Background for Italian unification Mastering modern European history, Years of Nationalism 1796 1848 By mid 18th century

ry Italy was one of the most underdeveloped countries DE: Metternich: Italy is merely a geographical expression Italys problems: o Disunity ( 9 states, many principalities) Habsburg rule: Duchies of Lombardy, Venetia, Vienna Habsburg princes: Duchies of Parma, Modena, Tuscany, Lucca Pope: Papal states Under Savoyards, Italian king: Piedmont

So Austria had great influence through Habsburgs and Austria owned Lombardy, Venetia o Regional divisions Local rivalries Bad communication Economic backwardness Italy only exports raw material: vine, olive Fragmentation coz of barriers, different currencies, weights, measure No development coz of wars in 17th, 18th centuries No coal, iron ore Geography is bad for communication North- south division, south backward - DE: 1860 people dressed in animal skin

Ideas of unification appeared after the Napoleonic occupation: o o o o o Relevation of benefits of unification Emergence of new, middle class Increased political influence of common people with the abolition of feudalism Stimulus to nationalism coz of common enemy ( France) Emergence of secret societies and mass risings against the French

Era of the Secret societies (1814 1832) Fate of Italy linked to Austria, Au strongly against unification DE: Metternich extinguish the spirit of Italian unity and ideas about constitutions o o Adelfia: Piedmontese, army men, free masons, indivisible republic, exclusive membership, international revolution Carbonari: opposed feudalism, pro-constitution

Revolutions of 1820 - 1821

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Kingdom of Sicilies- Naples, lead by General Pepe, young Carbonaries, obtained constitution from Ferdinand IV., they were defeated in 1821 at Ricti Piedmont- constitutionalist army officers with Prince Charles Albert, the prince betrayed them, failure

Revolutions of 1831- 1832 During this period: repression, economic recession Inspiration from 1830 July Revolution in France o July Revolution of 1830 Francis IV of Modena with Charles Albert for the throne of Piedmont, proclamation of the United Provinces of Central Italy in February 1831, but princes betrayed rebels, Austrian troops restored order

July Revolution triggered a new wave of revolts The 4 alternatives for unification o Mazzinian republicanism Background, policies: 1831- published Young Italy, founded the society His programme: Thought and action Independent, free Italy Education of a revolutionary class International revolutions lead by Rome Mazzini managed to revitalize radicalism, raised fanaticists o Liberal reformism of Cavour (Realpolitik) through economy, moderate, only north-Italy Gioberti and neo-guelphism Papal led confederation, Catholic Piedmont should drew out Austrian troops, Italy can unify alone Pro: 1846 Pius IX, debate with Austria over Ferrara expectation for unification Contra: Papal States misgoverned o Charles Albert and Piedmont Why would they be suitable: Savaoyard dynasty Italian traditionally expansionalist strategic Duchy of Savoy on the French border

popular, good leaders, liberal reforms needed to suppress rioting Genoa in 1840s bad relation with Austria coz of railway, wine

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Italian revolution of 1848 Mastering modern European history, Years of nationalism January March 1848 Why did the revolts break out? o professionals rioted coz exclusion from government posts o urban classes blamed Austrian leadership for economic decline (Europes eco trouble) Achieving freedom Sicily revolt in Palermo 12 January, forced Ferdinand II to give a constitution Revolt in Naples so he needed to concede a constitution for the whole kingdom Northern-Italy Charles Albert pressured to make 2 chambered assembly, civil national guard, Count Balbo as Prime Minister Tuscany demonstrations in Leghorn, constitution Papal States constitution from pope on 15 March Venice republic proclaimed Milan from tobacco riots in January (boycott against governmentally monopolized tobacco 1 January ban on smoking organized by liberals) to mass demonstration on 17 March, street fighting, Austrian Marshal Radetsky had to withdrew, liberal-radical provisional government established under Cattaneo Venetian Republic of St Mark under Manin

Why did Charles Albert hesitate to go to war against Austria o o o Br, Rus, Prus urged him against action fear of papal opposition what would divide his subjects fear of the revolutionary committee in Milan (too extreme)

Why did the first Austro-Piedmontese War break out o o Metternichs downfall, he resigned coz of 1848 revolutions Charles Albert forced by public opinion to help Milanese rebels

24 March Charles Albert declared war, adopted the tricolor (current flag) Reasons for Austrias victory of the first Austro-Piedmontese War o o o o o new liberal governments didnt trust Charles Alberts intentions, limited help DE: Naples sent only 14 000 troops instead of the promised 40 000 Charles Albert reluctant to accept their help coz of many radicals, republicans many volunteers deserted before the actual battle so many volunteers left Rome to fight that the opposition could be defeated by the Pope, who could turn against the Italian revolution Charles Albert pursued territorial ambitions while Radetzky was able to gain reinforcement

March-July 1848 Vulnerability of the revolutions: o Fragmentation of revolutionaries to three groups of interest Moderate liberals, constitutionalists Total fusion under Piedmontese monarchy, no Habsburgs Republican federalists like Cattaneo Not Piedmont as head, federal Italy Republican Unitarians like Mazzini Victory first, discussions afterwards

In June- July Kingdom of North Italy under Charles Albert o Counter-revolutionary forces Pope coz Habsburgs are Catholic so he cant fight against their rule Ferdinand II revoked promises made in May, ignored constitutions Austria Radetsky defeated Charles Alberts troops in Custozza, took Milan July 1848 August 1849 Last strains of the revolutions o Papal States, Rome: April 1848 Papal Allocution Supporting Austrian authority over Italy, great disappointment unemployment volunteers of opposition came back from war November 1848 -escape of the Pope to Naples January 1849 proclamation of the Roman Republic, abolition of Papal powers Piedmont: 12 March Second Austro- Piedmontese War coz wanted to turn attention from internal troubles, Hungarian resistance weakened Au Defeat of Piedmont at Novara Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son the Duke of Savoy, Victor Emmanuel II

Defeat of the revolution After the defeat of the Piedmontese army there were no real threat for the Habsburgs Peasants, poor did not support revolutions coz they didnt gain anything April May: Tuscany, Parma, Modena, Lucca restabilized and occupied by Habsburg forces August: Republic of St Mark fell

June 1849: Rome fell to French forces (Louis Napoleon wanted foreign success, wanted Catholic support), Garibaldis escape April 1850: Pope came back French forces kept peace in Rome Reasons for the failure of the revolution o o o o insurgents are divided radicals had no policy, ignored peasants new urban class revolted, so risings centered upon individual cities- they could be put down one by one Pope Pius IXs refusal to support liberation Italy cannot free herself, Radetzky got the Quadrilateral :strategic position where he could not be defeated

Unification of Italy Mastering modern European history 1850- 1871 The effects of the Revolutions of 1848 Only one solution stayed coz: o o o Gioberti fail Pope now regarded as enemy of liberalism, unification Moderate fail union of states cant happen coz seen their main hope the Duke of Tuscany as a puppet of Austria Mazzini fail no social reforms so peasantry, workers refuse to help

Why Piedmont? o o o Only Piedmont retained constitution, symbol Two wars against Austria Moderates, property owners supported coz king could maintain order against extremist revolutionaries

1857- Italian National Society established for unification under Piedmont, no debate on reforms, Garibaldi supported Obstacles to unification o o o o o Italian peninsula divided into 10 states, all wanted to retain independence no strong communal feeling DE: 90% of Italy are peasants who never heard of Italy, regional differences no national Italian language Austria repression greater, elevated taxes Pope corrupt, repressive, anti-unificationist Piedmont backward, absolutist, catholic

Making unification possible o o o o o o Br, Fr support for Italian unification Italy considered Victor Emmanuel a hero, though he was just afraid of revoking constitution, also it was very limited Exiles in Piedmont added to the nationalist sentiment, forcing Victor Emmanuel to act Italy has good natural boundaries common religion, glorious past Cavours reforms (Prime minister in 1852) Anti-ecclesiastical legislation: no separate court, state controlled education Landed aristocracy lost monopoly of posts in courts, civil service, army Free economy

Trade treaties, reduction of custom duties, new markets, no duty on imported grain good for poor Road, harbor, railway construction DE: by 1860 Piedmont had 818 km railway employment, economic growth bigger army, navy Il Risorgimento newspaper established in 1847

The problems with the reforms o o o o Too great financial burden DE: government debt from 120 million lire in 1847 to 725 million lie in 1859 manly coz of army Ecclesiastical reforms enraged Catholics loss of support Cavour discredited parliamentary system he often acted without parliaments approval Backward legal and local government system

Cavour more and more dictatorial, he was obsessed with foreign policy International situation changes in favor of Italy Cavour believed that unification can only be brought about with foreign help o The Crimean War: Austrian Empire left friendless in Europe (Br, Fr angry for refusal to help, Russia angry coz Austria considered helping them), Powers grateful for Italian help, Br in favor of unification coz need to balance Fr, and Austria cannot balance Russia while she is occupied with Italian internal turmoil Emergence of Napoleon III: needed foreign triumph to legalize his position, DE: Napoleon III: We must do sg for Italy, Victor Emmanuels daughter Clothilde married Napoleons cousin Jerome wanted Kingdom of Northern Italy to be grateful to him, ally so in July 1858 Pact of Plombieres with Cavour : Victor Emmanuel as king, later presidency of pope, Nice and Savoy ceded to France 1859 Br Palmerston as Prime Minister in favor of Italian unification, Napoleon III again supported Italy coz didnt want Br influence there

The 4 stages of Unification o The War of Italian Unification (April July 1859) Austria provoked into war, Franco-Piedmontese forces won Treaty of Villafranca: Napoleon IIIs betrayal, Piedmont got Lombardy but not Venetia coz Napcsi alarmed by effects in central Italy and high casualty rates, weakness of Piedmontese army Austria in trouble: Kossuth sought help of Napoleon, Russia mobilized Revolts in Tuscany, Parma, Modena, Papal States: Piedmontese forces were called in to restore order, not Austrians so it was good for unification

A crisis in central Italy (July 1859- March 1860) France, Austria, Piedmont feared to intervene in central Italy coz didnt anger European powers This situation changed coz: Br pressure on Fr to allow bigger, more independent Italy Cavours diplomacy, Napoleon got Savoy, Nice so Piedmont could annex central territories if popular votes allowed it Tuscany, Parma, Modena, Romagna voted in favor of Unification

Garibaldis expedition to the Kingdom of 2 Sicilies (April- November 1860) Revolt in Palermo, Sicily broke out and spread rapidly, local Mazzinian republicanists invited Garibaldi who conquered The Kingdom of 2 Sicilies The occupation of the Papal States by Piedmontese forces (September 1860)

In March 1861 the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed with Victor Emmanuel as king The completion of unification: o o Venetia: Italy gained as payment for help for Prussia against Austria in the Seven Weeks War 1866 - Italian army badly equipped, led, trained Rome: Franco-Prussian War in 1870-1, French troops recalled from Rome, Italians could occupy

Trent, Triest, Istria still missing Cavour died in 1861

The Kingdom of Italy Mastering modern European History, Years of Nationalism 1870-1915 The problems facing Italy o o o Little popular support: no involvement of peasants, workers coz of fear from class struggles, plebiscites gave no options Government: Piedmontese institutions extended, franchise reduced to 3%, central government had too much power and considered south only a backward colony of Piedmont Limited rate of economic growth Limited internal market: no railways, no roads, no new technology in agriculture No investments: shortage of capital, people looked down on trade Problem of the South DE: almost total illiteracy in South- 78% illiteracy in the whole of Italy, army needed to put down revolts in the South The public debt: 60% of state revenue as payment for debt, government borrowed, inflation, high indirect taxation DE: lowest wages, highest indirect taxation in Europe Conflict with the church DE: Syllabus of Errors by Pope in 1864 about failures of secular powers secularization, persecution of clergy, confiscation of church property lead to excommunication of state supporters by the pope Declaration of Papal Infallibility of 1870 papal authority over States, pope forbade Catholics to vote in general elections no common language DE: Cavour did not speak Italian, only 2% spoke it in the end of the 19th century devalued currency Politics after Cavour Depretis political system (1876-1887) Achievements: o o o o Coppino Law in 1877- free, compulsory education between 6-9 Reformed legal, penal reforms in 1877 New electoral law in 1882, 7% franchised Government sponsored industrial reforms (railway, Terni steel works, expansion of shipping industry, cannon foundry)

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Failures: o o o o No administrative, local government reforms No solution for financial deficit Electoral reform disadvantageous for the South No clear party, program in gov. instability, corruption, electoral manipulation, patronage

Crispis radical nationalism (1887 1896) Faults of politics persisted under him, he became more and more authoritarian as he tried to compensate domestic problems with imperial, diplomatic affairs o o o Irredentism 1880s aggressive nationalism coz of feel of national inferiority, right-wingers, antidemocrats demanded Trieste and Trent, cause of friction with Austria Franco-Italian commercial war(1888-1892)- French protectorate over Tunisia lead Italy to ally with Austria and Germany, anti-French politics resulted in the dam up of 40% f Italys exports Failure in Abyssinia (1887- 1896) 6000 Italians died at Adowa resulted in the downfall of Crispi

Threat to the parliamentary system (1896 1900) o o Peasant disorder industrial development at the expense of agriculture, low productivity, falling incomes DE: in 1896 near-famine conditions in some regions Urban tensions DE: Milans population grew from 200000 in 1871 to 700000 by 1921, PSI Italian Socialists established in 1902, anarchists, moderates DE: riots in 1897-8 in Rome, Parma, Florence, Milan Anti-parliamentary, right-wing DE: by 1898 30 out of 59 civil governments had to be suspended, reinforced authoritarian tendencies

Gilottisme (1903 1914) Victor Emanuel III more liberal, by 1903 full parliamentary government restored wave of strikes in 1903, general strike in 1904 o o o o o o Nationalization of railway system in 1904 Work laws Stabilization of finance, food taxes reduced Education Act 1911 Southern problem stabilized by agricultural reforms, water, communication, migration DE: by 1910 half million people were leaving Italy yearly Extended franchise in 1911 DE: electorate rose from 3 million to 8

Relative stability, economic growth DE: 1901-1913 exports rose with 47%, imports by 61%, wages rose, mortality rates fell By 1911 renewed problems, growing gap between north -south so needed distraction: Consequences of Lybian War (1911- 1912) o o o Budget deficit Nationalism grew stronger Weakened Turkey, thus contributed to the outbreak of Balkan Wars