Notes 9: Impedance of Overhead Lines

9.0 Introduction
The series impedance of any conductor has
two parts to it resistance and reactance. We
will discuss resistance briefly first and then
spend significant effort in considering the
reactance.
9.1 Resistance
The DC resistance is computed according to
A
l
R
DC

(1)
where is the resistivity, l is the conductor
length, and A is the cross-sectional area of
the conductor.
There are three effects which cause the value
used in power system studies to be differ
from R
DC
. There are
1
1. Temperature : The resistivity is affected by
the temperature and this in turn affects the
DC resistance. The influence of
temperature on resistivity is captured by the
following equation:
+ 20 1 ) 20 ( ) ( T T t
(2)
where all values of temperature T are given
in degrees centigrade. The parameter
ranges from 0.0034-0.004 for copper and
from 0.0032-0.0056 for aluminum.
2. Stranding : The effective length is affected
by stranding because of spiraling, which
tends to increase the DC resistance. This
influence is captured by the following
equation:
DC DC S DC
R R R +
,
(3)
where is a function of the number of
strands and the relative pitch. The relative
pitch is given by d/2c, where d and c are as
illustrated in Fig. 1 for a single cycle of a
strand.
2

d
2c
Fig. 1
3. Skin effect : This influence is from the
alternating magnetic field set up by the
alternating current in the conductor. The
field interacts with the current flow to
cause more flow at the periphery of the
conductor. This results in a nonuniform
current density and therefore more losses
and higher effective resistance. The
increase in resistance from this influence
depends only on the conductor material and
the frequency.
9.2 Impedance
Recall from previous notes that, if the sum of
all of the currents is zero, then the flux
linkages for the k
th
conductor, is

'

+ +

+ + +
kn
n
k
k
k k
k
D
I
r
I
D
I
D
I
1
ln ...
1
ln ...
1
ln
1
ln
2
2
2
1
1
0

(4)
3
where D
kj
is the distance between conductors
k and j and r
k
is the GMR for conductor k.
Both D
kj
and r
k
must be given in the same
units (typically feet or meter). The units of
flux linkage is weber-turns/meter.
Define the following
1
:
Self inductance,
k k
kk
kk
r I
L

1
ln
2
0

(5)
Mutual inductance:
kj j
kj
kj
D I
L
1
ln
2
0

(6)
Both self and mutual inductances are given in
units of h/m.
Here
kk
and
kj
are the flux linking with
conductor k from the current in conductors k
and j, respectively, allowing eq. (4) to be
written as
kn kk k k k
+ + + + + ... ...
2 1
(7)
where
1
Eqs. (5), (6) contain an error of dimension since the logarithmic arguments have the
dimension of (length)
-1
. They must therefore be considered individually as mathematical
artifices that attain physical meaning only when appearing together, in which case the
dimensionality error disappears (as shown at the end of the last set of notes) [1].
4
k
k kk k kk
r
I L I

1
ln
2
0

(8)
kj
j kj j kj
D
I L I
1
ln
2
0

(9)
Now recall Faradays Law, which says that
the voltage across inductance is the time-
derivative of the flux linkages. Considering
the currents in (8) and (9) are phasors, we
recall that differentiation of a phasor results
in multiplication of that phasor by j, where
is the radial frequency of the time varying
quantity described by the phasor. Thus, from
eqs. (8) and (9), we have:
k
k kk k kk
r
j I L j I V

1
ln
2
) ( ) (
0

(10)
kj
j kj j kj
D
j I L j I V
1
ln
2
) ( ) (
0

(11)
Here V
kk
is the voltage drop in conductor k
due to its self inductance and V
kj
is the drop
in conductor k due to its mutual inductance
with conductor j.
Defining
5
k
k
kk
r
j R Z

+
1
ln
2
0

(12)
kj
kj
D
j Z
1
ln
2
0

(13)
we can rewrite eqs. (10) and (11) as
kk
k kk
Z I V
(14)
kj
j kj
Z I V
(15)
9.3 Units
Consider the multiplier outside the logarithm
of eqs. (12) and (13).
m j j / 10 2
2
10 4
2
7
7
0

(16)
Assuming =377 and converting to /mile:
mile
mile
m (1,609.344
m
j
/ 12134 . 0
) 10 2 ) 377 (
7



(17)
Therefore, eqs. 12 and 13 are:
mile
r
j R Z
k
k
kk
/
1
ln 12134 . 0

+
(18)
mile
D
j Z
kj
kj /
1
ln 12134 . 0
(19)
6
9.4 Ground path
It is sometimes the case that ground is used
as the neutral conductor to carry currents
resulting from unbalanced conditions. Even if
a neutral conductor is provided, the ground
return will still exist as a circuit in parallel to
the neutral. And so it is of interest to account
for the ground return.
A simple case may be observed in Fig. 2.
Ground
I
i
I
d
I
j
+
-
V
ig
+
-
V
jg
z
ii
z
jj
z
ij
z
id
z
jd z
dd
Fig. 2
Fig. 2 shows 2 conductors carrying currents I
i
and I
j
to ground at one end. The composite
current I
d
(d for dirt) returns through the
ground. The earth is considered to have a
uniform resistivity and to be of infinite
7
extent. The current I
d
in the ground spreads
out over a large area, seeking the lowest
resistance return path and satisfying
Kirchoffs law to guarantee an equal voltage
drop in all paths [2].
The reference voltage, assumed to be at
potential 0, is indicated at the left of Fig. 2.
Because of the current I
d
, the two grounded
points (indicated by large solid dots) to the
left and to the right of Fig. 2 are not at the
same potential.
Note the presence of the
series impedances in the phases
ii
Z
, jj
Z ,
mutual impedances between phases ij
Z ,
mutual impedances between each phase
and ground,
id
Z
and jd
Z , and
series impedance in the ground,
dd
Z
.
phase voltages to ground, V
ig
, V
jg
.
8
The voltage V
ig
can be expressed in terms of
these impedances using KVL, by equating V
ig
to the voltage summed around the right side
of the loop, starting at the left-hand-side of
dd
Z
.
(Recall that mutually induced voltages are
positive at the dotted side of the induced
inductor for currents flowing into the dotted
side of the inducing inductor.)
d
id
j
ij
i
ii
j
dj
i
di
d
dd
ig
I Z I Z I Z
I Z I Z I Z V
+ + +
+ +
(20)
Collecting terms in eq. (20), we have:
d
dd id
j
dj ij
i
di ii
ig
I Z Z I Z Z I Z Z V + +
(21)
From KCL, we see that
j i d
I I I +
(22)
Substitution of eq. (22) into eq. (21) yields:
j i
dd id
j
dj ij
i
di ii
ig
I I Z Z
I Z Z I Z Z V
+
+
(23)
9
Collecting terms, we have:
j
dd id dj ij
i
dd id di ii
ig
I Z Z Z Z
I Z Z Z Z V
+ +
+
(24)
Define the primitive self and mutual
impedances of the line as:
dd id di ii
ii
Z Z Z Z Z +

(25)
dd id dj ij
ij
Z Z Z Z Z +

(26)
Thus, eq. (24) becomes
j ij i ii ig
I Z I Z V

+
(27a)
We may express V
jg
as we just did for V
ig
,
using the procedure from eq. (20)-(27),
which results in:
dd jd dj jj
jj
Z Z Z Z Z +

(28)
dd jd di ji
ji
Z Z Z Z Z +

(29)
j jj i ji jg
I Z I Z V

+
(30a)
The implication of eqs. (27a) and (30a) are
that if we use impedances as given in eqs.
(25, 26, 28c and 29), we may represent the
grounded configuration of Fig. 2 as if the
earth is a perfect conductor an infinite
10
distance from the two phase conductors, i.e.,
that it has zero impedance to current flow and
no mutual coupling with the phases. This
situation is illustrated in Fig. 3.
ij
Z

jj
Z

ii
Z

Ground
I
i
I
d
I
j
+
-
V
ig
+
-
V
jg
Fig. 3
Implicit in the diagram of Fig. 3 is an
assumption that
ji ij
Z Z


. Reference to eq.
(26), (29) shows that is true if
ji ij Z Z
and
jd di id dj
Z Z Z Z + +
. By reciprocity of
mutual inductances in a linear, passive
11
network, ji ij Z Z
, jd dj
Z Z and
di id
Z Z
.
Thus, we conclude
ji ij
Z Z


is true.
We may also have the situation that the line
is divided into segments, as shown in Fig. 4.
ij
Z

jj
Z

ii
Z

Ground
I
i
I
d
I
j
+
-
V
ig
+
-
V
jg
Vjg
Vig
Fig. 4
In the case of Fig. 4, we have that
ig j ij i ii ig
V I Z I Z V

+ +

(27b)
jg j jj i ji jg
V I Z I Z V

+ +

(30b)
12
We now desire to write the primitive
impedances in a more compact form. Lets
expand eq. (25) using eqs. (18, 19):
mile
r
j R Z
k
k
kk
/
1
ln 12134 . 0

+
(18)
mile
D
j Z
kj
kj /
1
ln 12134 . 0
(19)
dd id di ii
ii
Z Z Z Z Z +

(25)
d
d
id
di
i
i ii
r
j R
D
j
D
j
r
j R Z

+ +

+
1
ln 12134 . 0
1
ln 12134 . 0
1
ln 12134 . 0
1
ln 12134 . 0

(31)
Rearranging to have resistive terms together
and inductive terms together, eq. (31) is:

'

+
+
d id di i
d i ii
r D D r
j
R R Z
1
ln
1
ln
1
ln
1
ln 12134 . 0

(32)
13
Combining logarithms containing subscript
d (which means it is brought in by the
effect of the earth return), we obtain:

'

+ +
d
id di
i
d i ii
r
D D
r
j R R Z ln
1
ln 12134 . 0

(33)
Similarly, we use eqs. (18, 19) to expand eqs.
(26,28,29) to obtain:

'

+ +
d
id dj
ij
d ij
r
D D
D
j R Z ln
1
ln 12134 . 0

(34)

'

+ +
d
jd dj
j
d j jj
r
D D
r
j R R Z ln
1
ln 12134 . 0

(35)

'

+ +
d
jd di
ji
d ji
r
D D
D
j R Z ln
1
ln 12134 . 0

(36)
It is interesting that the mutual terms given
by eqs. (34, 36) have resistance.
The problem with eqs. (34-36) is that as of
this moment in our work, we have no basis to
say what should be resistance, distances, &
GMR having d subscript in the above.
14
This is because the ground conductor that we
theorized does not really exist in the nice
lumped manner that we modeled. Rather, it
is highly distributed in all dimensions
throughout the earth.
Johnny Carson is the well-known and
appreciated comedian and Tonight-Show
host that recently passed away.
Another Johnny Carson (actually John
Carson) is equally well known and
appreciated among the power engineering
circles, because he solved this very
fundamental problem in 1923 and published
it in 1926 [3]. It was later modified and
extended by others [4].
9.5 Carsons Equations
Carons idea to obtain the terms with the d
subscript was to use the method of images.
15
This is similar to what you studied
capacitance in electromagnetics.
We will not go through this derivation but
will instead give the results of the so-called
modified Carsons equations. They are:
f R
d
00158836 . 0
(37)
f
r
D D
r
D D
r
D D
r
D D
d
jd di
d
jd dj
d
id dj
d
id di

ln
2
1
6786 . 7
ln ln
ln ln
+

(38)
In eqs. (37, 38), f is the frequency (always 60
Hz in North America) and is the resistivity
of the earth. Typical values of for different
types of ground conditions are given in Table
1 [2].
16
Table 1
Earth condition (ohm-meter)
Sea Water 0.01-1.0
Swampy ground 10-100
Average damp earth 100
Dry earth 1000
Pure slate 10
7
Sandstone 10
9
It is common to use =100 if information
about the earth condition is unavailable.
Substituting eqs. (37,38) into eqs. (33, 34)
results in:

'

+ +

+
+

'

+ +
f r
j
f R
r
D D
r
j R R Z
i
i
d
id di
i
d i ii

ln
2
1
6786 . 7
1
ln 12134 . 0
00158836 . 0
ln
1
ln 12134 . 0

(39)
17

'

+ + +

'

+ +
f D
j
f
r
D D
D
j R Z
ij
d
id dj
ij
d ij

ln
2
1
6786 . 7
1
ln 12134 . 0
00158836 . 0
ln
1
ln 12134 . 0

(40)
9.6 Primitive impedance matrix
All of our work so far was based on just 2
overhead lines. Lets consider a general case
of having 3 phase conductors and 3 neutral
conductors (we will see when we look at
underground cables that such a configuration
is possible). We will see that this case will
easily collapse to the more common
arrangements for overhead lines.
So this arrangement has 6 conductors. The
matrix of primitive impedances will then be
dimension 6x6, where the diagonals are
computed using eq. (39) and the off-
diagonals are computed using eq. (40).
18
The matrix will appear as in eq. (41).
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

3 3 2 3 1 3 3 3 3
3 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2
3 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1

n n n n n n c n nb n a n
n n n n n n c n b n a n
n n n n n n c n b n a n
cn cn cn cc cb ca
bn bn bn bc bb ba
an an an ac ab aa
prim
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z

(41)
The primitive impedance matrix is used to
relate voltages and current in the same way
as eqs. (27b, 30b) (see Fig. 4), resulting in
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

g n
g n
g n
cg
bg
ag
n
n
n
c
b
a
n n n n n n c n nb n a n
n n n n n n c n b n a n
n n n n n n c n b n a n
cn cn cn cc cb ca
bn bn bn bc bb ba
an an an ac ab aa
g n
g n
g n
cg
bg
ag
V
V
V
V
V
V
I
I
I
I
I
I
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z Z Z
V
V
V
V
V
V
3
2
1
3
2
1
3 3 2 3 1 3 3 3 3
3 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2
3 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3
2
1







(42)
Equation (42) is partitioned so that we can
write it as:
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
1
]
1

+
1
]
1

1
1
]
1

1
]
1

ng
abc
n
abc
nn np
pn pp
ng
abc
V
V
I
I
Z Z
Z Z
V
V


(43)
where the primitive impedance matrix of eq.
(43) is given by:
19
1
1
]
1

nn np
pn pp
prim
Z Z
Z Z
Z

(44)
In eqs. (43,44), subscript p stands for
phase and n for neutral.
We may assume that the neutral conductor is
at zero potential everywhere, and so eq. (43)
becomes:
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
1
]
1

+
1
]
1

1
1
]
1

1
]
1

0


0
abc
n
abc
nn np
pn pp abc
V
I
I
Z Z
Z Z V
(45)
9.7 Kron Reduction
Consider the following matrix equation:
1
]
1

+
1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

f
e
z
y
d c
b a x
0
(46)
We can write this as separate equations:
e bz ay x + +
(47a)
f dz cy + + 0
(47b)
Lets eliminate the variable z from the top
equation. This is accomplished by
20
multiplying the bottom equation by -bd
-1
and
adding it to the top equation.
This results in
f bd e dz bd bz cy bd ay x
1 1 1
+ +
(48)
Factoring out y from the first two terms and
noting the third and fourth terms go to 0, we
have:
f bd e y c bd a x
1 1
) (

+
(49)
Conclusion: we can eliminate the second
variable (z) from our equation set if we force
to zero the element in the first row, second
column (b).
Note: If the bottom element in the left-hand-
side is zero, then the operation to accomplish
our purpose will not change the top element
in the left-hand-side (x).
Lets see if we can do this same thing to eq.
(45), repeated here for convenience:
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
1
]
1

+
1
]
1

1
1
]
1

1
]
1

0


0
abc
n
abc
nn np
pn pp abc
V
I
I
Z Z
Z Z V
21

[ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] 0



1
1
1

+
+
+
nn pn abc
n nn nn pn n pn
abc np nn pn abc pp abc
Z Z V
I Z Z Z I Z
I Z Z Z I Z V
(50)
Again, factoring out the common multiplier
in the first two terms and noting that the third
and fourth terms go to 0, we have:
[ ] [ ] [ ]
abc abc np nn pn pp abc
V I Z Z Z Z V

+
,
_

1
(51)
References:
[1] O. Elgerd, Electric Energy Systems Theory: An Introduction,
McGraw-Hill, 1982.
[2] P. Anderson, Analysis of faulted power systems, Iowa State
University Press, 1973.
[3] J. Carson, Wave propagation in Overhead Wires with Ground
Return, Bell System Technology Journal, 5: 539-554, 1926.
[4] C. Wagner and R. Evans, Symmetrical components, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1933.
22