INDUSTRIAL TRAINING AT BSNL BAREILLY Submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirement for the award of the diploma In ELECTRONICS

Submitted By SAUMYA GUPTA

JUNE 2011
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

SAVITRI BAI PHULE GOVT. GIRLS POLYTECHNIC KUMHARHERA DEHRADUN ROAD SAHARANPUR (UP)

CERTIFICATE

TO WHOM SO EVER IT MAY CONCERN

This is to certify that Mr. Patel Miraj Shaileshkumar Acharya of B.Tech. Semester VIII (Electronics and Communication) has completed his one full semester on project work titled LCD INTERFACING satisfactorily in partial fulfillment of requirement of Bachelor of Technology degree of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Ganpat University, Kherva in the year 2011.
Internal Guide Prof. R.B.Patel HOD EC Department Prof. V.K.Patel Date: Date:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We take this opportunity to humbly express my sincere thanks to all those concerned with my training at BSNL. We express deep feelings of gratitude to Mr.H.B.Sharma (S.D.E AT BSNL) for providing us the opportunity to work on such an interesting traning, without his help we could not have completed it satisfactorily. His invaluable guidance has proved to be a key to our success in overcoming difficulties we faced during the course of the training work. We are also obliged to Mr. Parikh (S.D.E AT BSNL) for their guidance in training at the company. I express my thanks to all the members of BSNL JAGATPUR Exchange for their help as and when situation demanded. Moreover, we express our deep sense of gratitude to Mr. Mr. R.B.Patel, Lecturer, EC for rendering his valuable aid. We are also obliged to Prof.H.A.Momaya, Lecturer, Electronics & Communication Department in B.S.Patel College, for allowing us to do this project in LCD Interfacing. Finally, we thank all the staff members of our college for their support and guidance to us. With regards, (Name(s) of the student/s) 1) Acharya Miraj Shaileshbhai 2) Chaudhari Jigar 3) Chaudhary Vijay Signature of the student/s

Date:

Index Phase: 2

1. Overview of telecommunication networks

2. PSM, Signaling And Multiplexing

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3. Fiber used in telecom and their techniques 4. Fiber used in Telecom & Their Characteristics 5. Advanced Optical Networks: DWDM 6. GSM 7. CDMA 8. BROAD BAND 9. CORPORATE NETWORK 10. INTERANET 11. LEASED LINE AND MLLN 12. (A) Wi-Fi 12. (B). Wi-Max 13. NGN 14. IMT-2000

Chapter-1 OVERVIEW OF TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Introduction
The telephone is a telecommunication device that is used to transmit and receive electronically or digitally encoded speech between two or more people conversing. It is one of the most common household appliances in the world today. Most telephones operate through transmission of electric signals over a complex telephone network which allows almost any phone user to communicate with almost any other user. Telecommunication networks carry information signals among entities, which are geographically far apart. An entity may be a computer or human being, a facsimile machine, a teleprinter, a data terminal 4

and so on. The entities are involved in the process of information transfer that may be in the form of a telephone conversation (telephony) or a file transfer between two computers or message transfer between two terminals etc. With the rapidly growing traffic and untargeted growth of cyberspace, telecommunication becomes a fabric of our life. The future challenges are enormous as we anticipate rapid growth items of new services and number of users. What comes with the challenge is a genuine need for more advanced methodology supporting analysis and design of telecommunication architectures. Telecommunication has evaluated and growth at an explosive rate in recent years and will undoubtedly continue to do so. The communication switching system enables the universal connectivity. The universal connectivity is realized when any entity in one part of the world can communicate with any other entity in another part of the world. In many ways telecommunication will acts as a substitute for the increasingly expensive physical transportation. The telecommunication links and switching were mainly designed for voice communication. With the appropriate attachments/equipments, they can be used to transmit data. A modern society, therefore needs new facilities including very high bandwidth switched data networks, and large communication satellites with small, cheap earth antennas.

Voice Signal Characteristics

Telecommunication is mainly concerned with the transmission of messages between two distant points. The signal that contains the messages is usually converted into electrical waves before transmission. Our voice is an analog signal, which has amplitude and frequency characteristics. Voice frequencies: - The range of frequencies used by a communication device determines the communication channel, communicating devices, and bandwidth or information carrying capacity. The most commonly used parameter that characterizes an electrical signal is its bandwidth of analog signal or bit rate if it is a digital signal. In telephone system, the frequencies it passes are restricted to between 300 to 3400 Hz. In the field of telecommunications, a Telephone exchange or a Telephone switch is a system of electronic components that connects telephone calls. A central office is the physical building used to house inside plant equipment including telephone switches, which make telephone calls "work" in the sense of making connections and relaying the speech information.

Switching system fundamentals

Telecommunications switching systems generally perform three basic functions: they transmit signals over the connection or over separate channels to convey the identity of the called (and sometimes the calling) address (for example, the telephone number), and alert (ring) the called station; they establish connections through a switching network for conversational use during the entire call; and they process the signal information to control and supervise the establishment and disconnection of the switching network connection. In some data or message switching when real-time communication is not needed, the switching network is replaced by a temporary memory for the storage of messages. This type of switching is known as store-and-forward switching. 5

Signaling and control

The control of circuit switching systems is accomplished remotely by a specific form of data communication known as signaling. Switching systems are connected with one another by telecommunication channels known as trunks. They are connected with the served stations or terminals by lines. In some switching systems the signals for a call directly control the switching devices over the same path for which transmission is established. For most modern switching systems the signals for identifying or addressing the called station are received by a central control that processes calls on a time-shared basis. Central controls receive and interpret signals, select and establish communication paths, and prepare signals for transmission. These signals include addresses for use at succeeding nodes or for alerting (ringing) the called station. Most electronic controls are designed to process calls not only by complex logic but also by logic tables or a program of instructions stored in bulk electronic memory. The tabular technique is known as translator. The electronic memory is now the most accepted technique and is known as stored program control (SPC). Either type of control may be distributed among the switching devices rather than residing centrally. Microprocessors on integrated circuit chips are a popular form of distributed stored program control.

Network Architecture.
When electronic devices were introduced in the switching systems, a new concept of switching evolved as a consequence of their extremely high operating speed compared to their former counterparts, i.e., the Electro-mechanical systems, where relays, the logic elements in the electromechanical systems, have to operate and release several times which is roughly equal to the duration of telephone signals to maintain required accuracy. Research on electronic switching started soon after the Second World War, but commercial fully electronic exchange began to emerge only about 30 years later. However, electronic techniques proved economic for common control systems much earlier. In electromechanical exchanges, common control systems mainly used switches and relays, which were originally designed for use in switching networks. In common controls, they are operated frequently and so wear out earlier. In contrast, the life of an electronic device is almost independent of its frequency of operation. This gave a motivation for developing electronic common controls and resulted in electronic replacements for registers, markers, translators etc. having much greater reliability than their electromechanical predecessors. In electromechanical switching, the various functions of the exchange are achieved by the operation and release of relays and switch (rotary or crossbar) contacts, under the direction of a Control SubSystem. These contracts are hard - wired in a predetermined way. The exchange dependent data, such as subscribers class of service, translation and routing, combination signaling characteristics are achieved by hard-ware and logic, by a of relay sets, grouping of same type of lines, strapping on Main or Intermediate Distribution Frame or translation fields, etc. When the data is to be modified, for introduction of a new service, or change in services already available to a subscriber, the hardware change ranging from inconvenient to near impossible, are involved.

Implementation of Switching Network.

In an electronic exchange, the switching network is one of the largest sub-systems in terms of size of the equipment. Its main functions are Switching (setting up temporary connection between two or 6

more exchange terminations), Transmission of speech and signals between these terminations, with reliable accuracy. There are two types of electronic switching system. viz. Space division and Time Division.

Space Division
In this type of switching System In a space Division Switching system, a continuous physical path is set up between input and output terminations. This path is separate for each connection and is held for the entire duration of the call. Path for different connections is independent of each other. Once a continuous path has been established, Signals are interchanged between the two terminations. Such a switching network can employ either metallic or electronic cross points. Previously, usage of metallic cross-points using reed relays and all were favored. They have the advantage of compatibility with the existing line and trunk signaling conditions in the network.

Time Division Switching System

In Time Division Switching, a number of calls share the same path on time division sharing basis. The path is not separate for each connection, rather, is shared sequentially for a fraction of a time by different calls. This process is repeated periodically at a suitable high rate. The repetition rate is 8 KHz, i.e. once every 125 microseconds for transmitting speech on telephone network, without any appreciable distortion. These samples are time multiplexed with staggered samples of other speech channels, to enable sharing of one path by many calls. The Time Division Switching was initially accomplished by Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) Switching. However, it still could not overcome the performance limitations of signal distortion noise, cross-talk etc. With the advent of Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), the PAM signals were converted into a digital format overcoming the limitations of analog and PAM signals. PCM signals are suitable for both transmission and switching. The PCM switching is popularly called Digital Switching. Control of switching systems Switching systems have evolved from being manually controlled to being controlled by relays and then electronically. The change from the manual system to the Strowger step-by-step system brought about a change from centralized to distributed control. However, as systems developed and offered more services to customers, it became economic to perform particular functions in specialized equipments that were associated with connections only when required, thus, common control was introduced. Later, the development of digital computer technology enabled different functions to be performed by the same hardware by using different programs; thus switching system entered the era of storedprogram control (SPC). There are basically two approaches to organizing stored program control: centralized and distributed. Early electronic switching systems (ESS) developed during the period 1970-75 almost invariably used centralized control. Although many present day exchange designs continue to use centralized SPC, with the advent of low cost powerful microprocessors and very large scale integration (VLSI) chips such as programmable logic arrays (PLA) and programmable logic controllers (PLC), distributed SPC is gaining popularity.

The figure below shows the evolution of electronic switching systems from the manual switching systems. The figure also depicts the changing scenario from digital switching to Broadband where the focus will be for high bit rate data transmissions.

Figure 1.1 Evolution of electronic switching systems Local and trunk Network

Trunk Lines
The term Trunk Line in telecommunications refers to the high-speed connection between telephone central offices in the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). Trunk lines are always digital. The wiring between central offices was originally just pairs of twisted copper wire (the twists in the wiring prevented things known as crosstalk and noise). Because it is expensive to string up (or lay trenches for buried cables), the phone company researched ways in which to carry more data over the existing copper lines. This was achieved by using time-division multiplexing. Later, when fiber-optic technology became available, phone companies upgraded their trunk lines to fiber optics and used statistical time-division multiplexing, synchronous digital heirarchy, coarse or dense wave division multiplexing and optical switching to further improve transmission. When dealing with a private branch exchange (PBX), trunk lines are the phone lines coming into the PBX from the telephone provider. This differentiates these incoming lines from extension lines that connect the PBX to (usually) individual phone sets. Trunking saves cost, because there are usually fewer trunk lines than extension lines, since it is unusual in most offices to have all extension lines in use for external calls at once. Trunk lines transmit voice and data in formats such as analog, T1, E1, 8

ISDN or PRI. The dial tone lines for outgoing calls are called DDCO (Direct Dial Central Office) trunks. Trunk lines can contain thousands of simultaneous calls that have been combined using time-division multiplexing. These thousands of calls are carried from one central office to another where they can be connected to a de-multiplexing device and switched through digital access cross connecting switches to reach the proper exchange and local phone number.

Figure 1.2 Local And Trunk Network

What is Trunking?
In telecommunications systems, trunking is the aggregation of multiple user circuits into a single channel. The aggregation is achieved using some form of multiplexing. Trunking theory was developed by Agner Krarup Erlang, Erlang based his studies of the statistical nature of the arrival and the length of calls. The Erlang B formula allows for the calculation of the number of circuits required in a trunk based on the Grade of Service and the amount of traffic in Erlangs the trunk needs cater for.

Definition
In order to provide connectivity between all users on the network one solution is to build a full mesh network between all endpoints. A full mesh solution is however impractical, a far better approach is to provide a pool of resources that end points can make use of in order to connect to foreign exchanges. The diagram below illustrates the where in a telecommunication network trunks are used. 9

Chapter 2 PCM, Signaling And Multiplexing

INTRODUCTION A long distance or local telephone conversation between two persons could be provided by using a pair of open wire lines or underground cable as early as early as mid of 19th century. However, due to fast industrial development and increased telephone awareness, demand for trunk and local traffic went on increasing at a rapid rate. To cater to the increased demand of traffic between two stations or between two subscribers at the same station we resorted to the use of an increased number of pairs on either the open wire alignment, or in underground cable. This could solve the problem for some time only as there is a limit to the number of open wire pairs that can be installed on one alignment due to headway consideration and maintenance problems. Similarly increasing the number of open wire pairs that can be installed on one alignment due to headway consideration and maintenance problems. Similarly increasing the number of pairs to the underground cable is uneconomical and leads to maintenance problems. It, therefore, became imperative to think of new technical innovations which could exploit the available bandwidth of transmission media such as open wire lines or underground cables to provide more number of circuits on one pair. The technique used to provide a number of circuits using a single transmission link is called Multiplexing.

MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES
There are basically two types of multiplexing techniques i. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) ii Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

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Frequency Division Multiplexing Techniques (FDM) The FDM techniques is the process of translating individual speech circuits (300-3400 Hz) into preassigned frequency slots within the bandwidth of the transmission medium. The frequency translation is done by amplitude modulation of the audio frequency with an appropriate carrier frequency. At the output of the modulator a filter network is connected to select either a lower or an upper side band. Since the intelligence is carried in either side band, single side band suppressed carrier mode of AM is used. This results in substantial saving of bandwidth mid also permits the use of low power amplifiers. Please refer Fig. 2.1. FDM techniques usually find their application in analogue transmission systems. An analogue transmission system is one which is used for transmitting continuously varying signals.

Figure : 2.1 FDM Principle 11

Time Division Multiplexing

Basically, time division multiplexing involves nothing more than sharing a transmission medium by a number of circuits in time domain by establishing a sequence of time slots during which individual channels (circuits) can be transmitted. Thus the entire bandwidth is periodically available to each channel. Normally all time slots are equal in length. Each channel is assigned a time slot with a specific common repetition period called a frame interval. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.2.

Fig 2.2 Time Divison Multiplexing

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SAMPLING
It is the most basic requirement for TDM. Suppose we have an analogue signal Fig.2. 3 (b), which is applied across a resistor R through a switch S as shown in Fig. 2.3 (a) . Whenever switch S is closed, an output appears across R. The rate at which S is closed is called the sampling frequency because during the make periods of S, the samples of the analogue modulating signal appear across R. Fig. 2.3(d) is a stream of samples of theinput signal which appear across R. The amplitude of the sample is depend upon the amplitude of the input signal at the instant of sampling. The duration of these sampled pulses is equal to the duration for which the switch S is closed. Minimum number of samples are to be sent for any band limited signal to get a good approximation of the original analogue signal and the same is defined by the sampling Theorem.

Fig 2.3: Sampling Process "If a band limited signal is sampled at regular intervals of time and at a rate equal toor more than twice the highest signal frequency in the band, then the sample contains all the information of the original signal." Mathematically, if fH is the highest frequency in the signal to be sampled then the sampling frequency Fs needs to be greater than 2 fH. i.e. Fs>2fH Let us say our voice signals are band limited to 4 KHz and let sampling frequency be 8 KHz. Time period of sampling Ts = 1 sec / 8000 or Ts = 125 micro seconds If we have just one channel, then this can be sampled every 125 microseconds and the resultant samples will represent the original signal. But, if we are to sample N.

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SIGNALING IN PCM SYSTEMS

In a telephone network,-the signaling information is used for proper routing of a call between two subscribers, for providing certain status information like dial tone, busy tone, ring back. NU tone, metering pulses, trunk offering signal etc. All these functions are grouped under the general terms "signaling" in PCM systems. The signaling information can be transmitted in the form of DC pulses (as in step by step exchange) or multi-frequency pulses (as in cross bar systems) etc. The signaling pulses retain their amplitude for a much longer period than the pulses carrying speech information. It means that the signaling information is a slow varying signal in time compared to the speech signal which is fast changing in the time domain. Therefore, a signaling channel can be digitized with less number of bits than a voice channel. In a 30 chl PCM system, time slot Ts 16 in each frame is allocated for carrying signaling information. The time slot 16 of each frame carries the signaling data corresponding to two VF channels only. Therefore, to cater for 30 channels, we must transmit 15 frames, each having 125 microseconds duration. For carrying synchronization data for all frames, one additional frame is used. Thus a group of 16 frames (each of 125 microseconds) is formed to make a "multi-frame". The duration of a multi-frame is 2 milliseconds. The multi-frame has 16 major time slots of 125 microseconds duration. Each of these (slots) frames has 32 time slots carrying, the encoded samples of all channels plus the signaling and synchronization data. Each sample has eight bits of duration 0.400 microseconds (3.9/8 = 0.488) each. The relationship between the bit duration frame and multi-frame is illustrated in Fig. 2.4(a) & 2.4 (b)

Fig 2.4(a) Multyframe Concept 14

Fig 2.4(b) 2.048 Mbps PCM Multyframe We have 32 time slots in a frame; each slot carries an 8 bit word. The total number of bits per frame = 32 x 8 = 256 The total number of frames per seconds is 8000 The total number of bits per second is 256 x 8000 = 2048 K/bits. Thus, a 30 channel PCM system has 2048 K bits/sec.

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CHAPTER 3 DIGITAL SWTCHING

INTRODUCTION
A Digital switching system, in general, is one in which signals are switched in digital form. These signals may represent speech or data. The digital signals of several speech samples are time multiplexed on a common media before being switched through the system. To connect any two subscribers, it is necessary to interconnect the time-slots of the two speech samples which may be on same or different PCM highways. The digitalised speech samples are switched in two modes, viz., Time Switching and Space Switching. This Time Division Multiplex Digital Switching System is popularly known as Digital Switching System. In this handout, general principles of time and space switching are discussed. A practical digital switch, comprising of both time and space stages, is also explained.

Time and Space Switching

Generally, a digital switching system several time division multiplexed (PCM) samples. These PCM samples are conveyed on PCM highways (the common path over which many channels can pass with separation achieved by time division.). Switching of calls in this environment , requires placing digital samples from one time-slot of a PCM multiplex in the same or different time-slot of another PAM multiplex.

Fig 3.1 Digital switch The interconnection of time-slots, i.e., switching of digital signals can be achieved using two different modes of operation. These modes are: i. Space Switching ii. Time switching Usually, a combination of both the modes is used. Digital Space Switching 16

Principle
The Digital Space Switch consists of several input highways, X1, X2,...Xn and several output highways, Y1, Y2,.............Ym, inter connected by a crosspoint matrix of n rows and m columns. The individual crosspoint consists of electronic AND gates. The operation of an appropriate crosspoint connects any channel, a , of I/C PCM highway to the same channel, a, of O/G PCM highway, during each appropriate time-slot which occurs once per frame as shown in Fig 2. During other time-slots, the same crosspoint may be used to connect other channels. This crosspoint matrix works as a normal space divided matrix with full availability between incoming and outgoing highways during each time-slot. Each crosspoint column, associated with one O/G highway, is assigned a column of control memory. The control memory has as many words as there are time-slot per frame in the PCM signal. In practice, this number could range from 32 to 1024. Each crosspoint in the column is assigned a binary address, so that only one crosspoint per column is closed during each time-slot. The binary addresses are stored in the control memory, in the order of time-slots. The word size of the control memory is x bits, so that 2x = n, where n is the number of cross points in each column .

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Fig 3.2 Space Switch

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Digital Time Switch Principle

A Digital Time Switch consists of two memories, viz., a speech or buffer memory to store the samples till destination time-slots arrive, and a control or connection or address memory to control the writing and reading of the samples in the buffer memory and directing them on to the appropriate time-slots. peech memory has as many storage locations as the number of time-slots in input PCM, e.g., 32 locations for 32 channel PCM system. The writing/reading operations in the speech memory are controlled by the Control Memory. It has same number of memory locations as for speech memory, i.e., 32 locations for 32 channel PCM system. Each location contains the address of one of the speech memory locations where the channel sample is either written or read during a time-slot. These addresses are written in the control memory of the CC of the exchange, depending upon the connection objective. A Time-Slot Counter which usually is a synchronous binary counter, is used to count the time-slots from 0 to 31, as they occur. At the end of each frame, It gets reset and the counting starts again. It is used to control the timing for writing/reading of the samples in the speech memory.

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CHAPTER 4 Fiber used in Telecom & Their Characteristics

INTRODUCTION
The use and demand for optical fiber has grown tremendously and optical-fiber applications are numerous. Telecommunication applications are widespread, ranging from global networks to desktop computers. These involve the transmission of voice, data, or video over distances of less than a meter to hundreds of kilometers, using one of a few standard fiber designs in one of several cable designs.

ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTICS:

Fiber Optics has the following advantages : SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the gigabits BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be "refreshed" or strengthened. RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radios, motors or other nearby cables. MAINTENANCE: Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain.

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Fiber Optic System :

Optical Fibre is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video) is transmitted through a glass or plastic fibre, in the form of light, following the transmission sequence give below : (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Information is Encoded into Electrical Signals. Electrical Signals are Coverted into light Signals. Light Travels Down the Fiber. A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals. Electrical Signals are Decoded into Information.

- Inexpensive light sources available. - Repeater spacing increases along with operating speeds because low loss fiber are used at high data rates.

Fig: 4.1 Fiber optic system

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Fiber types
The refractive Index profile describes the relation between the indices of the core and cladding. Two main relationship exists : (I) Step Index (II) Graded Index The step index fibre has a core with uniform index throughout. The profile shows a sharp step at the junction of the core and cladding. In contrast, the graded index has a non-uniform core. The Index is highest at the center and gradually decreases until it matches with that of the cladding. There is no sharp break in indices between the core and the cladding. By this classification there are three types of fibres : (I) Multimode Step Index fibre (Step Index fibre) (II) Multimode graded Index fibre (Graded Index fibre) (III) Single- Mode Step Index fibre (Single Mode Fibre) 1 .STEP-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER has a large core, up to 100 microns in diameter. As a result, some of the light rays that make up the digital pulse may travel a direct route, whereas others zigzag as they bounce off the cladding. These alternative pathways cause the different groupings of light rays, referred to as modes, to arrive separately at a receiving point. The pulse, an aggregate of different modes, begins to spread out, losing its well-defined shape. The need to leave spacing between pulses to prevent overlapping limits bandwidth that is, the amount of information that can be sent. Consequently, this type of fiber is best suited for transmission over short distances, in an endoscope, for instance.

Fig 4.2 STEP-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER 2. GRADED-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER contains a core in which the refractive index diminishes gradually from the center axis out toward the cladding. The higher refractive index at the center makes the light rays moving down the axis advance more slowly than those near the cladding.

Fig 4.3 GRADED-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER

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3. SINGLE-MODE FIBER has a narrow core (eight microns or less), and the index of refraction between the core and the cladding changes less than it does for multimode fibers. Light thus travels parallel to the axis, creating little pulse dispersion. Telephone and cable television networks install millions of kilometers of this fiber every year.

Fig: 4.4 Single Mode Fiber OPTICAL FIBRE PARAMETERS Optical fiber systems have the following parameters. (I) Wavelength (II) Frequency (III) Window 1 WAVELENGTH It is a characteristic of light that is emitted from the light source and is measures in nanometers (nm). In the visible spectrum, wavelength can be described as the colour of the light. For example, Red Light has longer wavelength than Blue Light, Typical wavelength for fibre use are 850nm, 1300nm and 1550nm all of which are invisible. 2 FREQUENCIES It is number of pulse per second emitted from a light source. Frequency is measured in units of hertz (Hz). In terms of optical pulse 1Hz = 1 pulse/ sec. 3 WINDOWS A narrow window is defined as the range of wavelengths at which a fibre best operates. Typical windows are given below :

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OPTICAL WINDOWS:

Attenuation of fibre for optical power varies with the wavelengths of light. Windows are low-loss regions, where fiber carry light with little attenuation. The first generation of optical fibre operated in the first window around 820 to 850 nm. The second window is the zero-dispersion region of 1300 nm and the third window is the 1550 nm region as shown in figure .

Fig: 4.5 Optical Windows

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OFC SPLICING
Splices are permanent connection between two fibres. The splicing involves cutting of the edges of the two fibres to be spliced. Splicing Methods The following three types are widely used : 1. Adhesive bonding or Glue splicing. 2. Mechanical splicing. 3. Fusion splicing. Adhesive Bonding or Glue Splicing This is the oldest splicing technique used in fibre splicing. After fibre end preparation, it is axially aligned in a precision Vgroove. Cylindrical rods or another kind of reference surfaces are used for alignment. During the alignment of fibre end, a small amount of adhesive or glue of same refractive index as the core material is set between and around the fibre ends. A two component epoxy or an UV curable adhesive is used as the bonding agent. The splice loss of this type of joint is same or less than fusion splices. But fusion splicing technique is more reliable, so at present this technique is very rarely used. Mechanical Splicing This technique is mainly used for temporary splicing in case of emergency repairing. This method is also convenient to connect measuring instruments to bare fibres for taking various measurements. The mechanical splices consist of 4 basic components : (i) An alignment surface for mating fibre ends. (ii) A retainer (iii) An index matching material. (iv) A protective housing A very good mechanical splice for M.M. fibres can have an optical performance as good as fusion spliced fibre or glue spliced. But in case of single mode fibre, this type of splice cannot have stability of loss. Fusion Splicing The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for achieving very low splice losses. The fusion can be achieved either through electrical arc or through gas flame.The process involves cutting of the fibres and fixing them in micropositioners on the fusion splicing machine. The fibres are then aligned either manually or automatically core aligning (in case of S.M. fibre) process. Afterwards the operation that takes place involve withdrawal of the fibres to a specified distance, preheating of the fibre ends through electric arc and bringing together of the fibre ends in a position and splicing through high temperature fusion.

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Chapter 5 Advanced Optical Networks: DWDM

DENSE WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

INTRODUCTION 26

The revolution in high bandwidth applications and the explosive growth of the Internet, however, have created capacity demands that exceed traditional TDM limits. To meet growing demands for bandwidth, a technology called Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) has been developed that multiplies the capacity of a single fiber. DWDM systems being deployed today can increase a single fibers capacity sixteen fold, to a throughput of 40 Gb/s. The emergence of DWDM is one of the most recent and important phenomena in the development of fiber optic transmission technology. Dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) revolutionized transmission technology by increasing the capacity signal of embedded fiber. One of the major issues in the networking industry today is tremendous demand for more and more bandwidth. Before the introduction of optical networks, the reduced availability of fibers became a big problem for the network providers. However, with the development of optical networks and the use of Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) technology, a new and probably, a very crucial milestone is being reached in network evolution. The existing SONET/SDH network architecture is best suited for voice traffic rather than todays highspeed data traffic. To upgrade the system to handle this kind of traffic is very expensive and hence the need for the development of an intelligent all-optical network. Such a network will bring intelligence and scalability to the optical domain by combining the intelligence and functional capability of SONET/SDH, the tremendous bandwidth of DWDM and innovative networking software to spawn a variety of optical transport, switching and management related products.

DEVELOPMENT OF DWDM TECHNOLOGY As fig. 5.1 shows, the progression of the technology can be seen as an increase in the number of wavelengths accompanied by a decrease in the spacing of the wavelengths. Along with increased density of wavelengths, systems also advanced in their flexibility of configuration, through add-drop functions, and management capabilities.

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Fig 5.1 Evolution of DWDM VARIETIES of WDM Early WDM systems transported two or four wavelengths that were widely spaced. WDM and the follow-on technologies of CWDM and DWDM have evolved well beyond this early limitation. 1 WDM Traditional, passive WDM systems are wide-spread with 2, 4, 8, 12, and 16 channel counts being the normal deployments. This technique usually has a distance limitation of less than 100 km. 2 CWDM Today, coarse WDM (CWDM) typically uses 20-nm spacing (3000 GHz) of up to 18 channels. The CWDM Recommendation ITU-T G.694.2 provides a grid of wavelengths for target distances up to about 50 km on single mode fibers as specified in ITU-T Recommendations G.652, G.653 and G.655. The CWDM grid is made up of 18 wavelengths defined within the range 1270 nm to 1610 nm spaced by 20 nm.

3 DWDM Dense WDM common spacing may be 200, 100, 50, or 25 GHz with channel count reaching up to 128 or more channels at distances of several thousand kilometers with amplification and regeneration along such a route.

DWDM System Function

DWDM stands for Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing, an optical technology used to increase Band width over existing fiber optic backbones. Dense wavelength division multiplexing systems 28

allow many discrete transports channels by combining and transmitting multiple signals simultaneously at different wavelengths on the same fiber. In effect, one fiber is transformed into multiple virtual fibers. So, if you were to multiplex 32 STM-16 signals into one fiber, you would increase the carrying capacity of that fiber from 2.5 Gb/s to 80 Gb/s. Currently, because of DWDM, single fibers have been able to transmit data at speeds up to 400Gb/s. A key advantage to DWDM is that it's protocol and bit rate-independent. DWDM-based networks can transmit data in SDH, IP, ATM and Ethernet etc. Therefore, DWDM-based networks can carry different types of traffic at different speeds over an optical channel. DWDM is a core technology in an optical transport network. Dense WDM common spacing may be 200, 100, 50, or 25 GHz with channel count reaching up to 128 or more channels at distances of several thousand kilometers with amplification and regeneration along such a route.

Fig: 5.2 Block Diagram of DWDM

TRANSMISSION WINDOWS
Today, usually the second transmission window (around 1300 nm) and the third and fourth transmission windows from 1530 to 1565 nm (also called conventional band) and from 1565 to 1620 nm (also called Long Band) are used. Technological reasons limit DWDM applications at the moment to the third and fourth window. The losses caused by the physical effects on the signal due by the type of materials used to produce fibres limit the usable wavelengths to between 1280 nm and 1650 nm. Within this usable range the techniques used to produce the fibres can cause particular wavelengths to have more loss so we avoid the use of these wavelengths as well.

DWDM SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Figure 5.3 shows an optical network using DWDM techniques that consists of five main components: 1. Transmitter (transmit transponder): 29

- Changes electrical bits to optical pulses - Is frequency specific - Uses a narrowband laser to generate the optical pulse 2. Multiplexer/ demultiplexer: - Combines/separates discrete wavelengths 3. Amplifier: - Pre-amplifier boosts signal pulses at the receive side - Post-amplifier boosts signal pulses at the transmit side (post amplifier) and on the receive side (preamplifier) - In line amplifiers (ILA) are placed at different distances from the source to provide recovery of the signal before it is degraded by loss. - EDFA (Eribium Doped Fiber Amplifier) is the most popular amplifier. 4. Optical fiber (media): - Transmission media to carry optical pulses - Many different kinds of fiber are used 5. Receiver (receive transponder) - Changes optical pulses back to electrical bits - Uses wideband laser to provide the optical pulse

Fig5.3 : DWDM System Components BENEFITS of DWDM Increases bandwidth (speed and distance) Does not require replacement or upgrade their existing legacy systems Provides "next generation" technologies to meet growing data needs Less costly in the long run because increased fiber capacity is automatically available; don't have to upgrade all the time.

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CHAPTER 6 GSM
INTRODUCTION A GSM system is basically designed as a combination of three major subsystems: the network subsystem, the radio subsystem, and the operation support subsystem. In order to ensure that network operators will have several sources of cellular infrastructure equipment, GSM decided to specify not only the air interface, but also the main interfaces that identify different parts. There are three dominant interfaces, namely, an interface between MSC and the base Transceiver Station (BTS), and an Um interface between the BTS and MS. 31

GSM NETWORK STRUCTURE Every telephone network needs a well-designed structure in order to route incoming called to the correct exchange and finally to the called subscriber. In a mobile network, this structure is of great importance because of the mobility of all its subscribers [1-4]. In the GSM system, the network is divided into the following partitioned areas. GSM service area; PLMN service area; MSC service area; Location area; Cells.;

Fig: 6.1 GSM Architechture

MS The MS includes radio equipment and the man machine interface (MMI) that a subscribe needs in order to access the services provided by the GSM PLMN. MS can be installed in Vehicles or can be portable or handheld stations. The MS may include provisions for data communication as well as voice. A mobile transmits and receives message to and from the GSM system over the air interface to establish and continue connections through the system. BASE STATION SYSTEM The BSS is a set of BS equipment (such as transceivers and controllers) that is in view by the MSC through a single A interface as being the entity responsible for communicating with MSs in a certain area. The radio equipment of a BSS may be composed of one or more cells. A BSS may consist of 32

one or more BS. The interface between BSC and BTS is designed as an A-bis interface. The BSS includes two types of machines: the BTS in contact with the MSs through the radio interface and the BSC, the latter being in contact with the MSC. The function split is basically between transmission equipment, the BTS, and managing equipment at the BSC. A BTS compares radio transmission and reception devices, up to and including the antennas, and also all the signal processing specific to the radio interface. A single transceiver within BTS supports eight basic radio channels of the same TDM frame. A BSC is a network component in the PLMN that function for control of one or more BTS. It is a functional entity that handles common control functions within a BTS. BTS As stated, the primary responsibility of the BTS is to transmit and receive radio signals from a mobile unit over an air interface. To perform this function completely, the signals are encoded, encrypted, multiplexed, modulated, and then fed to the antenna system at the cell site. Trans-coding to bring 13kbps speech to a standard data rate of 16 kbps and then combining four of these signals to 64 kbps is essentially a part of BTS, though, it can be done at BSC or at MSC. The voice communication can be either at a full or half rate over logical speech channel. In order to keep the mobile synchronized, BTS transmits frequency and time synchronization signals over frequency correction channel (FCCH and BCCH logical channels. The received signal from the mobile is decoded, decrypted, and equalized for channel impairments. Random access detection is made by BTS, which then sends the message to BSC. The channel subsequent assignment is made by BSC. Timing advance is determined by BTS. BTS signals the mobile for proper timing adjustment. Uplink radio channel measurement corresponding to the downlink measurements made by MS has to be made by BTS.

BTS-BSC Configurations There are several BTS-BSC configurations: single site; single cell; single site; multicell; and multisite, multicell. These configurations are chosen based on the rular or urban application. These configurations make the GSM system economical since the operation has options to adapt the best layout based on the traffic requirement. Thus, in some sense, system optimization is possible by the proper choice of the configuration. These include Omni directional rural configuration where the BSC and BTS are on the same site; chain and multidrop loop configuration in which several BTSs are controlled by a single remote BSC with a chain or ring connection topology; rural star configuration in which several BTSs are connected by individual lines to the same BSC; and sectorized urban configuration in which three BTSs share the same site amd are controlled by either a collocated or remote BSC. BSC 33

The BSC, as discussed, is connected to the MSC on one side and to the BTS on the other. The BSC performs the Radio Resource (RR) management for the cells under its control. It assigns and release frequencies and timeslots for all MSs in its own area. The BSC performs the intercell handover for MSs moving between BTS in its control. It also reallocates frequencies to the BTSs in its area to meet locally heavy demands during peak hours or on special events. The BSC controls the power transmission of both BSSs and MSs in its area. The minimum power level for a mobile unit is broadcast over the BCCH. The BSC provides the time and frequency synchronization reference signals broadcast by its BTSs. The BSC also measures the time delay of received MS signals relative to the BTS clock. If the received MS signal is not centered in its assigned timeslot at the BTS, The BSC can direct the BTS to notify the MS to advance the timing such that proper synchronization takes place. MSC As stated, the main function of the MSC is to coordinate the set up of calls between GSM mobile and PSTN users. Specifically, it performs functions such as paging, resource allocation, location registration, and encryption. Specifically, the call-handling function of paging is controlled by MSC. MSC coordinates the set up of call to and from all GSM subscribers operating in its areas. The dynamics allocation of access resources is done in coordination with the BSS. More specifically, the MSC decides when and which types of channels should be assigned to which MS. The channel identity and related radio parameters are the responsibility of the BSS, The MSC provides the control of interworking with different networks. It is transparent for the subscriber authentication procedure. The MSC supervises the connection transfer between different BSSs for MSs, with an active call, moving from one call to another. This is ensured if the two BSSs are connected to the same MSC but also when they are not . In this latter case the procedure is more complex, since more then one MSC in involved. The MSC performs billing on calls for all subscribers based in its areas. When the subscriber is roaming elsewhere, the MSC obtains data for the call billing from the visited MSC. Encryption parameters transfers from VLR to BSS to facilitate ciphering on the radio interface are done by MSC. The exchange of signaling information on the various interface toward the other network elements and the management of the interface themselves are all controlled by the MSC. Finally, the MSC serves as a SMS gateway to forward SMS messages from Short Message Service Centers (SMSC) to the subscribers and from the subscribers to the SMSCs. It thus acts as a message mailbox and delivery system. VLR The VLR is collocated with an MSC. A MS roaming in an MSC area is controlled by the VLR responsible for that area. When a MS appears in a LA, it starts a registration procedure. The MSC for that area notices this registration and transfers to the VLR the identify of the LA where the MS is situated. A VLR may be in charge of one or several MSC LAs. The VLR constitutes the databases that support the MSC in the storage and retrieval of the data of subscribers present in its area. When an MS enters the MSC area borders, it signals its arrival to the MSC that stores its identify in the VLR. The information necessary to manage the MS is contained in the HLR and is transferred to the VLR so that they can be easily retrieved if so required. HLR The HLR is a database that permanently stores data related to a given set of subscribers. The HLR is the reference database for subscriber parameters. Various identification numbers and addresses as well as authentication parameters, services subscribed, and special routing information are stored. 34

Current subscriber status including a subscribers temporary roaming number and associated VLR if the mobile is roaming, are maintained. The HLR provides data needed to route calls to all MS-SIMs home based in its MSC area, even when they are roaming out of area or in other GSM networks. The HLR provides the current location data needed to support searching for and paging the MS-SIM for incoming calls, wherever the MSSIM may be. The HLR is responsible for storage and provision of SIM authentication and encryption parameters needed by the MSC where the MS-SIM is operating. It obtains these parameters from the AUC. The HLR maintains record of which supplementary service each user has subscribed to and provides permission control in granting services. The HLR stores the identification of SMS gateways that have messages for the subscriber under the SMS until they can be transmitted to the subscriber and receipt is knowledge. Some data are mandatory, other data are optional. Both the HLR and the VLR can be implemented in the same equipment in an MSC (collocated). A PLMN may contain one or several HLRs.

AUC The AUC stores information that is necessary to protect communication through the air interface against intrusions, to which the mobile is vulnerable. The legitimacy of the subscriber is established through authentication and ciphering, which protects the user information against unwanted disclosure. Authentication information and ciphering keys are stored in a database within the AUC, which protects the user information against unwanted disclosure and access. In the authentication procedure, the key Ki is never transmitted to the mobile over the air path, only a random number is sent. In order to gain access to the system, the mobile must provide the correct Signed Response (SRES) in answer to a random number (RAND) generated by AUC. Also, Ki and the cipher key Kc are never transmitted across the air interface between the BTS and the MS. Only the random challenge and the calculated response are transmitted. Thus, the value of Ki and Kc are kept secure. The cipher key, on the other hand, is transmitted on the SS7 link between the home HLR/AUC and the visited MSC, which is a point of potential vulnerability. On the other hand, 35

the random number and cipher key is supposed to change with each phone call, so finding them on one call will not benefit using them on the next call. The HLR is also responsible for the authentication of the subscriber each time he makes or receives a call. The AUC, which actually performs this function, is a separate GSM entity that will often be physically included with the HLR. Being separate, it will use separate processing equipment for the AUC database functions. EIR (EQUIPMENT IDENTIFY REGISTER) EIR is a database that stores the IMEI numbers for all registered ME units. The IMEI uniquely identifies all registered ME. There is generally one EIR per PLMN. It interfaces to the various HLR in the PLMN. The EIR keeps track of all ME units in the PLMN. It maintains various lists of message. The database stores the ME identification and has nothing do with subscriber who is receiving or originating call. There are three classes of ME that are stored in the database, and each group has different characteristics. White List: contains those IMEIs that are known to have been assigned to valid MSs. This is the category of genuine equipment. Black List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have been reported stolen. Gray List: contains IMEIs of mobiles that have problems (for example, faulty software, wrong make of the equipment). This list contains all MEs with faults not important enough for barring.

CHAPTER 7 CDMA
INTRODUCTION
Access network, the network between local exchange and subscriber, in the Telecom Network accounts for a major portion of resources both in terms of capital and manpower. So far, the subscriber loop has remained in the domain of the copper cable providing cost effective solution in past. Quick deployments of subscriber loop, coverage of inaccessible and remote locations coupled with modern technology have led to the emergence of new Access Technologies. The various technological options available are as follows : 1. Multi Access Radio Relay 2. Wireless In Local Loop 36

3. Fibre In the Local Loop

Different Codes
Walsh Code : In CDMA the traffic channels are separated by unique Walsh code. All such codes are orthogonal to each other. The individual subscriber can start communication using one of these codes. These codes are traffic channel codes and are used for orthogonal spreading of the information in the entire bandwidth. Orthogonality provides nearly perfect isolation between the multiple signals transmitted by the base station. The basic concept behind creation of the code is as follows: (a) Repeat the function right (b) Repeat the function below (c) Invert function (diagonally)

Long code : the long pseudo random noise (PN) sequence is based on 242 characteristic polynomial. With this long code the data in the forward direction (Base to Mobile) is scrabled. The PN codes are generated using linear shift registers. The long code is unique for the subscribers and is known as users address mask. Short Code : The short pseudo random noise (PN) sequence is based on 215 characteristic polynomial. This short code differentiates the cells & the sectors in a cell. It also consists of codes for I & Q channel feeding the modulator.

Advantages
CDMA wireless access provides the following unique advantages: 1. Larger Capacity : let us discuss this issue with the help of Shannons Theorem. It states that the channel capacity is related to product of available band width and S/N ratio. C = W log 2 (1+S/N) Where C = channel capacity W = Band width available S/N = Signal to noise ratio. It is clear that even if we improve S/N to a great extent the advantage that we are expected to get in terms of channel capacity will not be proportionally increased. But instead if we increase the bandwidth (W), we can achieve more channel capacity even at a lower S/N. That forms the basis of 37

CDMA approach, wherein increased channel capacity is obtained by increasing both W & S/N. The S/N can be increased by devising proper power control methods. 2. Vocoder and variable data rates: As the telephone quality speech is band limited to 4 Khz when it is digitized with PCM its bit rate rises to 64Kb/s Vocoding compress it to a lower bit rate to reduce bandwidth. The transmitting vocoder takes voice samples and generates an encoded speech/packet for transmission to the receiving vocoder. The receiving Vocoder decodes the received speech packet into voice samples. One of the important feature of the variable rate vocoder is the use of adaptive threshold to determine the required data rate. Vocoders are variable rate vocodes. By operating the vocoder at half rate on some of the frames the capacity of the system can be enhanced without noticeable degradation in the quality of the speech. This phenomenon helps to absorb the occasional heavy requirement of traffic apart from suppression of background noise. Thus the capacity advantage makes spread spectrum an ideal choice for use in areas where the frequency spectrum is congested. 3. Seamless Hand-off : CDMA provides soft hand-off feature for the mobile crossing from one cell to another cell by combining the signals from both the cells in the transition areas. This improves the performance of the network at the boundaries of the cells, virtually eliminating the dropped calls. 4. No Frequency Planning : A CDMA system requires no frequency planning as the adjacent cells use the same common frequency. A typical cellular system (with a repetition rate of 7) and a CDMA system is shown in the following figures which clearly indicates that in a CDMA network no frequency planning is required.

Fig: 7.1 CDMA 38frequency

Fig: 7.2GSM Frequency 5. High Tolerance to Interference : 38

The primary advantage of spread spectrum is its ability to tolerate a fair amount of interfering signals as compared to other conventional systems. This factor provides a considerable advantage from a system point of view.

CHAPTER 8 BROAD BAND

INTRODUCTION With the evolution of computer networking and packet switching concept a new era of integrated communication has emerged in the telecom world. Rapid growth of data communication market and popularity of Internet, reflect the needs of enhanced infrastructure to optimize the demand of traffic. Integration of telecom and computer networking technology trend has further amplified the importance of telecommunications in the field of information communication. It becomes a tool for the conveyance of information, and thus can be critical to the development process.Telecommunications has become one of the most important infrastructures that are very essential to the socio-economic well being of any nation. As the Internet market continues to explode, demand for greater bandwidth and faster connection speeds have led to several technological approaches developed to provide broadband access to all consumers. The demand for high-speed bandwidth is growing at a fast pace, driven mostly by growth in data volumes as the Internet and related networks become more central to business operations. The rapid growth of distributed business applications, e-commerce, and bandwidth-intensive applications (such as multimedia, videoconferencing, and video on demand) generate the demand for bandwidth and access network. IMPLEMENTATION OF BROADBAND

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To Strengthen Broadband Penetration, the Government of India has formulated a Broadband Policy whose main objectives are to: Establish a regulatory framework for the carriage and the content of information in the scenario of convergence. Facilitate development of national infrastructure for an information based society. Make available broadband interactive multimedia services to users in the public network. Provide high speed data and multimedia capability using new technologies to all towns with a population greater than 2 lakhs. Make available Internet services at panchayat (village) level for access to information to provide product consultancy and marketing advice. TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS FOR BROADBAND SERVICES Narrow Band :2.4 kbps 128kbps Broadband: 256kbps 8000kbps LAN: 1000kbps 100Mbps / Giga Ethernet Various Access Technologies are used for the delivery of broadband services. Broadband communications technology can be divided broadly in to Following categories: Wireline Technology Wireless Technologies Service providers according to available technology and access provide the broadband services to customers. The access technologies that are adopted by the services providers are mainly Optical Fiber Technologies, DSL on copper loop, Cable TV Network, Satellite Media, cellular and fixed wireless, Terrestrial Wireless etc. Technology options for broadband services may be classified according to the mode of access. Wire line Technologies include Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL) on copper loop Optical Fiber Technologies Cable TV Network PLC (Power Line Communication) Wireless Technologies include Satellite Media Terrestrial Wireless 3G Mobile Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) WiMax LMDS and MMDS FSO (Free Space Optics) BROADBAND NETWORK The broadband services reached to customer from the three providers. Basically these are Service Provider, Network Provider and Access Provider. The role of Network Provider is to provide the services offered to customer through the access extended by Access Provider. There are various types of networks which are capable of transmitting and managing the broadband traffic to desired nodes or locations. Wire line access technology through DSL, Fiber, Cable etc are generally adopts: IP based Network 40

 ATM Network Wireless access technology through Wi-Fi, Wi-Max. 3G mobile etc provides wireless access to ingress point of any core network any migrates to Internet world.

CHAPTER 9 CORPORATE NETWORK

INTRODUCTION
A corporate network (CN) is a closed and private computer network that affords secure communications between geographically dispersed LANs of an enterprise. These point to point connections have traditionally been delivered through leased lines. A corporate network is also defined as a group of computers, connected together in a building or in a particular area, which are all owned by the same company.

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WHY DO BUSINESSES HAVE A CORPORATE NETWORK? A business implements a corporate network to share applications and data between different computing devices and users in different locations. Unless the application is web based or database driven, this usually means copying files back and forth between a network drive and a local computer, where a desktop application is used to read and/or edit the files. The increasing need to access corporate data from anywhere has led to changes in the nature of applications, in current model of corporate network. This section focuses on how to create typical large-scale network configurations in which a Routing and Remote Access Service router can be used. The following routed network scenarios are highlighted in this section: Corporate network Branch office network Network media, addressing, routing protocols, and other services are discussed as they apply to each scenario. While the actual networks you work with might vary, the basic concepts apply as discussed here. A TYPICAL CORPORATE NETWORK HAS THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS: Many LAN segments; for example, one segment on each floor or wing of several buildings with a backbone More than one network protocol (IP or IPX) OSPF-configured areas, if it uses IP Dial-up connectivity for users connecting from home or while traveling Connectivity to external networks Demand-dial connections to branch offices Dedicated circuits to branch offices SECURITY OF CORPORATE NETWORK Complete bullet-proof protection of the remote computers you have on your network. 42

 Over 600 different security restrictions, options and tweaks. Executable patches can be easily uploaded to all your remote computers and executed remotely. Easy and intuitive configuration without lots of complicated configuration files. Everything is configured through the stand-alone GUI interface from any location where TCP/IP connection to your corporate network can be established. Works well for public libraries, schools, universities, corporations, Internet cafes. You do not need to physically visit your workstations when you need to change security settings or install patches. The remote client service application is bullet-proof. Your users will not be able to disable, uninstall or delete it. All traffic between the server and the clients is encrypted. All local files are encrypted as well. The server service application and the remote client service application work as NT services under Windows NT/2000/XP and higher therefore they will keep working in the logoff mode.

CHAPTER 10 INTERANET
INTRODUCTION Smaller private version of Internet. It uses Internet protocols to create enterprise-wide network which may consists of interconnected LANs. It may or may not include connection to Internet. Intranet is an internal information system based on Internet technology and web protocols for implementation within a corporate organization. This implementation is performed in such a way as to transparently deliver the immense informational resources of an organization to each individuals desktop with minimal cost, time and effort. The Intranet defines your organization and display it for everyone to see.

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WHO NEEDS AN INTRANET: In an Intranet environment is used to communicate over two or more networks across different locations. 1. Users having multi-locations with multi-networks. 2. Users having single locations with multi-networks. 3. Users having single locations with single networks. WHATS REALLY COOL ABOUT INTRANET: From a technology point of view, an Intranet is simply beautiful Because: 1. It is saleable. 2. It is Interchangeable. 3. It is platform independent 4. It is Hardware independent. 5. It is vendor independent.

WHY INTRANET FOR AN ORGANIZATION: Quick access to voice, video, data and other resources needed by users. Variety of valuable applications of Intranet applications improve communication and productivity across all areas of an enterprise. An Intranet can give immediate access to products specifications, pricing charts and new collaterals, sales lead, competitive information and list of customer wins Including profit/loss analysis, thus boosting the success of the business.

APPLICATIONS OF INTRANET

1. Publishing Corporate documents Corporate documents such as newsletters, annual reports, maps, company facilities, price lists, products information literature can be easily published and propagated across an organization. Intranet technology facilitates efficient, timely and accurate communication across the entire corporate organization and cuts down on the cost of publishing the information on paper every now and then. 44

2. Access into searchable directories Intranet provides rapid access to corporate phone books and the like. By using this technology, information can be made more widely available. Excellent Mailing Facilities .With Intranet mail products mailing attachment of documents, sound, vision And other multimedia is facilitated. With the evolution of this web technology one-to-many communication has become more effective. 3. Proper Sharing of Information Using Intranet technology, applications such as Bulletin Board Services can help every individual in an organization to put forth his views on various topics and discuss it with others in the organization. 4. Developing Groupware Applications The flow of documents can be automated by incorporating intranet in an organization. Thus the overall efficiency of an organization increases as less manual and paper involvement will be required. Typical examples are sanctioning of expense reports/travel reports, Conference room booking, etc.

FIG: 10.1 TYPICAL INTERANET SETUP

TECHNICAL OVERVIEW OF THE INTRANET TECHNOLOGY 45

Intranet runs on open TCP/IP network, enable companies to employ the same type of servers and browser used for World Wide Web for internal applications distributed over the corporate LAN . A typical Intranet implementation involves a high end machine called a server which can be accessed by individual PCs commonly referred to as clients, through the network. The Intranet site setup can be quite inexpensive, especially if your users are already connected by LAN. Most popular Intranet web servers can run on a platform widely found in most organizations. Basic requirements for setting up an intranet site are: REQUIREMENTS : Software : Server : OS can be Windows server, Unix, LINUX .Web Server s/w should be installed Client : OS can be Windows workstation, LINUX .Web Browser software HARDWARE: Server: 4 GB RAM, 360 GB secondary storage, Pentium processor with CD ROM . Client: 1GB RAM, 180 GB Secondary storage, Pentium processor .

CHAPTER 11 LEASED LINE AND MLLN

INTRODUCTION A leased line is a permanent fiber optic or telephone connection between two points set up by a telecommunications carrier. A leased line is also sometimes referred to as a dedicated line. They can be used for telephone, data, or Internet services. Oftentimes businesses will use a leased line to connect to geographically distant offices because it guarantees bandwidth for network traffic. For example, a bank may use a leased line in order to easily transfer financial information from one office to another. A leased line can span long or short distances and customers generally pay a flat monthly rate for the service depending on the distance between the two points. Leased lines do not have telephone numbers because each side of the line is always connected to one another, as opposed to telephone lines which reuse the same lines for numerous conversations through a process called "switching." The information sent through the leased line travels along dedicated secure channels, eliminating the congestion that occurs in shared networks. MLLN MANAGED LEASED LINE NETWORK 46

The MLLN service is specially designed mainly for having effective control and monitoring on the leased line so that the down time is minimized and the circuit efficiency is increased. This mainly deals with data circuits ranging from 64 Kbps to 2048 Kbps. DRAWBACK OF TRADITIONAL LEASED LINE CIRCUITS 1. Limited range of services - Only Plain Leased Line Service, Data cards support only up to 64 kbps, no support for N x 64 Kbps. 2. From Operator point of view in case of Leased Line Circuit different boxes from different vendors so difficult to manage & control. 3. No Centralized Monitoring or alarm or performance monitering. Therefore we should have a control to all this, we are able to identify before the customer know which circuit has gone faulty The solution to this is MLLN MLLN FEATURES: 1. MLLN is an integrated, fully managed , multi service digital network platform through which service provider can offer a wide range of service at an optimal cost to business subscriber. 2. Using NMS, MLLN can provide high speed Leased Line with improved QoS, high availability & reliability. 3. Except for connecting the local lead to the MODEM all operations & maintenance is carried out through ROT (Remote Operating Terminal)

MLLN ADVANTAGES: 1. 24 hrs Performance Monitering of the circuit. (how much time circuit time up & down and the reason for down time e.g MODEM switch off or other reason) 2. Circuit fault reports generated proactively.(Before customer know we should detect the fault & rectify it) 3. On Demand the Bandwidth can be increased. (without changing the MODEM recreate the circuit with the same MODEM) 4. Low lead time for new circuit provisioning. (Create & debug if any fault) 5. Protection against the failure of the circuit (through recovery Management process either automatic or manually) 6. Long drive on single copper pair.( for 64 kbps 7 kms & for 2mbps 3.5 kms) 7. Centrally managed from ROT connected to the NMS APPLICATION OF MLLN: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Corporate high speed internet access through Broadband. LAN interconnection. Hotline connectivity for voice. Point to point connection for data circuit. Point to multipoint connection. 47

6. EPABX Interconnection. KEY ELEMENTS OF MLLN: MLLN Nodes Servers Workstations Networking Equipment Others (Printers, UPS etc) MLLN Nodes o o o o DXC (Digital Cross-Connect) VMUX (Versatile Multiplexer) NTU (Network Terminating Unit) NMS (Network Management System)

SERVERS o Database Server o NMS Application Servers o Billing and Accounting Servers o Web Self Care Servers o Proxy Servers

WORKSTATIONS o Local Operator Terminals o Remote Operator Terminals NETWORKING EQUIPMENT o o o o o o o Router LAN Switch RAS Firewall Remote Operator Terminal Connectivity Equipment Grooming Mux at Main and DR Sites Connectivity equipments at Remote Sites 48

OTHERS o Un-interrupted power supply o Printers o Messaging System

Fig: 11.1 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE OF MLLN

DXC Capacity DXC (64 ports upgradeable to 128 ports) DXC (96 ports upgradeable to 128 ports) DXC (128 ports upgradeable to 256 ports) DXC (256 ports) 1/0 cross-connect capability Non-Blocking Architecture

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VMUX Type - I, Type - II, Type - III with the configurations given below

NMS (Network Management System) o MLLN NMS o Billing and Accounting System o Web Self-care system o We have offered Tellabs Network Manager Release 13 to meet the requirements o MLLN NMS performs all the management functions on the network o Supports regional partitioning and VPN capabilities o Offered Performance Monitoring, Recovery, Reporting Packages o Offered HP Open view and Cisco works which would reside on SNMP server for managing the servers and IT elements

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CHAPTER 12.a Wi-Fi

INTRODUCTION Scope: Wi-Fi is a registered trademark by the Wi-Fi Alliance. The products tested and approved as "Wi-Fi Certified" are interoperable with each other, even if they are from different manufacturer. It is Short form for Wireless-Fidelity and is meant to generically refer to any type of 802.11 network, whether 802.11b, 802.11a, dual-band, etc. Initially the term "Wi-Fi" was used in place of the 2.4GHz 802.11b standard, in the same way that "Ethernet" is used in place of IEEE 802.3 but Alliance has expanded the generic use of the term to cover 802.11a, dual-band etc. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF WI-FI NETWORK: A Wi-Fi network provides the features and benefits of traditional LAN technologies such as Ethernet and Token Ring without the limitations of wires or cables. It provides the final few metres of connectivity between a wired network and the mobile user thereby providing mobility, scalability of networks and the speed of installation. WIFI is a wireless LAN Technology to deliver wireless broad band speeds up to 54 Mbps to Laptops, PCs, PDAs , dual mode wifi enabled phones etc. In a typical Wi-Fi configuration, a transmitter/receiver (transceiver) device, called the Access Point (AP), connects to the wired network from a fixed location using standard cabling. A wireless Access Point combines router and bridging functions, it bridges network traffic, usually from Ethernet to the airwaves, where it routes to computers with wireless adapters. The AP can reside at any node of the wired network and acts as a gateway for wireless data to be routed onto the wired network as shown in Figure-12.1 It supports only 10 to 30 mobile devices per Access Point (AP) depending on the network traffic. Like a cellular system, the Wi-Fi is capable of roaming from the AP and reconnecting to the network through another AP. The Access Point (or the antenna attached to the Access Point) is usually mounted high but may be mounted essentially anywhere that is practical as long as the desired radio coverage is obtained.

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Fig 12.1: A typical Wi-Fi network Like a cellular phone system, the wireless LAN is capable of roaming from the AP and re-connecting to the network through other APs residing at other points on the wired network. This can allow the wired LAN to be extended to cover a much larger area than the existing coverage by the use of multiple APs such as in a campus environment as shown in Figure 12.2.

Fig: 12.2 Extending Wi-Fi coverage with multiple AP

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Wi-Fi Network Configuration: (1.) A Wireless Peer-To-Peer Network: This mode is also known as ADHOC mode. Wi-Fi networks can be simple or complex. At its most basic, two PCs equipped with wireless adapter cards can set up an independent network whenever they are within range of one another. This is called a peer-to-peer network. It requires no administration or preconfiguration. In this case, each client would only have access to the resources of the other client and not to a central server as shown in Figure-12.3.

Fig:12.3 Peer to Peer network (2.) Client and Access Point:

This is known as INFRASTUCTURE mode and is normally employed. However, wireless gateway can be configured to enable peer to peer communication in this mode as well. In this mode, one Access Point is connected to the wired network and each client would have access to server resources as well as to other clients. The specific number client depends on the number and nature of the transmissions involved. Many real-world applications exist where a single Access Point services from 15 to 50 client devices as shown in Figure-12.4.

Fig:12.4 Server and Client network in Wi-Fi

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(3.) Multiple Access Points and Roaming: Access points can be connected to each other through UTP cable or they can be connected to each other over radio through wireless bridging. There is an option to connect access points in a mesh architecture where in event of a fault in an access point the network heals itself and connectivity is ensured through other access point. This changeover takes place dynamically.

Fig 12.5 Multiple Access Points and Roaming in Wi-Fi BENEFITS OF WI-FI: In a Wi-Fi users can access shared information without looking for a place to plug in, and network managers can set up or augment networks without installing or moving wires. Wi-Fi offers the following productivity, conveniences, and cost advantages over traditional wired networks: Mobility: Wi-Fi systems can provide LAN users with access to real-time information anywhere in their organization. This mobility supports productivity and service opportunities not possible with wired networks. Installation Speed and Simplicity: Installing a Wi-Fi system can be fast and easy and can eliminate the need to pull cable through walls and ceilings. Installation Flexibility: Wireless technology allows the network to go where wire cannot go. Reduced Cost-of-Ownership: While the initial investment required for Wi-Fi hardware can be higher than the cost of wired LAN hardware, overall installation expenses and life-cycle costs can be significantly lower. Long-term cost benefits are greatest in dynamic environments requiring frequent moves, adds, and changes. LIMITATION OF WI-FI NETWORKS: Coverage: A single Access Point can cover, at best, a radius of only about 60 metres. Hundreds of Access Points are necessary to provide seamless coverage in small area. For 10 square kms area roughly 650 Access Points are required, where as CDMA 2000 1xEV-DO requires just 09 sites. Roaming: It lacks roaming between different networks hence wide spread coverage by one service provider is not possible, which is the key to success of wireless technology. Backhaul: Backhaul directly affects data rate service provider used Cable or DSL for backhaul. WiFi real world data rates are at least half of the their theoretical peak rates due to factors such as signal strength, interference and radio overhead .Backhaul reduces the remaining throughput further. 54

 Interference: Wi-Fi uses unlicensed spectrum, which mean no regulator recourse against interference. The most popular type of Wi-Fi, 802.11b uses the crowded 2.4 GHz band which is already used in Bluetooth, cordless phones and microwave ovens. Security: Wi-Fi Access Points and modems use the Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) Standards, which is very susceptible to hacking and eavesdropping. Security: WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) is not very secure. WPA (WIFI Protected Access) offers much better security with the help of dynamic key encryption and mutual authentication.

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CHAPTER 12.b Wi-Max SCOPE: The Wi-MAX certification mark is given to product that pass conformity and Interoperability test for the IEEE 802-16 standard which caters for the Air interface standard for point-to-multipoint broadband Internet access over a wireless connection. GENERAL DETAILS OF WI-MAX: Wi-MAX is an acronym that stands for World-wide Interoperability for Microwave Access. It is an ideal method for ISP to deliver high speed broadband to locations where wired connections would be difficult or costly. Wi-MAX delivers a point-to-multipoint architecture. It doesn't require a direct line of sight between the source and endpoint and it has a service range of 50 Kms. It provides a shared data rate of up to 70 Mbps, which is enough to service up to a thousand homes with high-speed access. THE MAIN ADVANTAGES OF WI-MAX ARE: High speed of broadband service upto 70 Mbps. Wireless rather than wired access, so that it would be a lot less expensive than cable or Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and much easier to extend to suburban and rural areas. Broad coverage like the cell phone network instead of small Wi-Fi hotspots , 50 Kms. There are following, two corresponding Wi-MAX standards: 1. IEEE 802.16-2004 is for fixed point-to-point and point-to-multipoint wireless access. It is akin to a faster, airborne version of Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) or cable-modem services, It is also called first Non Line of Sight (NLOS), Broad-Band Wireless access (BWA) standard. 2. IEEE 802.16e is for mobile wireless access from laptops and hand held. It is analogous to a faster version of third-generation (3G) telecommunications technology. (Wi-Max proponent Intel Corp. has promised 802.16e-enabled laptops by early 2007) WORKING OF WI-MAX: Wi-MAX operates similar to Wi-Fi but at higher speeds, over greater distances and for a greater number of users. It consists of following two parts: a) A Wi-MAX tower, similar in concept to a cell-phone tower, and which can provide coverage to a very large area as big as 3,000 square miles (~8,000 square km). b) A Wi-MAX receiver, and antenna could be like a PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) card, or they could be built into a laptop similar to Wi-Fi access. It can provide two forms of wireless service: a) The non-line-of-sight, Wi-Fi sort of service, where a small antenna on your computer connects to the tower. In this mode, Wi-MAX uses a lower frequency range - 2 GHz to 11 GHz (similar to Wi56

Fi). As lower-wavelength transmissions are not as easily disrupted by physical obstructions they provided non line of sight coverage. b) The line-of-sight service, where a fixed dish antenna points straight at the Wi-MAX tower from a rooftop or pole. The line-of-sight connection is stronger and more stable, so it is able to send a lot of data with fewer errors. Line-of-sight transmissions use higher frequencies, with ranges reaching a possible 66 GHz. At higher frequencies, there is less interference and lots more bandwidth as shown in Figure 12(b).1

Fig 12(b).2 Working of Wi-Max WI-MAX (IEEE 802.16) SPECIFICATIONS: Range: 30 miles (50-kms) radius from base station. Speed: 70 Mbps. Line-of-sight not needed between user and base station. Frequency bands: 2 to 11 GHz and 10 to 66 GHz (licensed and unlicensed Bands)

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CHAPTER 13 NGN
INTRODUCTION Telecommunication industry is changing at a rapid pace. This change in the industry is basically driven by demand of new services from subscriber's side and urge to reduce CAPEX (Capital Expenditure) and OPEX (Operational Expenditure) from carrier side. Today All most all telecommunication giants are maintaining at least three kinds of basic Network. PSTN: Public Switch Telephone Network was basically developed and engineered for giving voice connectivity to the wire line subscribers. The network consists of Local exchange/RSU as a part of Access Network and TAXs as a part of core Network. Already huge amount of money has been invested in PSTN setup. Because of tough competition from Mobile & Voice over IP, it is becoming white elephant day by day for the operators. Another fact about PSTN is that most of its equipment are going to exhaust their lives in coming years. PLMN: (Public Land Mobile Network): PLMN has been developed to provide voice services for wireless subscribers, though in recent times SMS has emerged as killer application for mobile. PLMN includes BTS/BSC as access network and MSC as a core Network.

NGN Definition A Next Generation Network (NGN) is a packet-based network able to provide Telecommunication Services to users and able to make use of multiple broadband, QoS-enabled transport technologies and in which service-related functions are independent of the underlying transport-related technologies. It enables unfettered access for users to networks and to competing service providers and services of their choice. It supports generalized mobility which will allow consistent and ubiquitous provision of services to users.

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NGN Architecture NGN is a layered architecture consisting of transport, access and control and application layer. It is important to note that all the layers are independent from each other. Change in one layer should not affect other layers.

Fig13.1: NGN Architecture 1. Access Layer: Access Layers is responsible for direct subscriber attachment function. NGN can support all kind of existing access as well as upcoming access. In fact NGN does not matter about type of access. NGN is capable of processing traffic originated from PSTN, GSM, CDMA, xDSL, WiMAX or any other access system. Depending upon the type of access, protocol conversion and/or media conversion may be required at the NGN Gateways. Access Layer consists of Gateways. Examples of gateways are media Gateway, Access gateway and Signaling gateway. Media gateway terminates media, coming from PSTN/PLMN in E1 / STM. Here it is responsible for packetisation of media under the instruction of control layer. After packetisation of information it throws packets to the transport Network. Subscriber can directly be terminated in Access Gateway. All the required configuration of such subscribers should be done at control layer. Access Gateway and Media Gateways are responsible for carriage of Media whereas Signaling gateway is carrying signaling generated by PSTN and informs Control Layer about the signaling in required format.

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Media Gateway : The media gateway (MG) supports packetized voice and the interface to whatever medium the voice is to be transported on. The MG performs the task of packetizing voice and providing connections from switched circuits (TDM) to packetized circuits (IP, Frame Relay, or ATM). Following functions are performed by Media Gateway: Media Conversion The MG must be able to provide conversion from TDM circuit-switched connections to ATM, IP, or Frame Relay connections. This includes the packetization of the voice itself. Media processing includes transcoding, conferencing, interactive voice recognition, and other audio resource functions. Resource Allocation Resource allocation includes the reservation and release of all resources. It is important to understand that although the MG is responsible for resource allocation and management, it does so under the direction of the MGC. The MGC holds the ultimate responsibility of defining what resources are to be allocated for a call. The MG is capable of providing either point-to-point connections or point-to-multipoint connections (such as in a conference call). The MG must also support voice, data, video, and facsimile. Event Notification The MG must also maintain the state of all resources and report the state to the MGC. If a particular resource fails, the MG reports the failure to the MGC. The MGC maintains a state table for all resources within the MGs in its zone.

Signaling gateway : The IETF defines the signaling gateway (SG) as being the bridge to the PSTN. It supports STP functions to the network. The SG should be capable of providing conversions between SS7 addresses (point codes) and IP addresses. The addressing in IP signaling networks provides far more flexibility than in conventional SS7 networks. All entities in the SS7 environment are addressed through the use of point codes. The point code administrator in each country issues point codes. When a carrier uses an IP network, the entities in the IP network are addressed by IP addresses rather than point codes. This requires the use of an SG to resolve the addresses from the SS7 network to the addresses in the IP network. For transporting CCS7 signaling information within NGN SIGTRAN architecture is used between SGW and MGC. Access Gateway : Performs the functions of Media conversion , Codec Negotiation and termination of line side interfaces like phones, devices and PBXs. 2. Transport Layer 60

Transport Layer of NGN is based on IP. It can utilize the advantage of MPLS. Transport Layer forms the core of the Network. It basically consists of Routers, which are responsible for carrying traffic originated by access layer. As the same core network is going to be used for all kinds of subscribers enjoying different kind of real time and non real time services, it should be able to make use of band width policies and Qos policies. Operator has to think of managed Network for its subscribers. It is basically an assembly of routers connected with optical network. Traffic coming from gat ways is properly routed by those routers. 3. Control Layer It is responsible of call setup, routing and charging policies and other controls in NGN environment. It consists of call servers where all information of the network resides. These call servers are responsible for setting up, modifying, charging and tear down of the calls. NGN may work on soft switch principle. It consists of MGC (Media Gateway Controller) as an overall controller and MGs(Media Gateway) for termination of traffic MGC is basically a server and it is having all the necessary information of network MGC instructs MGs for establishing the call. SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) is used for communication between two MGCs and between a SIP enabled user terminal and MGC. Under the control of MGC, MG performs different call related tasks such as connection modification and termination of media streams, packetisation of media etc.

PSTN versus NGN:

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 As shown in above figure PSTN Switch consists of interface, Switching and call control. All the functional entities are shown in one box that means they are interacting with each other using proprietary protocol. Where as in NGN model entities are interacting using standard protocols. In PSTN each node should have call control separately whereas NGN may have centralized call control . PSTN is dedicated network for providing voice services to the subscribers whereas NGN is developing with the idea of carrying all kind of traffic over it. PSTN is working on circuit switched principle whereas NGN is working on Packet switching. PSTN provides excellent quality of voice and it is tested in all conditions whereas NGN will provide good quality of voice and it is to be tested in adverse network conditions. In PSTN service integration is very difficult and because of vendor dependent technologies it is difficult to introduce services easily. Whereas NGN shall be able to provide separate service platform for introduction of services without depending upon underlying network related technologies.

CONCLUSION: It is understood that in near future operators will migrate to complete IP communication. But it is to be ensured that during this migration should be smooth. At present there should not be any hurry to implement NGN immediately. Operators first work out for building reliable IP backbone and then process of migration can be started.

CHAPTER 14 IMT-2000
INTRODUCTION 62

 International Mobile Telecommunications 2000 (IMT-2000) is an initiative of ITU that seeks to integrate the various satellite, terrestrial, fixed and mobile systems currently being deployed and developed under a single standard or family of standards to promote global service capabilities and interoperability after the year 2000. These services are known as Third Generation or 3G services. A future standard in which a single inexpensive mobile terminal can truly provide communications anytime, anywhere. WIRELESS GENERATIONS 1 G - First Generation - Analog - Only mobile voice services - AMPS, NMT-450, TACS etc. (Cellular Revolution) 2 G - Second Generation - Digital - Mostly for voice services & data delivery possible GSM, CDMA (IS-95), DAMPS (IS-136), ETDMA, PDC etc (Breaking Digital Barrier) 3 G - Third Generation - Voice & Data - Mainly for data services where voice services will also be possible (Breaking Data Barrier) LIMITATIONS OF 2G SYSTEMS Multiple Standards - No Global Standards No Common Frequency Band Low Data Bit Rates Low Voice Quality No Support of Video IMT-2000 OFFERS The 3G networks must be capable of providing the following data rates 144 Kbps at mobile speeds 384 Kbps at pedestrian speeds Mbps in fixed locations 3G systems will be capable of providing data rates up to 2 Mbps, in addition to voice, fax services. 3G networks will offer the high resolution video and multimedia services on the move such as mobile service, virtual banking, online billing, video conferencing etc. IMT-2000 KEY FEATURES AND OBJECTIVES Incorporation of a variety of systems A high degree of commonality of design worldwide Compatibility of services within IMT-2000 and with the fixed network High quality and integrity comparable to the fixed network Use of small pocket terminal world wide Connection of mobile users to other mobile users or fixed users IMT-2000 WILL PROVIDE Enhanced voice quality, ubiquitous coverage and enable operators to provide service at reasonable cost Increased network efficiency and capacity New voice and data services and capabilities An orderly evolution path from 2G to 3G systems to protect investments. 63

Fig 14.1 IMT2000 SPECTRUM ALLOCATION FOR IMT-2000 The following spectrum allocations are made for IMT-2000 by ITU till today: 1885-2025 MHz and 2110-2200 MHz (Core band for IMT-2000) 1710-1885 MHz and 2500-2690 MHz (Additional band). 806-960 MHz (Additional band) TECHNOLOGIES FOR IMT-2000 ITU has finally narrowed down technology options to the following five: IMT-DS (Direct Spread) IMT-MC (Multi Carrier) IMT-TC (Time Code) IMT-SC (Single Carrier) IMT-FT (Frequency Time)

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