositional to reasoning in general[74]) that the real is only the object of the final opinion to which adequate investigation would lead;[83] anything to which no such process would ever lead would not be real. Induction involving ongoing tests or observations follows a method which, sufficiently persisted in, will diminish its error below any predesignate degree. Three stages:

i. Classification. Unclearly premissed, but inductive, classing of objects of experience under general ideas. ii. Probation: direct Inductive Argumentation. Crude (the enumeration of instances) or Gradual (new estimate of proportion of truth in the hypothesis after each test). Gradual Induction is Qualitative or Quantitative; if Qualitative, then dependent on weightings of qualities or characters;[84] if Quantitative, then dependent on measurements, or on statistics, or on countings. iii. Sentential Induction. "...which, by Inductive reasonings, appraises the different Probations singly, then their combinations, then makes self-appraisal of these very appraisals themselves, and passes final judgment on the whole result".

The Building Blocks of Science in Research

The essential tenets of scientific research are: direct observation of phenomena, clearly defined variables, methods and procedures, empirically testable hypotheses, ability to rule out rival hypotheses, statistical justification of conclusions and self correcting process. One of the primary methods of scientific investigation is the hypothetico-deductive method. The method of starting with a theoretical framework, formulating hypotheses and logically deducing from the results of the study is known as hypothetico-deductive method. The deduction and induction are two important aspects of the scientific research through which the answers to a research question can be arrived at. Further details on deduction and induction are dealt below;

Deduction

Deduction is a process by which the researchers arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a known fact. Deduction leads to conclusions, which should be necessarily based on reasons. The reasons are said to imply the conclusions and represent a proof. The bond between the reasons and conclusions is much stronger than in the case of

induction. To be correct, a deduction should be both valid and true. True in the sense that the reasons given for the conclusions must agree with the real world. Valid means the conclusion must necessarily be arrived from the reasons. Researchers often use deduction to reason out the implication of various acts and conditions. For example in a survey a researcher may reason as follows: Surveying households in urban area is difficult and expensive The study involves interview with households in urban area The interview in this survey will be difficult and expensive (Reason 1) (Reason 2) (Conclusion)

Induction

Induction is a process where certain phenomenon is observed on the basis of which conclusions are arrived at. The conclusions are drawn from one or more facts or pieces of evidence. The conclusions in induction result in hypotheses. Induction leads to establish a general proposition based on observed facts. For example the researcher understand that production processes is the prime feature of factories. It is therefore concluded that factories exist for production purposes. Research is based on both deduction and induction. It helps us to understand, explain and predict business phenomena. The building blocks of scientific inquiry include the following sequences 1. Observing a phenomena 2. Identifying a problem 3. Constructing a theory 4. Developing hypotheses

5. Developing research design 6. Collecting data 7. Analyzing data and 8. Interpreting results Observation a phenomenon may be casual or purposeful. A casual scanning of the environment may lead us to the knowledge of interesting facts. This observation may lead to identifying the problem in the concerned area. The problem identification needs gathering of primary data form the customers or from the employees or management concerned with the particular problem. Further insights may be obtained to refine the problem in a more specific manner. The next step is to build a conceptual model or theoretical framework taking into consideration all the factors contributing to the problem. The framework enables to integrate all the information collected in a meaningful manner. From this theoretical framework several hypotheses can be generated and tested to support the concept. A research design provides the blue print of the mechanism or insight regarding the methods of collecting data, analyzing the same and interpreting them in order to solve the problem. The building blocks of science discussed above provide the genesis for the hypotheticodeductive method of scientific methods. The steps are discussed below:

1. Observation Observation is the first stage in scientific investigation. In this process, the researcher takes into account the changes that are occurring in the environment. To proceed further the changes observed in the environment should have important consequences. The changes may be in the form of sudden drop in the sales, increase in the employee turnover, decrease in the number of customer and the like.

2. Preliminary information gathering

This involves seeking in depth information regarding the facts being observed. The information may be gathered through formal questionnaires, interview schedules or through informal or causal talk with the concerned people. Desk research may also be conducted to enrich the information gathered. The next step is to make sense out of the factors identified in the information gathering stage by assembling them together in an meaningful manner.

3. Formulation of theory

Theory formulation enables to integrate all the information in a logical manner so as to conceptualize and test the factors responsible for problem. The critical variables contributing to the problems are examined. The association or relationship among the variables contributing to the problem is studied in order to formulate the theory.

4. Developing Hypotheses

The next logical step leads to framing of testable hypotheses. Hypotheses testing are called deductive research. Sometimes it may so happen that the hypotheses, which are not originally formulated, get generated through the process of induction. After the collection of data an insight may occur based on which new hypotheses can be formulated. Thus hypotheses testing through deductive research and hypotheses generation through induction are both common.

5. Scientific Data collection

After the hypothesis is developed, the data with respect to each variable in the hypotheses needs to be obtained in a scientific manner so as to test the hypotheses. The primary and secondary sources can both be explored in order to collect the data. Data on every variable in the theoretical framework from which the hypothesis is generated should be collected.

6. Data Analysis

The data gathered are to be statistically analyzed to validate the hypothesis postulated. Both qualitative and quantitative data needs to be analyzed. Qualitative data refer to information gathered through interviews and observations. Through scaling techniques the qualitative data can be converted into quantifiable form and subjected to analysis. Appropriate statistical tool should be used to analyze the data.

7. Deduction

Deduction is the process of arriving at conclusions by interpreting the meaning of results of the data analysis. Based on the deduction recommendations can be made to solve the problem encountered.

Hypothetico-deductive model
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.

Its factual accuracy is disputed. Tagged since March 2008. Its neutrality is disputed. Tagged since March 2008.

The hypothetico-deductive model or method, first so-named by William Whewell,[1][2] is a proposed description of scientific method. According to it, scientific inquiry proceeds by formulating a hypothesis in a form that could conceivably be falsified by a test on observable data. A test that could and does run contrary to predictions of the hypothesis is taken as a falsification of the hypothesis. A test that could but does not run contrary to the hypothesis corroborates the theory. It is then proposed to compare the explanatory value of competing hypotheses by testing how stringently they are corroborated by their predictions. "From the long tradition of empiricism we have inherited the hypothetico-deductive model of scientific research." p.86 Brody, Thomas A. (1993), The Philosophy Behind Physics, Springer Verlag, ISBN 0-387-55914-0 . (Luis De La Pea and Peter E. Hodgson, eds.) Qualification of corroborating evidence is sometimes raised as philosophically problematic. The raven paradox is a famous example. The hypothesis that 'all ravens are black' would appear to be corroborated by observations of only black ravens. However, 'all ravens are black' is logically equivalent to 'all non-black things are non-ravens' (this is the contraposition form of the original implication). 'This is a green tree' is an observation of a non-black thing that is a non-raven and therefore corroborates 'all non-black things are non-ravens'. It appears to follow that the observation 'this is a green tree' is corroborating evidence for the hypothesis 'all ravens are black'. Attempted resolutions may distinguish:

non-falsifying observations as to strong, moderate, or weak corroborations investigations that do or do not provide a potentially falsifying test of the hypothesis.[3]

Corroboration is related to the problem of induction, which arises because a general case (a hypothesis) cannot be logically deduced from any series of specific observations. That is, any observation can be seen as corroboration of any hypothesis if the hypothesis is sufficiently restricted. The argument has also been taken as showing that both observations are theory-laden, and thus it is not possible to make truly independent observations. One response is that a problem may be sufficiently narrowed (or axiomatized) as to take everything except the problem (or axiom) of interest as unproblematic for the purpose at hand.[4] Evidence contrary to a hypothesis is itself philosophically problematic. Such evidence is called a falsification of the hypothesis. However, under the theory of confirmation holism it is always possible to save a given hypothesis from falsification. This is so because any falsifying observation is embedded in a theoretical background, which can be modified in order to save the hypothesis. Popper acknowledged this but maintained that a critical approach respecting

methodological rules that avoided such immunizing stratagems is conducive to the progress of science.[5] Despite the philosophical questions raised, the hypothetico-deductive model remains perhaps the best understood theory of scientific method. This is an example of an algorithmic statement of the hypothetico-deductive method:[6] 1. Gather data (observations about something that is unknown, unexplained, or new) 2. Hypothesize an explanation for those observations. 3. Deduce a consequence of that explanation (a prediction). Formulate an experiment to see if the predicted consequence is observed. 4. Wait for corroboration. If there is corroboration, go to step 3. If not, the hypothesis is falsified. Go to step 2

Hypothetico-Deductive Method in Business Research

85 rate or flag this page By hafeezrm Continued from: Types of Research Hypothetico is derived from the term "hypothetical" which means academic, contestable, contingent, disputable, imaginary, questionable, refutable, theoretical and unconfirmed. Under this method, one tries to list down possible reasons concerning any problem and finds solutions considering one reason at one time. In this way, all invalid reasons may be eliminated and a valid reason may come up. This is simple but called scientific method as it is a step-by-step approach.

See all 13 photos Possible problems with blurry picture of TV

HYPOTHETICAL DEDUCTIVE METHOD

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Hypothetico-deductive method
For example, a person finds that the picture on his TV screen is blurry. He can think of few reasons such as (i) loose cable connections, (ii) defective tuner, (iii) picture tube no good or (iv) disrupted transmission from TV station. The person would check cable connections and if it is OK, would call his friends or neighbors if the reception of their TV is normal. Having confirmed this, he would call Electronic Technician for a checkup. It may transpire that fault for blurry picture lies in the picture tube requiring replacement. If the TV is under warrantee, replacement would pose no problem, else the poor fellow would have to cough up Rs.6,000-10,000 for picture tube, parts and installation. If so, the problem is solved. Why called hypothetico-deductive because one has to identify the problem, guess out reasons thereof and examine them one by one. An educated guess is known as "hypothesis" which means assumption, belief, presupposition, proposal, starting point and theorem. Observations which run contrary to those predicted are taken as evidence against the hypothesis; observations which are in agreement with those predicted are taken as corroborating the hypothesis. It is the same as we solve everyday problems but there is only a small twist which is termed as Null & Alternate Hypothesis. Given below is a simple example of blurry picture: Null Hypothesis: There is no problem with the connections. Alternate: There is some problem with the connections.

If we check and find out the connections were indeed loose, we would reject the Null and accepting the Alternate. If by adjusting the connection, our problem is solved, well and good else we move to next set of Null and Alternate Hypothesis concerning TV Transmission and so on so forth. This would be discussed later.

Sir Karl Popper (1902 - 1994) The hypothetico-deductive method derives primarily from his work.

Figure 1: Processes involved in understanding natural phenomena using scientific method. (Source: PhysicalGeography.net) As Karl Popper suggested, it very difficult to prove a reason as valid by induction i.e. specific to general. Suppose we found one MBA who is intelligent. On this specific basis alone, we cannot generalize that all MBAs are intelligent. (It is not a case of natural science but social science). We can be proved wrong just by citing an example of one unfortunate MBA who happened to be a stupid. As Karl pointed out "no amount of evidence assures us that contrary

evidence will not be found." He proposed that using deduction method *general to specific), one can falsifty a statement making the alternate true like: Null Hypothesis: No MBA is intelligent. Alternate: All MBAs are intelligent. We can reject Null Hypothesis by citing example of an MBA, Omer Khan, who had secored an IQ of 120 . If null-hypothesis is rejected or proved false, the alternate would become true and all MBAs would be considered as intelligent even though all may not be so. In fact, the researcher hides his findings in the alternate hypotheses for acceptance by simply rejecting the Null Hypotheses. Falsification is the main characteristic of hypothesis testing. It involves making a specific statement and then finding contrary evidence through experiments or observations. This is known as the hypothetico-deductive method.

Scientific Method Being scientific in nature, the aforesaid method is common to all disciplines like economics, physics or biochemistry. It has basic four stages as shown below: 1. 2. 3. 4. Identify the hypothesis to be tested Generate prediction from the hypothesis Use experiments to check whether predictions are correct. If the predictions are correct, then the hypothesis is confirmed. If not, then the hypothesis is disconfirmed.

For better explanation, the four stages can be increased to seven stages as shown in the diagram.

BUSINESS RESEARCH
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An example of business research

In a local chain store, ChenOne, there was a large turnover of employees in the first half of 2009. The management became perturbed and asked around reasons for leaving the job. There were no satisfactory answers. Maybe the reasons for job-turnover were evident like (i) opening up of few chain stores of international repute, (ii) boom condition in North of the country or in Dubai or (iii) closure of one branch spreading fear that the chain stores are gradually being closed down. If so, one need not conduct research. In the second stage, an investigator should collect secondary data which may be helpful in solving the problem. Job turnover may have been experienced in some other stores or industries, what were the reasons thereof and how the problem was tackled. If possible, secondary data may be obtained on the basis of age, gender and experience. At the same time, the investigator should find out opportunities for advancement and job satisfaction in the company as well as in industry. Some structured interviews may be conducted of personnel leaving the jobs known as exitinterview In the third stage, the problem should be narrow down from general phenomena to a specific research question like to what extent age, gender, work experience and opportunities predict organizational commitment". A researcher is expected to find positive correlation between organizational commitment and all those factors. This would be helpful making hypothesis or testable proposition like as an employee gets older, it increases his or her commitment to organization. (If subsequent data collection pointed out that older employees have shown more job-turnover, the investigator would look somewhere else for a solution. There are various ways to test the hypothesis like correlational studies, analytical studies, and cross-sectional studies. All employees may be interview or only a reasonable sample through a random selection or systematic. At the final stages, the data collected be processed, presented and analyzed and interpreted. It may transpire that the job-turnovers were triggered by some out of turn promotions. The

management was advised to implement a career plan, make job-enriched and assure a fair policy in promotion. Also special bonuses may be given for completing five or ten years of service. If per chance, a good solution had not come up with all the effort, the investigator would go back to the third phase and re-vise the hypothetical model.

DEDUTIVE METHOD Areas of business research

Business research is a systematic process of gathering information for aid in making business decisions and development of business standards and processes. It covers all areas of business such as accounting, finance, MIS, market, human resource management and operations management. Some major areas are stated as under: Market research It addresses issues pertaining to advertising, product image, packaging and pricing, after-sale services and demand analysis. Market Research is widening through application of econometrics to marketing and political marketing techniques. Technology and Operations Management Business research under this area covers a variety of subjects like organizational design, simulation, and management of technology, new product development and innovation. Management research Topics such as employee attitude and behavior, impact of changing demographics on management practices are studies. Accounting Two main concerns in accounting are: reporting profitability and finding true cost of each product. Various systems have been evolved like ABC and EVA etc. Similarly, in order to achieve targeted profit, a company must have a budgetary control which entails further studies of the business environments. Further, area of research includes capital markets, social responsibility and environment accounting, ethics and behavioral implications. Finance: Topics are studied like appropriateness of financial structure, raising funds through equity or debt, financial leverages and impact on profitability. There are various other issues as valuation methods, risk mitigation with options and future contracts.

Hypothetico-Deductive Method
The hypothetico-deductive method is one of the mainstays of scientific research, often regarded as the only true scientific research method. by Martyn Shuttleworth (2008) This area fuels intense debate and discussion between many fields of scientific specialization. Concisely, the method involves the traditional steps of observing the subject, in order to elaborate upon an area of study. This allows the researcher to generate a testable and realistic hypothesis. The hypothesis must be falsifiable by recognized scientific methods but can never be fully confirmed, because refined research methods may disprove it at a later date. From the hypothesis, the researcher must generate some initial predictions, which can be proved, or disproved, by the experimental process. These predictions must be inherently testable for the hypothetico-deductive method to be a valid process.

For example, trying to test the hypothesis that God exists would be difficult, because there is no scientific way to evaluate it.

GENERATING AND ANALYZING THE DATA

The next stage is to perform the experiment, obtaining statistically testable results, which can be used to analyze the results and determine whether the hypothesis has validity or has little foundation. This experiment must involve some manipulation of variables to allow the generation of analyzable data. Finally, statistical tests will confirm whether the predictions are correct or not. This method is usually so rigorous that it is rare for a hypothesis to be completely proved, but some of the initial predictions may be correct and will lead to new areas of research and refinements of the hypothesis.

ASSESSING THE VALIDITY OF THE HYPOTHESIS

Proving and confirming a hypothesis is never a clear-cut and definitive process. Statistics is a science based on probability, and however strong the results generated; there is always a chance of experimental error. In addition, there may be another unknown reason that explains the results. Most theories, however solid the proof, develop and evolve over time, changing and adapting as new research refines the known data. Proving a hypothesis is never completely accurate but, after a process of debate and retesting of the results, may become a scientific assumption. Science is built upon these paradigms and even commonly accepted views may prove to be inaccurate upon further exploration. A false hypothesis does not necessarily mean that the area of research is now closed or incorrect. The experiment may not have been accurate enough, or there may have been some other contributing error. This is why the hypothetico-deductive method relies on initial predictions; very few hypotheses, if the research is thorough, are completely wrong as they generate new directions for future research.

Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/hypothetico-deductivemethod.html#ixzz1mdIzfLhw

Research methods
Types of research Experiments
People who take part in research involving experiments might be asked to complete various tests to measure their cognitive abilities (e.g. word recall, attention, concentration, reasoning ability

etc.) usually verbally, on paper or by computer. The results of different groups are then compared. Participants should not be anxious about performing well but simply do their best. The aim of these tests is not to judge people or measure so-called intelligence, but to look for links between performance and other factors. If computers are used, this has to be done in such a way that no previous knowledge of computers is necessary. So people should not be put off by this either. The study might include an intervention such as a training programme, some kind of social activity, the introduction of a change in the persons living environment (e.g. different lighting, background noise, different care routine) or different forms of interaction (e.g. linked to physical contact, conversation, eye contact, interaction time etc.). Often the interaction will be followed by some kind of test (as mentioned above), sometimes before and after the intervention. In other cases, the person may be asked to complete a questionnaire (e.g. about his/her feelings, level of satisfaction or general well-being). Some studies are just based on one group (within-group design). The researchers might be interested in observing peoples reactions or behaviour before and after a certain intervention (e.g. a training programme). However, in most cases, there are at least two groups (a betweensubjects design). One of the groups serves as a control group and is not exposed to the intervention. This is quite similar to the procedure in clinical trials whereby one group does not receive the experimental drug. This enables researchers to compare the two groups and determine the impact of the intervention. Alternatively, the two groups might differ in some important way (e.g. gender, severity of dementia, living at home or in residential care, etc.) and it is that difference that is of interest to the researchers.

Surveys
Surveys involve collecting information, usually from fairly large groups of people, by means of questionnaires but other techniques such as interviews or telephoning may also be used. There are different types of survey. The most straightforward type (the one shot survey) is administered to a sample of people at a set point in time. Another type is the before and after survey which people complete before a major event or experience and then again afterwards.

Questionnaires
Questionnaires are a good way to obtain information from a large number of people and/or people who may not have the time to attend an interview or take part in experiments. They enable people to take their time, think about it and come back to the questionnaire later. Participants can state their views or feelings privately without worrying about the possible reaction of the researcher. Unfortunately, some people may still be inclined to try to give socially acceptable answers. People should be encouraged to answer the questions as honestly as possible so as to avoid the researchers drawing false conclusions from their study. Questionnaires typically contain multiple choice questions, attitude scales, closed questions and open-ended questions. The drawback for researchers is that they usually have a fairly low

response rate and people do not always answer all the questions and/or do not answer them correctly. Questionnaires can be administered in a number of different ways (e.g. sent by post or as email attachments, posted on Internet sites, handed out personally or administered to captive audience (such as people attending conferences). Researchers may even decide to administer the questionnaire in person which has the advantage of including people who have difficulties reading and writing. In this case, the participant may feel that s/he is taking part in an interview rather than completing a questionnaire as the researcher will be noting down the responses on his/her behalf.

Interviews
Interviews are usually carried out in person i.e. face-to-face but can also be administered by telephone or using more advance computer technology such as Skype. Sometimes they are held in the interviewees home, sometimes at a more neutral place. It is important for interviewees to decide whether they are comfortable about inviting the researcher into their home and whether they have a room or area where they can speak freely without disturbing other members of the household. The interviewer (which is not necessarily the researcher) could adopt a formal or informal approach, either letting the interviewee speak freely about a particular issue or asking specific pre-determined questions. This will have been decided in advance and depend on the approach used by the researchers. A semi-structured approach would enable the interviewee to speak relatively freely, at the same time allowing the researcher to ensure that certain issues were covered. When conducting the interview, the researcher might have a check list or a form to record answers. This might even take the form of a questionnaire. Taking notes can interfere with the flow of the conversation, particularly in less structured interviews. Also, it is difficult to pay attention to the non-verbal aspects of communication and to remember everything that was said and the way it was said. Consequently, it can be helpful for the researchers to have some kind of additional record of the interview such as an audio or video recording. They should of course obtain permission before recording an interview.

Case studies
Case studies usually involve the detailed study of a particular case (a person or small group). Various methods of data collection and analysis are used but this typically includes observation and interviews and may involve consulting other people and personal or public records. The researchers may be interested in a particular phenomenon (e.g. coping with a diagnosis or a move into residential care) and select one or more individuals in the respective situation on whom to base their case study/studies. Case studies have a very narrow focus which results in detailed descriptive data which is unique to the case(s) studied. Nevertheless, it can be useful in clinical settings and may even challenge existing theories and practices in other domains.

Participant and non-participant observation

Studies which involve observing people can be divided into two main categories, namely participant observation and non-participant observation. In participant observation studies, the researcher becomes (or is already) part of the group to be observed. This involves fitting in, gaining the trust of members of the group and at the same time remaining sufficiently detached as to be able to carry out the observation. The observations made might be based on what people do, the explanations they give for what they do, the roles they have, relationships amongst them and features of the situation in which they find themselves. The researcher should be open about what s/he is doing, give the participants in the study the chance see the results and comment on them, and take their comments seriously. In non-participant observation studies, the researcher is not part of the group being studied. The researcher decides in advance precisely what kind of behaviour is relevant to the study and can be realistically and ethically observed. The observation can be carried out in a few different ways. For example, it could be continuous over a set period of time (e.g. one hour) or regularly for shorter periods of time (for 60 seconds every so often) or on a random basis. Observation does not only include noting what happened or was said but also the fact that a specific behaviour did not occur at the time of observation.

Observational trials
Observational trials study health issues in large groups of people but in natural settings. Longitudinal approaches examine the behaviour of a group of people over a fairly lengthy period of time e.g. monitoring cognitive decline from mid to late life paying specific attention to diet and lifestyle factors. In some cases, the researchers might monitor people when they are middle-aged and then again after 15 years and so on. The aim of such studies is usually to determine whether there is a link between one factor and another (e.g. whether high alcohol consumption is correlated with dementia). The group of people involved in this kind of study is known as a cohort and they share a certain characteristic or experience within a defined period. Within the cohort, there may be subgroups (e.g. people who drink moderately, people who drink heavily, people who binge drink etc.) which allow for further comparisons to be made. In some cases, rather than following a group of people from a specific point in time onwards, the researchers take a retrospective approach, working backwards as it were. They might ask participants to tell them about their past behaviour, diet or lifestyle (e.g. their alcohol consumption, how much exercise they did, whether they smoked etc.) They might also ask for permission to consult the participants medical records (a chart review). This is not always a reliable method and may be problematic as some people may forget, exaggerate or idealise their behaviour. For this reason, a prospective study is generally preferred if feasible although a retrospective pilot study preceding a prospective study may be helpful in focusing the study question and clarifying the hypothesis and feasibility of the latter (Hess, 2004).

Studies using the Delphi method

The Delphi method was developed in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s in the military domain. It has been considered particularly useful in helping researchers determine the range of opinions which exist on a particular subject, in investigating issues of policy or clinical relevance and in trying to come to a consensus on controversial issues. The objectives can be roughly divided into those which aim to measure diversity and those which aim to reach consensus. Different ways to employ this method have been devised but they tend to share common features, namely a series of rounds in which the participants (known as panellists) generate ideas or identify salient issues, comment on a questionnaire (constructed on the basis of the results from the first round) and re-evaluate their original responses. After each round, a facilitator provides an anonymous summary of the forecasts/opinions made by the experts and of their reasons. There is no limit to the number of panellists involved but between 10 and 50 might be considered manageable. The panellists are chosen on the basis of their expertise which could take many forms (e.g. academic, professional or practical knowledge, personal experience of having a condition, being a service user etc.)

Types of Research
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BASIC RESEARCH
Continued from: Method of Business Research Research can be classified by purpose or by method. If we categorise it by purpose, it would fall into two major categories: Basic Research and Applied Research, while in case of method, it would be deductive research and inductive research. BASIC RESEARCH Also called Pure or fundamental Research, it is undertaken for increase in knowledge. There is no direct benefit as it is a research for the sake of research. It is conducted to satisfy any curiosity such as: (a) what makes things happen, (b) why society changes and (c) why social relations are in a certain way. In fact, it is the source of most new theories, principles and ideas. Basic research rarely helps anyone directly. It only stimulates new ways of thinking. The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge. There is absolutely no commercial value to the discoveries resulting from such research. However, in the long run, it forms the basis of applied research or development commercial products. If basic work is done first, then applied spin-offs often eventually result from this research. As Dr. George Smoot of LBNL says, "People cannot foresee the future well enough to predict what's going to develop from basic research. If we only did "applied research", we would still be making better spears." To sum up, basic research is purely theoretical to increase our understanding of certain phenomena or behavior but does not seek to solve any existing problem.

APPLIED RESEARACH Applied research

It is use of basic research or past theories, knowledge and methods for solving an existing problem. It deals with practical problems. It is opposed to pure research which is not problemoriented but for the increase in knowledge which may or may not be used in future. In the present world situation, more emphasis is being given to applied research to solve problems arising out of overpopulation and scarcity of natural resources. Applied research should not be treated the same as Research & Development (R&D) which is involved in developing products demanded by the existing clients. Applied Research, on the other hand, focuses on uncovering what needs are not being met and use that information in designing products or services that would create their own demand. Thus, applied research brings in new customers and also provides better products and services to the existing customers. In old days, the mobile phone was expensive, bulky and had a short range. Applied Research foresaw that this product would have a limited market and stressed on cost-cutting, reduced weight and long-distance communication. Such measures caused a heavy demand.

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METHODS or APPROACHES
In research, conclusions are based two methods known as the deduction and induction. Both are widely used in research projects. This helps the researchers to understand, explain, or predict business phenomena. Deduction follows an approach which is top-down or from general to specific. On the other hand, induction is bottom-up in nature or from specific to general. In deduction, we start from a theory and try to prove it right with the help of available information. In induction, we observe some happening, deduct a pattern and draw conclusion. EXAMPLE OF DEDUCTION 1. All men are mortal. (General and no specific to one man) 2. Socrates is a man 3. (Therefore,) Socrates is mortal ( specific) EXAMPLE OF INDUCTION This ice is cold. (Specific, based on a direct observation.) All ice is cold. (General, can be applied to any ice) Take another example: 3 + 5 = 8 and eight is an even number. Therefore, an odd number added to another odd number will result in an even number. EXAMPLE OF BOTH DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION 1 You push the light switch and find no light

2 You ask the question, Why no light? (induction) 3 You infer a conclusion (hypotheses) to answer the question and explain the fact that the bulb is burned out. (deduction) 4 You use this hypothesis to conclude (deduce) that the light will not go on when we push the switch. We know from experience that burned-out bulb will not light.

DEDUCTIVE APPROACH

DEDUCTIVE METHOD
Like Sherlock Holmes, the starting point is a given situation and moving to a specific conclusion. All relevant information is assembled, studies to solve the mystery. Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, described deduction as "drawing conclusions by applying rules or principles; logically moving from a general rule or principle to a specific solution". It is the process of reaching a conclusion that is guaranteed to follow, if the evidence provided is true and the reasoning used to reach the conclusion is correct. An investigator is distracted with the noise and thinks that noise adversely affects mental problem solving. It can be turned into a research question like would it be more conducive to solve mental puzzle when there is no noise. In order to test it, two puzzles are given to the same group, one in noise-less conditions and other in a blaring noise. If the results of test conducted under noisy-enironment are poor it can be deduced or concluded that controlling the aversive noise is helpful in solving mental puzzles. (Someone may say why research, it is apparent? It is logical to say it but it had been previously proved and awareness has been created of the noise pollution. In fact, noise can be measure in term of decibel (dB) and by research, it has been established how much noise is tolerable under what conditions. Zero dB describes perfect silence while 140 dB would reflect a gunshot. In deductive method, the premises (basis or evidence) provide a guarantee of the true conclusion. Consider the following example: 1. There are 32 books on the top-shelf of the book case,

2. There are 12 books on the lower-shelf of the book case. 3. There are no books anywhere on the bookcase From the above, it can be concluded there are 44 books in the bookcase.

INDUCTIVE APPROACH

INDUCTIVE METHOD
Also known as Inductive reasoning or logic, this methods involves moving from a specific situation to a general conclusion This is a way of theory-building, whereby specific facts are used to create a theory that explains relationships between the facts and allows prediction of future knowledge. This method is more open-ended and exploratory. This does not give 100% guarantee of truth but probability of being true. Here is an example: 1. Socrates was Greek. (premise) 2. Most Greeks eat fish. (premise) 3. Socrates ate fish. (conclusion) While the premises were true, it is possible that conclusion was false. Maybe Socrates was allergic to fish, for example. It can be said that inductive approach is weaker than deductive approach as there is possibility of arriving at false conclusion. However, it is not entirely true.

Conclusion
This hub states categories of research. If one wants to classify the research by purpose, it would be basic research and applied research. While basic research is done for the sake of gaining knowledge or exploration or invention, the applied research uses the knowledge gained through basic research for solving problem. While discovery of laser was through basic research, its subsequent use in remote-control pointer or surgery is a result of applied research. Another classification is deductive research and inductive research. In deduction, we move from general to specific while in induction, it is the other way round. Both methods are used in research.

PREVIOUS HUB: Methods of Business Research NEXT HUB: Hypothetico deductive method
Types of Research - Definitions Action research is a methodology that combines action and research to examine specific questions, issues or phenomena through observation and reflection, and deliberate intervention to improve practice. Applied research is research undertaken to solve practical problems rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge sake. Basic research is experimental and theoretical work undertaken to acquire new knowledge without looking for long-term benefits other than the advancement of knowledge. Clinical trials are research studies undertaken to determine better ways to prevent, screen for, diagnose or treat diseases. Epidemiological research is concerned with the description of health and welfare in populations through the collection of data related to health and the frequency, distribution and determinants of disease in populations, with the aim of improving health. Evaluation research is research conducted to measure the effectiveness or performance of a program, concept or campaign in achieving its objectives. Literature review is a critical examination, summarisation, interpretation or evaluation of existing literature in order to establish current knowledge on a subject. Qualitative research is research undertaken to gain insights concerning attitudes, beliefs, motivations and behaviours of individuals to explore a social or human problem and include methods such as focus groups, in-depth interviews, observation research and case studies. Quantitative research is research concerned with the measurement of attitudes, behaviours and perceptions and includes interviewing methods such as telephone, intercept and door-to-door interviews as well as self-completion methods such as mail outs and online surveys. Service or program monitoring and evaluation involves collecting and analysing a range of processes and outcome data in order to assess the performance of a service or program and to determine if the intended or expected results have been achieved.

What Is Basic Research?

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FMG U.S. ExternshipsNationwide Hands-On Clinical Externships for Foreign Doctorswww.fmgportal.com Definition: The term basic research refers to study and research on pure science that is meant to increase our scientific knowledge base. This type of research is often purely theoretical with the intent of increasing our understanding of certain phenomena or behavior but does not seek to solve or treat these problems Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to aqcquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to improve the human condition . For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:

improve agricultural crop production treat or cure a specific disease improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation Some scientists feel that the time has come for a shift in emphasis away from purely basic research and toward applied science. This trend, they feel, is necessitated by the problems resulting from global overpopulation, pollution, and the overuse of the earth's natural resources.

How has applied research been important in the past? What is basic research? Is it really all black or white?

Applied research
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Applied research is a form of systematic inquiry involving the practical application of science. It accesses and uses some part of the research communities' (the academy's) accumulated theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques, for a specific, often state, business, or client driven purpose. Applied research is compared to pure research (basic research) in discussion about research ideals, methodologies, programs, and projects.[1] Applied research deals with solving practical problems [2] and generally employs empirical methodologies. Because applied research resides in the messy real world, strict research

protocols may need to be relaxed. For example, it may be impossible to use a random sample. Thus, transparency in the methodology is crucial. Implications for interpretation of results brought about by relaxing an otherwise strict canon of methodology should also be considered. The OECD's Frascati Manual[3] describes Applied Research as one of the three forms of research, along with Basic Research & Experimental Development. Due to its practical focus, applied research information will be found in the literature associated with individual disciplines. [4] [5]

Applied research
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Applied research is a form of systematic inquiry involving the practical application of science. It accesses and uses some part of the research communities' (the academy's) accumulated theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques, for a specific, often state, business, or client driven purpose. Applied research is compared to pure research (basic research) in discussion about research ideals, methodologies, programs, and projects.[1] Applied research deals with solving practical problems [2] and generally employs empirical methodologies. Because applied research resides in the messy real world, strict research protocols may need to be relaxed. For example, it may be impossible to use a random sample. Thus, transparency in the methodology is crucial. Implications for interpretation of results brought about by relaxing an otherwise strict canon of methodology should also be considered. The OECD's Frascati Manual[3] describes Applied Research as one of the three forms of research, along with Basic Research & Experimental Development. Due to its practical focus, applied research information will be found in the literature associated with individual disciplines. [4] [5]

What is Applied research?

Applied research can be defined as the methodic search for solutions to practical problems of the modern world. The main motivation in applied research is to apply the knowledge and solve practical problems for companies and all kinds of institutions. Knowledge transfer in a professional environment is one of the most important goals of a university of applied sciences. Universities of Applied Sciences interconnect education, practice and practice-oriented research. They maintain close contact with their relevant professional fields by integrating projects into their study programmes, thereby giving added value. Education has become more and more connected with professional practice in the last few

decades. This may explain the shift in emphasis from purely basic research toward applied research.

Qualitative research
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2010)

Sociology

Portal Theory History Positivism Antipositivism Functionalism Conflict theory Middle-range Mathematical Critical theory Socialization Structure and agency Research methods Quantitative Qualitative Historical Computational Ethnographic Topics Subfields Cities Class Crime Culture Deviance Demography Education Economy Environment Family Gender Health Industry Internet Knowledge Law Medicine Politics Mobility Race and ethnicity Rationalization Religion Science Secularization Social networks Social psychology Stratification Categories Lists

Journals Sociologists Article index Outline

v d e

For the journal, see Qualitative Research. Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market research and further contexts.[1] Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are more often needed than large samples. In the conventional view, qualitative methods produce information only on the particular cases studied, and any more general conclusions are only propositions (informed assertions). Quantitative methods can then be used to seek empirical support for such research hypotheses. This view has been disputed by Oxford University professor Bent Flyvbjerg, who argues that qualitative methods and case study research may be used both for hypotheses-testing and for generalizing beyond the particular cases studied.[2]

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

Objective / purpose

Qualitative Research To gain an understanding of underlying reasons and motivations To provide insights into the setting of a problem, generating ideas and/or hypotheses for later quantitative research To uncover prevalent trends in thought and opinion

Quantitative Research To quantify data and generalize results from a sample to the population of interest To measure the incidence of various views and opinions in a chosen sample Sometimes followed by qualitative research which is used to explore some findings further

Sample

Usually a small number of non-representative Usually a large number of cases cases. Respondents selected to fulfil a given representing the population of quota. interest. Randomly selected respondents.

Unstructured or semi-structured techniques Data collection e.g. individual depth interviews or group discussions.

Structured techniques such as online questionnaires, on-street or telephone interviews.

Data analysis

Non-statistical.

Click to see an example of a short online questionnaire Statistical data is usually in the form of tabulations (tabs). Findings are conclusive and usually descriptive in nature.

View video showing typical analyses and cross tabs Outcome Exploratory and/or investigative. Findings are Used to recommend a final course of not conclusive and cannot be used to make action. generalizations about the population of interest. Develop an initial understanding and sound base for further decision making. Snap Survey Software is the ideal quantitative research tool where structured techniques; large numbers of responde
In quantitative research your aim is to determine the relationship between one thing (an independent variable) and another (a dependent or outcome variable) in a population. Quantitative research designs are either descriptive (subjects usually measured once) or experimental (subjects measured before and after a treatment). A descriptive study establishes only associations between variables. An experiment establishes causality. For an accurate estimate of the relationship between variables, a descriptive study usually needs a sample of hundreds or even thousands of subjects; an experiment, especially a crossover, may need only tens of subjects. The estimate of the relationship is less likely to be biased if you have a high participation rate in a sample selected randomly from a population. In experiments, bias is also less likely if subjects are randomly assigned to treatments, and if subjects and researchers are blind to the identity of the treatments. In all studies, subject characteristics can affect the relationship you are investigating. Limit

their effect either by using a less heterogeneous sample of subjects or preferably by measuring the characteristics and including them in the analysis. In an experiment, try to measure variables that might explain the mechanism of the treatment. In an unblinded experiment, such variables can help define the magnitude of any placebo effect. Reprint doc

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is the numbers side of market research. It's about measurement and attaching numbers to a market - for instance market size, market share, penetration, installed base and market growth rates. Quantitative research can also be used to measure attitudes, satisfaction, commitment and a range of other useful market data and market metrics that can tracked over time and used as part of a wider business planning and business strategy process. Most quantitative market research is now conducted online via web-based surveys, but we also do research by phone, post and face-to-face.

"Our key research objective was to obtain a hierarchy of consumer needs for our NPD programme, but dobney.com exceeded our expectations by also building us an excel-based model to test consumer preference for different product scenarios - we got much more than we expected!"

J. Anson,(R&D Technology Manager), Reckitt Benckiser The mainstay of business planning is the use of numbers such as market size, share and usage. This form of numerical data, or market metrics, is gathered through the use of questionnairebased statistical surveys which will provide information about the installed base, market size, market share, market penetration and market growth rates. The basis of all quantitative research comes from the design of the sample and survey type, the design of the questionnaire and the quality of the analysis and reporting. A good design comes from understanding not just how to do research, but also the business context for that research and knowledge of the decisions that may be taken once the results are in. For more information see the specific pages on:

Conjoint analysis Segmentation Pricing research Service quality measurement Brand equity research Customer satisfaction

A good starting point is our guide to Market Research Basics. We also provide our Questionnaire Wizard software to help businesses better manage and speed up the process of creating questionnaires.

Sample and survey type

The sample and survey type are the statistical bedrock on which quantitative research is based. Survey design relies on properly defining the target universe or population, finding means to make contact with this population and stratifying or dividing the population into a known classification scheme so that the sample can be drawn properly. The type of survey to be carried out will depend almost entirely on the target population and the subject under investigation. Options range from postal, to telephone, to face-to-face intercept surveys (street interviewing), to house-to-house and on-line research. Understanding the likely response rates, biases and properly defining the interviewing task will determine the true statistical quality of the final data. We carry out quantitative research in all forms whether postal, telephone, on-line or using face-to-face interviewers which makes us well placed to determine which technique will work best for your project.

Questionnaire

Explain with examples exploratory research descriptive research experimental research?

I any research starts with a exploratory research that's a basic step or pilot research.Descriptive as the name suggest is done in detail and is based on the exploratory research. Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Explain_with_examples_exploratory_research_descriptive_research_ experimental_research#ixzz1mdOOnN3h

Exploratory research
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2008)

Exploratory research is a type of research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of subjects. It should draw definitive conclusions only with extreme caution. Given its fundamental nature, exploratory research often concludes that a perceived problem does not actually exist. Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing available literature and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with consumers, employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies. The Internet allows for research methods that are more interactive in nature. For example, RSS feeds efficiently supply researchers with up-to-date information; major search engine search results may be sent by email to researchers by services such as Google Alerts; comprehensive search results are tracked over lengthy periods of time by services such as Google Trends; and websites may be created to attract worldwide feedback on any subject. The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a given situation. Although the results of qualitative research can give some indication as to the "why", "how" and "when" something occurs, it cannot tell us "how often" or "how many". Exploratory research is not typically generalizable to the population at large. Social exploratory research "seeks to find out how people get along in the setting under question, what meanings they give to their actions, and what issues concern them. The goal is to learn 'what is going on here?' and to investigate social phenomena without explicit expectations." (Russell K. Schutt, "Investigating the Social World," 5th ed.). This methodology is also at times referred to as a grounded theory approach to qualitative research or interpretive research, and is an attempt to unearth a theory from the data itself rather than from a predisposed hypothesis. Earl Babbie identifies three purposes of social science research. The purposes are exploratory, descriptive and explanatory. Exploratory research is used when problems are in a preliminary stage.[1] Exploratory research is used when the topic or issue is new and when data is difficult to collect. Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types (what, why, how). Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses. Shields and Tajalli link exploratory research with the conceptual framework working hypothesis.[2] Skeptics, however, have questioned the usefulness and necessity of exploratory research in situations where priori analysis could be conducted instead.[3]

[edit] Applied research

Applied research in administration is often exploratory because there is need for flexibility in approaching the problem. In addition there are often data limitations and a need to make a decision within a short time period. Qualitative research methods such as case study or field research are often used in exploratory research.[2]

There are three types of objectives in a marketing research project.

Exploratory research or formulative research Descriptive research Causal research

Exploratory research or formulative research: The objective of exploratory research is to gather preliminary information that will help define problems and suggest hypotheses.'[4] Descriptive Research: The objective of descriptive research is to describe things, such as the market potential for a product or the demographics and attitudes of consumers who buy the product.' [4] Causal research: The objective of causal research is to test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships. If the objective is to determine which variable might be causing a certain behaviour, i.e. whether there is a cause and effect relationship between variables, causal research must be undertaken. In order to determine causality, it is important to hold the variable that is assumed to cause the change in the other variable(s) constant and then measure the changes in the other variable(s). This type of research is very complex and the researcher can never be completely certain that there are not other factors influencing the causal relationship, especially when dealing with peoples attitudes and motivations. There are often much deeper psychological considerations, that even the respondent may not be aware of. There are two research methods for exploring the cause and effect relationship between variables: 1. Experimentation , and Descriptive research is also called Statistical Research. The main goal of this type of research is to describe the data and characteristics about what is being studied. The idea behind this type of research is to study frequencies, averages, and other statistical calculations. Although this research is highly accurate, it does not gather the causes behind a situation. Descriptive research is mainly done when a researcher wants to gain a better understanding of a topic for example, a frozen ready meals company learns that there is a growing demand for fresh ready meals but doesnt know much about the area of fresh food and so has to carry out research in order to gain a better understanding. It is quantitative and uses surveys and panels and also the use of probability sampling. Descriptive research is the exploration of the existing certain phenomena. The details of the facts wont be known. The existing phenomenas facts are not known to the persons.

Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_descriptive_research#ixzz1mdOs63rl

Descriptive Research, as explained by DJS Research Ltd.

This research is the most commonly used and the basic reason for carrying out descriptive research is to identify the cause of something that is happening. For instance, this research could be used in order to find out what age group is buying a particular brand of cola, whether a companys market share differs between geographical regions or to discover how many competitors a company has in their marketplace. However, if the research is to return useful results, whoever is conducting the research must comply with strict research requirements in order to obtain the most accurate figures/results possible

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Correlation Types
Correlation is a measure of association between two variables. The variables are not designated as dependent or independent. The two most popular correlation coefficients are: Spearman's correlation coefficient rho and Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficient. When calculating a correlation coefficient for ordinal data, select Spearman's technique. For interval or ratio-type data, use Pearson's technique. The value of a correlation coefficient can vary from minus one to plus one. A minus one indicates a perfect negative correlation, while a plus one indicates a perfect positive correlation. A correlation of zero means there is no relationship between the two variables. When there is a negative correlation between two variables, as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable decreases, and vise versa. In other words, for a negative correlation, the variables work opposite each other. When there is a positive correlation between two variables, as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable also increases. The variables move together. The standard error of a correlation coefficient is used to determine the confidence intervals around a true correlation of zero. If your correlation coefficient falls outside of this range, then it is significantly different than zero. The standard error can be calculated for interval or ratio-type data (i.e., only for Pearson's product-moment correlation). The significance (probability) of the correlation coefficient is determined from the t-statistic. The probability of the t-statistic indicates whether the observed correlation coefficient occurred by chance if the true correlation is zero. In other words, it asks if the correlation is significantly different than zero. When the t-statistic is calculated for Spearman's rank-difference correlation coefficient, there must be at least 30 cases before the t-distribution can be used to determine the probability. If there are fewer than 30 cases, you must refer to a special table to find the probability of the correlation coefficient.

Example A company wanted to know if there is a significant relationship between the total number of salespeople and the total number of sales. They collect data for five months.
Variable 1 207 180 220 205 190 Variable 2 6907 5991 6810 6553 6190

-------------------------------Correlation coefficient = .921 Standard error of the coefficient = ..068 t-test for the significance of the coefficient = 4.100 Degrees of freedom = 3 Two-tailed probability = .0263 Another Example Respondents to a survey were asked to judge the quality of a product on a four-point Likert scale (excellent, good, fair, poor). They were also asked to judge the reputation of the company that made the product on a three-point scale (good, fair, poor). Is there a significant relationship between respondents perceptions of the company and their perceptions of quality of the product? Since both variables are ordinal, Spearman's method is chosen. The first variable is the rating for the quality the product. Responses are coded as 4=excellent, 3=good, 2=fair, and 1=poor. The second variable is the perceived reputation of the company and is coded 3=good, 2=fair, and 1=poor.
Variable 1 4 Variable 2 3

2 1 3 4 1 2

2 2 3 3 1 1

------------------------------------------Correlation coefficient rho = .830 t-test for the significance of the coefficient = 3.332 Number of data pairs = 7 Probability must be determined from a table because of the small sample size.

Regression
Simple regression is used to examine the relationship between one dependent and one independent variable. After performing an analysis, the regression statistics can be used to predict the dependent variable when the independent variable is known. Regression goes beyond correlation by adding prediction capabilities. People use regression on an intuitive level every day. In business, a well-dressed man is thought to be financially successful. A mother knows that more sugar in her children's diet results in higher energy levels. The ease of waking up in the morning often depends on how late you went to bed the night before. Quantitative regression adds precision by developing a mathematical formula that can be used for predictive purposes. For example, a medical researcher might want to use body weight (independent variable) to predict the most appropriate dose for a new drug (dependent variable). The purpose of running the regression is to find a formula that fits the relationship between the two variables. Then you can use that formula to predict values for the dependent variable when only the independent variable is known. A doctor could prescribe the proper dose based on a person's body weight. The regression line (known as the least squares line) is a plot of the expected value of the dependent variable for all values of the independent variable. Technically, it is the line that

"minimizes the squared residuals". The regression line is the one that best fits the data on a scatterplot. Using the regression equation, the dependent variable may be predicted from the independent variable. The slope of the regression line (b) is defined as the rise divided by the run. The y intercept (a) is the point on the y axis where the regression line would intercept the y axis. The slope and y intercept are incorporated into the regression equation. The intercept is usually called the constant, and the slope is referred to as the coefficient. Since the regression model is usually not a perfect predictor, there is also an error term in the equation. In the regression equation, y is always the dependent variable and x is always the independent variable. Here are three equivalent ways to mathematically describe a linear regression model. y = intercept + (slope x) + error y = constant + (coefficient x) + error y = a + bx + e The significance of the slope of the regression line is determined from the t-statistic. It is the probability that the observed correlation coefficient occurred by chance if the true correlation is zero. Some researchers prefer to report the F-ratio instead of the t-statistic. The F-ratio is equal to the t-statistic squared. The t-statistic for the significance of the slope is essentially a test to determine if the regression model (equation) is usable. If the slope is significantly different than zero, then we can use the regression model to predict the dependent variable for any value of the independent variable. On the other hand, take an example where the slope is zero. It has no prediction ability because for every value of the independent variable, the prediction for the dependent variable would be the same. Knowing the value of the independent variable would not improve our ability to predict the dependent variable. Thus, if the slope is not significantly different than zero, don't use the model to make predictions. The coefficient of determination (r-squared) is the square of the correlation coefficient. Its value may vary from zero to one. It has the advantage over the correlation coefficient in that it may be interpreted directly as the proportion of variance in the dependent variable that can be accounted for by the regression equation. For example, an r-squared value of .49 means that 49% of the variance in the dependent variable can be explained by the regression equation. The other 51% is unexplained. The standard error of the estimate for regression measures the amount of variability in the points around the regression line. It is the standard deviation of the data points as they are distributed around the regression line. The standard error of the estimate can be used to develop confidence intervals around a prediction.

Example A company wants to know if there is a significant relationship between its advertising expenditures and its sales volume. The independent variable is advertising budget and the dependent variable is sales volume. A lag time of one month will be used because sales are expected to lag behind actual advertising expenditures. Data was collected for a six month period. All figures are in thousands of dollars. Is there a significant relationship between advertising budget and sales volume?
Indep. Var. 4.2 6.1 3.9 5.7 7.3 5.9 Depen. Var 27.1 30.4 25.0 29.7 40.1 28.8

-------------------------------------------------Model: y = 9.873 + (3.682 x) + error Standard error of the estimate = 2.637 t-test for the significance of the slope = 3.961 Degrees of freedom = 4 Two-tailed probability = .0149 r-squared = .807 You might make a statement in a report like this: A simple linear regression was performed on six months of data to determine if there was a significant relationship between advertising expenditures and sales volume. The t-statistic for the slope was significant at the .05 critical alpha level, t(4)=3.96, p=.015. Thus, we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there was a positive significant relationship between advertising expenditures and sales volume. Furthermore, 80.7% of the variability in sales volume could be explained by advertising expenditures.

Correlation, and regression analysis for curve fitting

The techniques described on this page are used to investigate relationships between two variables (x and y). Is a change in one of these variables associated with a change in the other? For example, if we increase the temperature do we increase the growth rate of a culture or the rate of a chemical reaction? Does an increase in DDT content of bird tissues correlate with thinning of the egg shell? Is an increase in slug density in a field plot associated with a decrease in seedling development? We can use the technique of correlation to test the statistical significance of the association. In other cases we use regression analysis to describe the relationship precisely by means of an equation that has predictive value. We deal separately with these two types of analysis correlation and regression - because they have different roles.

Correlation
Suppose that we took 7 mice and measured their body weight and their length from nose to tail. We obtained the following results and want to know if there is any relationship between the measured variables. [To keep the calculations simple, we will use small numbers] Mouse 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Procedure (1) Plot the results on graph paper. This is the essential first step, because only then can we see what the relationship might be - is it linear, logarithmic, sigmoid, etc? Units of weight (x) 1 4 3 4 8 9 8 Units of length (y) 2 5 8 12 14 19 22

In our case the relationship seems to be linear, so we will continue on that assumption. If it does not seem to be linear we might need to transform the data. (2) Set out a table as follows and calculate x, y, x2, y2, xy, Weight (x) Mouse 1 Mouse 2 Mouse 3 Mouse 4 Mouse 5 Mouse 6 Mouse 7 Total Mean 1 4 3 4 8 9 8
x

and

(mean of y). xy 2 20 24 48 112 152 176

Length (y) 2 5 8 12 14 19 22

x2 1 16 9 16 64 81 64
x
2

y2 4 25 64 144 196 361 484 = 251

y
2

= 37

y = 82

= 1278

xy = 553

= 5.286

= 11.714

(3) Calculate

= 55.429 in our case.

(4) Calculate

= 317.429 in our case.

(5) Calculate

(this can be positive or negative) = 119.571.

(6) Calculate r (correlation coefficient):

= 0.9014 in our case. (7) Look up r in a table of correlation coefficients (ignoring + or - sign). The number of degrees of freedom is two less than the number of points on the graph (5 df in our example because we have 7 points). If our calculated r value exceeds the tabulated value at p = 0.05 then the correlation is significant. Our calculated value (0.9014) does exceed the tabulated value (0.754). It also exceeds the tabulated value for p = 0.01 but not for p = 0.001. If the null hypothesis were true (that there is no relationship between length and weight) we would have obtained a correlation coefficient as high as this in less than 1 in 100 times. So we can be confident that weight and length are positively correlated in our sample of mice. Important notes: 1. If the calculated r value is positive (as in this case) then the slope will rise from left to right on the graph. As weight increases, so does the length. If the calculated value of r is negative the slope will fall from left to right. This would indicate that length decreases as weight increases. 2. The r value will always lie between -1 and +1. If you have an r value outside of this range you have made an error in the calculations. 3. Remember that a correlation does not necessarily demonstrate a causal relationship. A significant correlation only shows that two factors vary in a related way (positively or negatively). This is obvious in our example because there is no logical reason to think that weight influences the length of the animal (both factors are influenced by age or growth stage). But it can be easy to fall into the "causality trap" when looking at other types of correlation. What does the correlation coefficient mean? The part above the line in this equation is a measure of the degree to which x and y vary together (using the deviations d of each from the mean). The part below the line is a measure of the degree to which x and y vary separately.

Regression analysis: fitting a line to the data

It would be tempting to try to fit a line to the data we have just analysed - producing an equation that shows the relationship, so that we might predict the body weight of mice by measuring their length, or vice-versa. The method for this is called linear regression. However, this is not strictly valid because linear regression is based on a number of assumptions. In particular, one of the variables must be "fixed" experimentally and/or precisely measureable. So, the simple linear regression methods can be used only when we define some experimental variable (temperature, pH, dosage, etc.) and test the response of another variable to it. The variable that we fix (or choose deliberately) is termed the independent variable. It is always plotted on the X axis. The other variable is termed the dependent variable and is plotted on the Y axis. Suppose that we had the following results from an experiment in which we measured the growth of a cell culture (as optical density) at different pH levels.
pH 3 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 Optical density 0.1 0.2 0.25 0.32 0.33 0.35 0.47 0.49 0.53

We plot these results (see below) and they suggest a straight-line relationship.

Using the same procedures as for correlation, set out a table as follows and calculate x, y, x2, y2, xy, and (mean of y).

pH (x) 3 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 Total Mean

x

Optical density (y) 0.1 0.2 0.25 0.32 0.33 0.35 0.47 0.49 0.53

x2 9 16 20.25 25 30.25 36 42.25 49 56.25

x
2

y2 0.01 0.04 0.0625 0.1024 0.1089 0.1225 0.2209 0.240 0.281

y
2

xy 0.3 0.8 1.125 1.6 1.815 2.1 3.055 3.43 3.975

xy = 18.2

= 49

y = 3.04

= 284

= 1.1882

= 5.444

= 0.3378

Now calculate

= 17.22 in our case.

Calculate Calculate

= 0.1614 in our case. (this can be positive or negative) = +1.649

Now we want to use regression analysis to find the line of best fit to the data. We have done nearly all the work for this in the calculations above. The regression equation for y on x is: y = bx + a where b is the slope and a is the intercept (the point where the line crosses the y axis) We calculate b as:

= 1.649 x 17.22 = 0.0958 in our case We calculate a as: a= -b (0.3378), (5.444) and b (0.0958) we thus find a (-0.1837).

From the known values of

So the equation for the line of best fit is: y = 0.096x - 0.184 (to 3 decimal places). To draw the line through the data points, we substitute in this equation. For example: when x = 4, y = 0.384, so one point on the line has the x,y coordinates (4, 0.384); when x = 7, y = 0.488, so another point on the line has the x,y coordinates (7, 0.488). It is also true that the line of best fit always passes through the point with coordinates actually need only one other calculated point in order to draw a straight line. , so we

Regression analysis using Microsoft Excel

Below is a printout of the Regression analysis from Microsoft "Excel". It is obtained simply by entering two columns of data (x and y) then clicking "Tools - Data analysis - Regression". We see that it gives us the correlation coefficient r (as "Multiple R"), the intercept and the slope of the line (seen as the "coefficient for pH" on the last line of the table). It also shows us the result of an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to calculate the significance of the regression (4.36 X 107 ).
Regression Statistics Multiple R R Square Adjusted R Square 0.989133329 0.978384742 0.975296848

Standard Error 0.022321488 Observations 9

ANOVA df Regression Residual SS MS F Significance F

1 0.157868 0.157868 316.8453 4.36E-07 7 0.003488 0.000498

Total

8 0.161356

Coefficients Intercept pH

Standard Error

t Stat

P-value

Lower 95%

Upper 95%

Lower 95.0%

Upper 95.0%

-0.18348387 0.030215 -6.07269 0.000504 -0.25493 -0.11204 -0.25493 -0.11204 0.095741935 0.005379 17.80015 4.36E-07 0.083023 0.108461 0.083023 0.108461

Presenting the results The final graph should show: (i) all measured data points; (ii) the line of best fit; (iii) the equation for the line; (iv) the R2 and p values.

Further applications: logarithmic and sigmoid curves

When we plot our initial results on a graph it will usually be clear whether they best fit a linear relationship or a logarithmic relationship or something else, like a sigmoid curve. We can analyse all these relationships in exactly the same way as above if we transform the x and y values as appropriate so that the relationship between x and y becomes linear. BEWARE - you MUST look at a scatter plot on graph paper to see what type of relationship you have. If you simply instruct a computer programme such as "Excel" to run a regression on untransformed data it will do this by assuming that the relationship is linear! (i) For plots of data that suggest exponential (logarithmic) growth, convert all y values to log of y (using either log10 or loge). Then go through the linear regression procedures above, using the log y data instead of y data. (ii) For sigmoid curves (drug dose response curves and UV killing curves are often sigmoid), the y values (proportion of the population responding to the treatment) can be converted using a logistic or probit transformation. Sometimes it is useful to convert the x (dose) data to logarithms; this condenses the x values, removing the long tails of non-responding individuals at the lowest and highest dose levels. A plot of logistic or probit (y) against dose (x) or log of dose (x) should show a straight-line relationship.

Converting between percentage, arcsin, logistic and probits in Excel

The table below shows part of a page from an Excel worsksheet, produced as an exercise to show how transformations are performed. Columns in an Excel worksheet are headed A-F and

rows are labelled 1-21, so each cell in the table can be identified (e.g. B2 or F11). Representative Proportions were inserted in cells A2-A21, and % values were inserted in cells B2-B21. Then a formula was entered in cell C2 to convert Proportions to logistic values The logistic transformation converts y to log(y/(1-y)) The formula (without spaces) entered into cell C2 was: =LOG(A2/(1-A2)) This formula is not seen in the cell, but as soon as we move out of cell C2 it automatically gives the logistic value (in C2) for the proportion in cell A2, seen in the printout below. Copying and then pasting this formula into every other cell of column C produces a corresponding logistic value (e.g. cell C3 contains the logistic value of the proportion in cell A3). Similarly, a formula was entered in cell D2 to convert Percentage to Probit values. The formula (without spaces) is: =NORMINV(B2/100,5,1) This was then pasted into all cells of column D Next, a formula was entered in cell E2 to convert Probit to Percentage, and pasted into all cells of column E The formula is: =NORMDIST(C2,5,1,TRUE)*100 The formula entered in cell F2 converts Percentage to Arcsine The formula is: =ASIN(SQRT(A2/100))*180/PI() The formula in cell G2 converts Arcsine to Percentage The formula is: =SIN(E2/180*PI())^2*100 A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Proportion 0.001 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

B
Percent 0.1 0.5 1 2 3 4 5

C
Proportion to logistic -2.99957 -2.29885 -1.99564 -1.6902 -1.50965 -1.38021 -1.27875

D
% to Probit 1.91 2.424 2.674 2.946 3.119 3.249 3.355

E
Probit to % 0.1 0.5 1 2 3 4 5

F
% to arcsin 1.812 4.055 5.739 8.13 9.974 11.54 12.92

G
arcsin to % 0.1 0.5 1 2 3 4 5

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.5 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.995 0.9999 0.99999 0.999999

6 7 8 9 10 50 96 97 98 99.5 99.99 99.999 99.9999

-1.19498 -1.12338 -1.0607 -1.0048 -0.95424 0 1.380211 1.50965 1.690196 2.298853 3.999957 4.999996 6

3.445 3.524 3.595 3.659 3.718 5 6.751 6.881 7.054 7.576 8.719 9.265 9.768

6 7 8 9 10 50 96 97 98 99.5 99.99 99.999 100

14.18 15.34 16.43 17.46 18.43 45 78.46 80.03 81.87 85.95 89.43 89.82 89.94

6 7 8 9 10 50 96 97 98 99.5 99.99 99.999 99.9999

As an example of the use of transformations, the data from a fictitious dose-response curve (table below) are shown in two curves - first, without transformation and then after transforming the proportion responding to logistic values.
Dose
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Proportion Logistic
0.01 0.015 0.02 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.07 0.1 0.19 0.25 0.34 0.44 0.53 0.62 0.68 0.74 0.79 0.83 -1.99564 -1.81734 -1.6902 -1.38021 -1.32679 -1.27875 -1.12338 -0.95424 -0.62973 -0.47712 -0.28807 -0.10474 0.052178 0.212608 0.327359 0.454258 0.575408 0.688629

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

0.85 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.935 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.97 0.975

0.753328 0.865301 0.954243 1.060698 1.157898 1.278754 1.380211 1.380211 1.50965 1.591065

Time series
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Time series: random data plus trend, with best-fit line and different smoothings In statistics, signal processing, econometrics and mathematical finance, a time series is a sequence of data points, measured typically at successive time instants spaced at uniform time intervals. Examples of time series are the daily closing value of the Dow Jones index or the annual flow volume of the Nile River at Aswan. Time series analysis comprises methods for analyzing time series data in order to extract meaningful statistics and other characteristics of the data. Time series forecasting is the use of a model to predict future values based on previously observed values. Time series are very frequently plotted via line charts. Time series data have a natural temporal ordering. This makes time series analysis distinct from other common data analysis problems, in which there is no natural ordering of the observations (e.g. explaining people's wages by reference to their education level, where the individuals' data could be entered in any order). Time series analysis is also distinct from spatial data analysis where the observations typically relate to geographical locations (e.g. accounting for house prices by the location as well as the intrinsic characteristics of the houses). A time series model will generally reflect the fact that observations close together in time will be more closely related

than observations further apart. In addition, time series models will often make use of the natural one-way ordering of time so that values for a given period will be expressed as deriving in some way from past values, rather than from future values (see time reversibility.) Methods for time series analyses may be divided into two classes: frequency-domain methods and time-domain methods. The former include spectral analysis and recently wavelet analysis; the latter include auto-correlation and cross-correlation analysis.

Contents
[hide]

time series data

Definition
Quantities that represent or trace the values taken by a variable over a period such as a month, quarter, or year. Time series data occurs wherever the same measurements are recorded on a regular basis Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/time-seriesdata.html#ixzz1mdQofOf4

time series
Definition
Values taken by a variable over time (such as daily sales revenue, weekly orders, monthly overheads, yearly income) and tabulated or plotted as chronologically ordered numbers or data points. To yield valid statistical inferences, these values must be repeatedly measured, often over a four to five year period. Time series consist of four components: (1) Seasonal variations that repeat over a specific period such as a day, week, month, season, etc., (2) Trend variations that move up or down in a reasonably predictable pattern, (3) Cyclical variations that correspond with business or economic 'boom-bust' cycles or follow their own peculiar cycles, and (4) Random variations that do not fall under any of the above three classifications. Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/time-series.html#ixzz1mdRejU1H

Cross-sectional data
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Cross-sectional data or cross section (of a study population) in statistics and econometrics is a type of one-dimensional data set. Cross-sectional data refers to data collected by observing many subjects (such as individuals, firms or countries/regions) at the same point of time, or without regard to differences in time. Analysis of cross-sectional data usually consists of comparing the differences among the subjects. For example, we want to measure current obesity levels in a population. We could draw a sample of 1,000 people randomly from that population (also known as a cross section of that population), measure their weight and height, and calculate what percentage of that sample is categorized as obese. For example, 30% of our sample were categorized as obese. This crosssectional sample provides us with a snapshot of that population, at that one point in time. Note that we do not know based on one cross-sectional sample if obesity is increasing or decreasing; we can only describe the current proportion. Cross-sectional data differs from time series data also known as longitudinal data, which follows one subject's changes over the course of time. Another variant, panel data (or time-series crosssectional (TSCS) data), combines both and looks at multiple subjects and how they change over the course of time. Panel analysis uses panel data to examine changes in variables over time and differences in variables between subjects. In a rolling cross-section, both the presence of an individual in the sample and the time at which the individual is included in the sample are determined randomly. For example, a political poll may decide to interview 100,000 individuals. It first selects these individuals randomly from the entire population. It then assigns a random date to each individual. This is the random date on which that individual will be interviewed, and thus included in the survey.[

oss-sectional data
Definition
Widely dispersed data (such as per capita income) relating to one period, or without respect to variance due to time. In contrast, time series data is drawn from regularly spaced intervals. Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/cross-sectionaldata.html#ixzz1mdS313Rd

Cross-sectional Data

By Ashley Crossman, About.com Guide Filed In: 1. Sociology Definition: Cross-sectional data is information that is gathered at one point in time to reflect social conditions. Unlike longitudinal data that is information gathered over several periods of time, cross-sectional data is simply a snapshot of information at one particular point in time. This type of data is limited in that it cannot describe changes over time or cause-and-effect relationships in which one variable affects another over time.

Cross-sectional study
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (April 2009) Cross-sectional studies (also known as Cross-sectional analysis) form a class of research methods that involve observation of all of a population, or a representative subset, at one specific point in time. They differ from case-control studies in that they aim to provide data on the entire population under study, whereas case-control studies typically include only individuals with a specific characteristic, with a sample, often a tiny minority, of the rest of the population. Crosssectional studies are descriptive studies (neither observational nor experimental). Unlike casecontrol studies, they can be used to describe, not only the Odds ratio, but also absolute risks and relative risks from prevalences (sometimes called prevalence risk ratio, or PRR).[1][2] They may be used to describe some feature of the population, such as prevalence of an illness, or they may support inferences of cause and effect. Longitudinal studies differ from both in making a series of observations more than once on members of the study population over a period of time.

Panel data
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia In statistics and econometrics, the term panel data refers to multi-dimensional data. Panel data contains observations on multiple phenomena observed over multiple time periods for the same firms or individuals. In biostatistics, the term longitudinal data is often used instead[1][2], wherein a subject constitutes a panel. Time series and cross-sectional data are special cases of panel data that are in one-dimension only.

A Primer for Panel Data Analysis

By Robert Yaffee [Ed: Links to web pages which have become inactive since the publication of this article have been enclosed in curly brackets { }. Replacement links have been provided where possible.] Panel data analysis is an increasingly popular form of longitudinal data analysis among social and behavioral science researchers. A panel is a cross-section or group of people who are surveyed periodically over a given time span. In this article, we will consider a small sample of panel data analytic applications in the social sciences. Then we will address the data structure for panel analysis. Principal models of panel analysis will be summarized, along with some of their relative advantages and disadvantages. We will discuss a test to determine whether to use fixed or random effects models. After a synopsis of methods of estimations tailored to different situations, we will conclude with a brief discussion of popular software capable of performing panel analysis. Some Applications of Panel Analysis Panel data analysis is a method of studying a particular subject within multiple sites, periodically observed over a defined time frame. Within the social sciences, panel analysis has enabled researchers to undertake longitudinal analyses in a wide variety of fields. In economics, panel data analysis is used to study the behavior of firms and wages of people over time. In political science, it is used to study political behavior of parties and organizations over time. It is used in psychology, sociology, and health research to study characteristics of groups of people followed over time. In educational research, researchers study classes of students or graduates over time. With repeated observations of enough cross-sections, panel analysis permits the researcher to study the dynamics of change with short time series. The combination of time series with crosssections can enhance the quality and quantity of data in ways that would be impossible using only one of these two dimensions (Gujarati, 638). Panel analysis can provide a rich and powerful study of a set of people, if one is willing to consider both the space and time dimension of the data. The Panel Approach: An Overview Panel data analysis endows regression analysis with both a spatial and temporal dimension. The spatial dimension pertains to a set of cross-sectional units of observation. These could be countries, states, counties, firms, commodities, groups of people, or even individuals. The temporal dimension pertains to periodic observations of a set of variables characterizing these cross-sectional units over a particular time span. An example of a panel data set is a collection of three countries for which there are the same economic variablessuch as personal expenditures, personal disposable income, and median

household income, per capita income, personal disposable income, population size, unemployment, and employmentcollected annually for ten years. This pooled data set, sometimes called time series cross-sectional data, contains a total of 3*10=30 observations. In other words, the three countries are followed for ten years and are sampled annually. Panel Data Set Structure Panel data sets generally include sequential blocks or cross-sections of data, within each of which resides a time series. A typical panel data set, including country, year, personal disposable income, personal expenditures, and median household income from 1991 through 2001 would look like: Countryid Xylandia Xylandia Xylandia . . . Xylandia Bergunia Bergunia . . . Begunia Taimat Taimat . . . Taimat Year 1991 1992 1993 . . . 2001 1991 1992 . . . 2001 1991 1992 . . . 2001 pdinc 34000 35000 36050 . . . 45000 23000 24000 . . . 40000 30999 31000 . . . 36000 persexp 25000 26000 26500 . . . 35000 19000 20100 . . . 35000 20000 21000 . . . 28000 hhldinc 60000 71000 72000 . . . 92000 55000 57000 . . . 88000 63000 62030 . . . 69040

Apart from the variable number, the data structure confers upon the variables two dimensions. They have a cross-sectional unit of observation, which in this case is country i. They have a temporal reference, t, in this case the year. The error term has two dimensions, one for the country and one for the time period. In this exemplar, assume that there are three countries and ten years of time. Even though time is nested within the cross-section in this example, Lois Sayrs (1989) writes that under some circumstances the cross-sections may be nested within time. If there are no missing values, the data set is called a balanced panel, but if there are missing values, the data set is referred to as an unbalanced panel. The Panel Analysis Equation Therefore, the equation explaining personal expenditures might be expressed as:

Types of Panel Analytic Models There are several types of panel data analytic models. There are constant coefficients models, fixed effects models, and random effects models. Among these types of models are dynamic panel, robust, and covariance structure models. Solutions to problems of heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation are of interest here. We will try to summarize some of the prominent aspects of this kind of methodology, but first we need to consider the data structure. The Constant Coefficients Model One type of panel model has constant coefficients, referring to both intercepts and slopes. In the event that there is neither significant country nor significant temporal effects, we could pool all of the data and run an ordinary least squares regression model. Although most of the time there are either country or temporal effects, there are occasions when neither of these is statistically significant. This model is sometimes called the pooled regression model.

panel data
Definition
Data generated from a small number of observations covering a large number of units. Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/panel-data.html#ixzz1mdT4xEWS

panel data
Definition
Data on an economic variable that include both multiple economic units and multiple time periods, thus displaying both cross sectional variation and time series variati Read more: http://www.investorwords.com/17724/panel_data.html#ixzz1mdTBuDkK