SL Homeostasis:

I. Homeostatic control A. Parameters 1. Body temperature; thermoregulation a. Humans ~98.6F b. If external temperature decreases: i. Thermoreceptors send messages to the brain ii. Skeletal muscle is activated Shivering generates more heat iii. Skin arterioles divert blood from skin to deeper tissues thereby reducing heat loss from the skin surface iv. Temperature of skin decreases so less heat is lost from it to the environment v. Sweat glands do not secrete sweat and remain dry c. If external temperature increases: i. Thermoreceptors send messages to the brain ii. Sweat glands activate, increase evaporative cooling iii. Skin arterioles dilate, capillaries fill with warm blood, heat radiates from skin surface iv. Temperature of the skin rises, so more heat is lost from it to the environment 2. Blood pH a. ~7.4 3. Oxygen and CO2 concentrations 4. Blood Glucose Concentrations a. General i. High blood glucose levels (rise after eating a carbohydrate-rich meal) Beta cells in the pancreas are stimulated to release insulin into the blood -Think IB: insulin comes from beta cells Insulin stimulates cells to take up more glucose and stimulates the liver to take up glucose and store it as glycogen Blood glucose level declines to a set point, which is the stimulus for insulin release to decline ii. Low blood glucose levels (could occur as the result of skipping a meal (removal of excess glucose from blood)) Alpha cells of pancrease are stimulated to release glucagon into the blood Glucagon stimulates the liver to break down glycogen and release glucose into the blood Blood glucose levels rise to set point, which is the stimulus for glucagon release to decline b. Diabetes: syndrome characterozed by abnormally high blood sugar resulting from low levels of the hormon insulin i. Symptoms (may be absent if blood sugar is only mildly elevated) Polyuria: excessive urine production Polydipsia: excessive thirst and increased fluid intake Blurred vision Unexplained weight loss and lethargy ii. Types Type 1: usually due to an autoimmune destruction of the pancreatic beta cells -10% of all cases -chronic -Treatment: a. injected insulin b. dietary and other lifestyle adjustments are part of management Type 2: characterized by insulin resistance in target tissues -causes a need for abnormally high amounts of insulin -diabetes develops when the beta cells cannot meet this demand -55% of all cases -chronic -Risk factors: a. Central obesity (fat concentrated around waist) b. Aging c. Family history -Treatment: a. dietary changes b. tablets and injections c. insulin supplmentation Gestational: involves insulin resistance (similar to Type 2) -hormones of pregnancy can cause insulin resistance in women genetically predisposed to developing this condition -2-5% of all pregnancies -20-50% of affected women develop type 2 diabetes later in life iii. Complications Acute 1. Hypoglycemia 2. Ketoacidosis Long-term 1. Cardiovascular disease (2x risk) 2. Chronic renal failure 3. Retinal damage (blindness) 4. Nerve damage 5. Microvascular damage a. Impotence b. poor wound healing i. can lead to gangrene and then amputation

iv. Public Health Concerns (in the developed world) Most significant cause of adult blindness in non-elderly Leading cause of non-traumatic amputation in adults Diabetic nephropathy is the main illness requiring renal dialysis in the US 5. Water/solute balance -> SEE EXCRETION NOTES a. Kidneys and nephrons i. Ultrafiltration ii. Selective reabsorption iii. Osmoregulation B. Mechanisms 1. Negative Feedback: change in the variable or parameter being considered (such as temperature, pH, or glucose levels) a. Triggers the control mechanism to counteract further change in the same direction. b. Smal changes do NOT lead to large changes c. Stabilizing effect i. Ex. if blood glucose levels increase, homeostatic mechanisms (involving hormones) try to return levels to normal. If blood glucose levels decrease, other hormones work to raise blood glucose levels. II. Endocrine system A. Ductless glands: release hormones, chemical messengers transported in the blood 1. Pancreas 2. Adrenal glands 3. Thyroid glands 4. Parathyroid glands 5. Testes/ovaries 6. Pituitary gland (Master gland) 7. Hypothalamus (relay center) 8. Pineal gland (vertebrate third eye) III. Nervous System A. Central Nervous System 1. Brain: a. provides integrative power that underlies complex behavior of all vertebrates 2. Spinal Cord a. integrates simple response to certain kinds of stimuli (like knee-jerk reflex) b. conveys information to and from the CNS c. regulates the internal environment (blood/interstitial fluid) of the organism B. Peripheral Nervous System: transmits information to and from the CNS and regulates the internal environment of the organism 1. Nerves a. Paired cranial nerves i. Originate in the brain and innervate organs of the head and upper body ii. Mammals have 12 pairs b. Paired spinal nerves i. Originate in the spinal cord, enervate rest of body ii. Mammals have 31 pairs 2. Hierarchy a. Sensory- neurons convey information to the CNS from sensory receptors that monitor extenral and internal environment b. Motor- neurons convey signals from the CNS to the effector cells (muscles, glands, etc.) i. Somatic Carries signals to skeletal muscles Mainly in response to exernal stimuli Often considered voluntary because it is subject to conscious control although large portion determined by reflexes ii. Autonomic Conveys signals that regulate the internal environment Controls smooth and cardiac muscles; organs of the gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, excretory, and endocrine systems Generally involuntary Divisions: 1. Sympathetic a. Correlate with arousal and energy generation b. Heart beats faster, liver converts glycogen to glucose, bronchi dilate and support gas exchange, digestion inhibited, secretion of adrenaline stimulated 2. Parasympathetic a. Antagonistic of sympathetic division b. A calming and retrun to emphasis on self-maintenance functions c. Decrease heart rate, enhances digestion, and increases energy storage C. Neuron: structural and functional unit of the nervous system; nerve cell. 1. Structure a. Cell body i. Nucleus ii. Other organelles b. Fiberlike processes (extensions) i. Dendrites: short, highly branched processes receive incoming messages from other cells and carry this information as an electrical signal toward the cell body ii. axons axon hilock: helps with transmission and integration of nerve signals; cornical region of the axon where it joins the cell body synaptic terminals: specialized terminals that relay signals from the neuron to other cells by releasing neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) synapse: site of contact between a synaptic terminal and target cells

 Schwann cells: myelin-producing cells that grow around axons such that their plasma membranes form concentric layers, somewhat like a jelly roll Nodes of Ranvier: voltage-gated ion channels concentrated in the nodes; small gaps between Schwann cells Myelin sheath: layer of schwann cells that provides electrical insulation and increases the propagational speed of nerve impulses membranes are mostly lipids; poor conductors of electric currents usually much longer than dendrites convey outgoing messages from the neuron to other cells some over one meter long (axon connecting spinal cord to foot) 2. Nerve signals: changes in the voltage across the plasma membranes of nerve cells caused by the movement of ions across the plasma membrane by way of specialized ion channels a. Electrical charges (potentials) i. Membrane potential All cells have this voltage across their plasma membranes Exists because of the different concentration of ions on the inside and outside of a cell a. As a result, plasma membrane is polarized (negatively charged on one side than the other) b. Types 1. Anions - More concentrated inside the cell 2. Cations - More concentrated in the extracellular fluid ii. Resting Potential Membrane potential of an untimulated neuron Usually about -70mV or 5% of voltage in a flashlight battery Inside of cell is more negative than outside Ionic differences maintained by the selective permeability of the plasma membrane iii. Action Potential rapid change in membrane potential of an excitable cell, caused by stimulus-triggered selective opening and closing of voltage-sensitive gates in sodium and potassium ion channels. Generation and Propogation along an axon a. Generated in one direction only, along the length of the axon b. At rest: both the sodium and potassium voltage-gated ion channels are closed and the membranes resting potential is maintained c. A stimulus (chemical= neurotrasmitter or electrical) opens some Na+ channels. If the Na+ influx achieves threshold potential, then additional Na+ gates open, triggering an action potential Phases 1. Depolarization phase: activation gates of the sodium channels are open, but the potassium channels remain closed. Sodium ions rush into the cell and the interior of the cell becomes more positive 2. Repolarization phase: inactivation gates close sodium channels and potassium channels open. Potassium ions leave the cell and the loss of + charge causes the inside of the cell to become more negative than the outside. 3. Refactory period: neuron is insensitive to depolarization during the undershoot b. Inside the cell i. Main cation is potassium (K+), but still some sodium (Na+) ii. Main anions are proteins, amino acids, sulfate, posphate, and other negatively charged ions that we can group and symbolize by Aiii. Chloride (Cl-) is also present but in a relatively low concentration c. Ouside the cell i. Main cation is Na+, still some K+ ii. Main anion is Cl- with others present d. Ion pumps and channels i. Ions, being electrically charged, cannot dissolve in lipids and therefore cannot directly diffuse across the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane ii. In order to cross the membrane, ions must either be pumped by membrane proteins or move passively through ion channels, which are aqueous pores made up of specific trasmembrane protein molecules iii. Channels are selective for specific ions and some are ungated since they are open all of the time iv. Some cells, including neurons, also have gated ion channels, which open or close in response to either a chemical stimulus (chemically-gated ion channels) such as a neurotransmitter released from the synaptic terminal or to a change in membrane potential (voltage-gated ion channels) v. Voltage-gated ion channels; undershoot Both gates of the sodium channels are closed, but potassium channels remain open because their relatively slow gates have not had time to respond to the repolarization of the membrane Within another millisecond the resting state is restored and the system is ready to respond to another stimulus Refactory period: neuron is insensitive to depolarization e. Propogation of nerve signal i. For an action potential to function at a long distance, it must somehow travel along the axon to the far end of the cell. The action potential does not actually travel but is regenerated repeatedly along the axon ii. Na+ entering the cell creates an electrical current that depolarizes the next neighboring region of the membrane. iii. The depolarization is above threshold levels, triggering a new action potential at that position; like tipping dominos 3. Synapses: unique cell junctions that control communication between a neuron and another cell a. Where? i. Between 2 neurons Usually conduct signals from an axons synaptic terminals to dendrites or cell bodies of the next cells in a neural pathway ii. Between sensory receptors and sensory neurons iii. Between motor neurons and muscle cells iv. Between neurons and gland cells. b. Types

i. Electrical synapses- not as common Allow action potentials to spread directly from presynaptic cell to the postsynaptic cell The cells are connected by gap junctions, channels that allow the local ion currents of an action potential to flow between neurons ii. Chemical synapses- more common A narrow gap, or synaptic cleft, separates the presynaptic cell from the postsynaptic cell. Cells are not electrically coupled so an action potential cannot be transmitted directly to the membrane of the postsynaptic cell Must convert electric signal to chemical signal that travels across the synapse where it is converted back into an electrical signal in the postsynaptic cell c. Depolarization of synaptic terminal When an action potential depolarizes the membrane of the synaptic terminal, an influx of Ca+ is triggered that causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the membrane of the presynaptic neuron. Each vesicle contains thousands of molecules of a neurotransmitter (substance released as an intercellular messenger) into the synaptic cleft - ex. Neurotransmitters: a. Acetylcholine b. Norepinephrine c. GABA d. Glycine e. Glutamate f. Aspartate g. Endorphins h. Dopamine i. Seratonin

The vesicles release neurotransmitter molecules into the synaptic cleft, which then diffuse across the cleft and bind to the
receptors of ion channels embedded in the post-synaptic membrane

The binding of neurotramitter molecules to their specific receptors opens specific ion channelssodium channels in the
synapse cause a Na+ influx that depolarizes the post-synaptic membrane

The neurotrasmitter molecules are quickly degraded by enzymes or are take up by another neuron, closing the ion channels
and terminating the synaptic response, ensuring that the effect of a neurotransmitter will be brief and precise.