????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????matter of minutes cloud passes over. ThHARNESSING OF S
OLAR ENERGY

??? ??

By
JAGRAT AGAR
08EEBME021

Seminar work carried out at

Engineering College Bikaner, Bikaner
Submitted in partial fulfillment of B.Tech. (Mechanical Engineering) degree prog
ramme of Rajasthan Technical University, Kota
Under the Supervision of
Mr. O.P. Jakhar Sir
Engineering College Bikaner, Bikaner

ENGINEERING COLLEGE BIKANER

(An Autonomous Body of Government of Rajasthan)Year: 2012
ickness of cover plate is proportional to the thermal shock. Hence the use of te
mpered g????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????J???J????????????%??%????????%??%???????%??%????
???J???J????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????the table .the desired
characteristics of an insulating material are: low thermal conductivity, stabili
ty at high temperature (u???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

????????????????????????????
?????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????ion in corrosion.
COVER PLATE: The functions of cover plate are:
Transmit maximum solar energy to the absorber plate
Minimize ??????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????
?
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??temperature can rise and fall by 50 0 C or more in matter of minutes cloud pas
ses over. Thickness of cover plate is proportiona??????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????tional to the cube of thickness of the glass plate .the resist
ance to fracture under mechanical stress is especially important w??????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????rious losses of heat for flat plate co
llector. These are top, bottom, and side loss of heat. Adequate formulae have be
en develop??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????&? ???????????????????
????????????????????&???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????
?&????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????&????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????rface has high abso
rptance for short wave radiation and low emittance for long wave radiation. The
graph is showing the behavior???????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????rious losses of heat for flat plate
collector. These are top, bottom, and side loss of heat. Adequate formulae have
been develop???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????&? ??????????????????????????????????&???????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????? of the internal tube absorber plates, these are being
incorporated into modern collector designs.
INSULATION: Several therma??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????the table .the des
ired characteristics of an insulating material are: low thermal conductivity, st
ability at high temperature (u??????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
Most of the glass and plastic materials have refractive index of 1.5.Unless spec
ial coating is applied to the surface, 8% of no?????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????terials are the strength, durability, non-degradability and solar
energy transmittance. Thermal and optical properties are shown?????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????oportional to iron content in the
material. Water-white crystal glass has the lowest iron content and therefore t
he highest tran?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????is.
Using the selective surface i.e. selective coatings. this helps in absorption of
maximum amount of incident solar radiation????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????* ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????r
face has high absorptance for short wave radiation and low emittance for long wa
ve radiation. The graph is showing the behavior?????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????02121122222223344556677889910109988101011111212131314141515141413
131212MATERIALS FOR FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS: ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???
* MATERIALS FOR FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS: * FOR ABSORBER PLATE: The absorber plate should have high thermal conductivity, adequate tens
ile and compressive strength and good corrosion resistance. Copper, Alluminium,
steel and various thermoplastics are the materials for absorber plate.
In the past, the absorber plates were usually constructed with tub
es soldered or welded on to a material plate, which was then blackened. Some of

the earlier solar water heater s had tubes merely fastened to the plate without
soldering, causing poor heat transfer and thus poor thermal performance. Recent
advancement used internal tube absorber plates, which can be produced at faster
rate also has good thermal conductivity, that are produced by high frequency wel
ding, thus eliminating laborious process of soldering and welding. Also, the tub
e remains bonded to the plate. For these features of the internal tube absorber
plates, these are being incorporated into modern collector designs.
* INSULATION: Several thermal insulating materials, which can be used to minimize the
losses from, the absorbing plate and pipes are shown in the table .the desired
characteristics of an insulating material are: low thermal conductivity, stabili
ty at high temperature (up to 200 0 C), no degassing up to 200 0 C, self support
ing feature without tendency to settle, ease of application, no contribution in
corrosion.
* COVER PLATE: The functions of cover plate are:
1. Transmit maximum solar energy to the absorber plate
2. Minimize upward heat loss.
3. Shield the absorber plate from direct exposure to weathering.
The most critical factors for the cover plate materials are the strengt
h, durability, non-degradability and solar energy transmittance. Thermal and opt
ical properties are shown in the table. Plastic materials have limited life beca
use of the effect of UV radiation in reducing there transmissibility.
Most of the glass and plastic materials have refractive index of 1.5.Un
less special coating is applied to the surface, 8% of normal solar light is refl
ected back from each cover plate. In multi glassed panel there is extra reductio
n in transmission of about 8% for each additional cover. The cover reflectance c
an be reduced considerably by etching, which causes reduction in refractive inde
x causing reduction in reflectance, or by applying an anti-reflective coating on
the surface.
Transmittance is inversely proportional to iron content in the material
. Water-white crystal glass has the lowest iron content and therefore the highes
t transmittance for solar radiation. Tempered glass has five times the thermal a
nd impact resistance than that of ordinary glass. In selecting glass for cover p
lates, the mechanical strength must be adequate to reduce breakage from the maxi
mum expected wind and snow loads, and normally expected impacts. The mechanical
strength is proportional to the square of the thickness of the glass. Glass cove
r plate for solar collector normally should be at least 0.33 cm thick.
Thermal shock to the glass cover plate must be taken into account. It
occurs due to diurnal heating and cooling of the collector .in addition in the c
loudy weather the glass temperature can rise and fall by 50 0 C or more in matte
r of minutes cloud passes over. Thickness of cover plate is proportional to the
thermal shock. Hence the use of tempered glass in solar collectors is almost ma
ndatory.
The rigidity is directly proportional to the cube of thickness of the g
lass plate .the resistance to fracture under mechanical stress is especially imp
ortant where the collector is double glazed. Some flexure may be desirable to ac
commodate the expansion of air in the gap between the cover plates when this typ
e of cover plate is heated.
* EFFICIENCY OF FLATE PLATE COLLECTOR: The instantaneous efficiency is defined as ,
Hence the instantaneous efficiency is given as,
(formula 2.14&details)
There are various losses of heat for flat plate collector. These are to
p, bottom, and side loss of heat. Adequate formulae have been developed.
* IMPROVING EFFICIENCY OF FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR: The efficiency of flat plate collector can be improved by:
1. Increase the transmission of energy through the collector to the working flui
d. This may be done by improving,
* Transmittance of the transparent cover plates

* Absorptance of the absorber plate to the incident solar radiation

* Heat transfer coefficient from the absorber surface to the working fluid.
2. Reducing thermal losses from the absorber plate to the outside air. Reducing
conductive, convective and radiative losses can do this.
3. Using the selective surface i.e. selective coatings. this helps in absorption
of maximum amount of incident solar radiation. Since most of the radiations ar
e within the wavelength range of 0.2 to 2.5 micrometer and 99% of the radiation
emitted by the absorber plate at a temperature of 1000C is of the wavelength mor
e than 205 micrometer. A selective surface has high absorptance for short wave r
adiation and low emittance for long wave radiation. The graph is showing the beh
avior of some selective coating.
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
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????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????tional to the cube of thickness of the glass plate .the resistance to
fracture under mechanical stress is especially important w??????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????&? ???????????????????????????????????????&????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????
?&????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????&????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
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??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????&? ?????????????????????????
????????&?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????the table .the desired characteristics of an i
nsulating material are: low thermal conductivity, stability at high temperature
(u??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????
Most of the glass and plastic materials have refractive index of 1.5.Unless spec
ial coating is applied to the surface, 8% of no?????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????oportional tnt in the material. Water-white cryst
al glass has the lowest iron 16onte