REPORT ON

POWER SUPPLY
date:18.5.2012 submitted to: PROF. D.GAdre prepared by: PARUL RAJ 89/EC/10

contents
1. INTRODUCTION 2. linear and switching power supply 3. OVERVIEW OF POWER SUPPLY 4. SCHEMATIC 5. BOARD LAYOUT 6. power supply design and calculations
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Ic 723 regulator circuit calculations Current foldback schematic board layout

7. Printed circuit board designing

overview of power supply

TRANSFORMATION The power supply is supplied power from a step down transformer. The purpose of the transformer in the power supply is to step down the voltage going into the circuit from approx. 220Vrms to approx. 25Vrms. This transformation allows for the circuit to run at a safe voltage so the components have a less risk of burning up. RECTIFICATION The purpose of regulation in the power supply is to take the AC voltage that comes from the secondary of the transformer and change it into a DC voltage. In the Power Supply that is being built, 4 rectifier diodes are used to make a Full wave Rectifier Bridge. Bridge 4 diodes (1N5399) Each diode has a voltage drop of 0.7V. Since the path that the current takes through the bridge goes through two diodes, the voltage of the cycle is 1.4V less than the voltage going in. (The voltage after the rectifier is shown in Figure 1).

(Fig.1)

FILTRATION The purpose of filtration in the power supply is to smooth out the ripple of the DC rectified voltage to insure better stability in the circuit. A filter in a power supply most commonly consists of capacitors, resistors and occasionally some inductors. In the filter I am using in the power supply I am building, two capacitors are being used for the filter. The filtration arrangement is shown in Figure 2. Capacitors Two C1,C5-4700uf 25V electrolytic capacitors Resistor One R7-0.22

(Fig. 2) The voltage going into the regulator (V3) is pretty much constant because the capacitors smoothed out the voltage waves. In other words, the flat top of the wave located in the positive area represents the time that the capacitor is supplying load current and when the wave is in the negative area of the curve that is when the capacitor is charging up and driving the input of the voltage regulator.

REGULATION The purpose of regulation in the power supply is to control the voltage and current coming from the transformer, rectifier, and filter to get the voltage that is required at the output. The regulation section of the power supply consists of a reference voltage, error amplifier, output sampling, control element, and current limiter. In Figure 4, the schematic representation of the voltage regulator along with the current limiter is shown.

Variable voltage regulation is made up of five components, that were mentioned in the regulation introduction and they are control element, sampling circuit, reference voltage, and error amplifier. These are illustrated in a basic block diagram is Figure 3. Reference Voltage The purpose of the reference voltage is to set a standard for the regulation. It is not possible to regulate unless there is a regulation reference. The reference voltage stays constant at any time during the operation of the circuit. Vref. Is pin 6 of the IC 723 regulator. Error Amplifier The purpose of the error amplifier is to detect the error in the final voltage. This device determines the difference between the voltage required at the output and the voltage that is presented at the input of the voltage regulator. When the amplifier determines it tells the current limiter to supply more or less current to achieve the correct output. The error amplifier is the decision maker of this section or pretty much the brains of the operation. The error amplifier is located in the variable regulator chip (723).

 + input of the amplifier is pin 5 of the IC - input of the amplifier is pin 4 of the IC Output of the amplifier is pin 13 of the IC Sample Circuit The purpose of the sampling circuit is to sample the output voltage and send it back to the error amplifier so that the amplifier will detect the difference in the voltages. In the power supply, this circuit consists of: VR 2K potentiometer R5 1.5K 5 % carbon resistor R1 - 1.5k 5% carbon resistor Vref. Is pin 6 of the IC 723 regulator. As shown in Figure 3. Current Limiter The purpose of the current limiter is to limit the current going into the transistor to control the voltage going to the output.This can also be seen in figure 4. Q1 CMJE 3055T NPN small signal transistor

Power supply design and calculations

723 SERIES REGULATOR The purpose for the 723 variable regulator chip is to allow the circuit to vary from 0V 25V. The 723 chip consists of a voltage reference amplifier, an error amplifier, a series pass transistor, and a current limiter. This regulator can supply up to 150mA and external transistors can supply any desired load current. The chips operation in relation to the voltage reference is somewhat illustrated in Figure Equations: Vref = (1 + R2/R1) Vout = Vref (1 +R2/R1) The Vref and the two resisters create a voltage divider allowing the voltage to vary from 0V 25V. R2 can be adjusted with the help of the potentiometer.

CALCULATIONS Vout=Vref* (R1+Ry) (R1+Ry+R5) where Ry=resistance of potentiometer maximum value of pot resistance=2k Taking R1 equal to R5:Vout=Vref*(R1+Ry) (2R1+Ry) Since Vref=7.15 volts & Vout required = 5 volts & Ry = 2k 5=7.15*(R1+2) (2R1+2) R1=4.3/2.85 R1=1.50877k Vout =5 volts Iout=500mA

schematic

board layout

pcb designing
There are two ways to etch a PCB: the Toner Transfer method, and the Photo Resist method. The former is utilised in etching the PCB. Requirements Access to a Laser printer. A sheet of photo gloss paper. A fibre glass copper coated board. Ferric Chloride solution A cloths iron. Plastic containers. 0.8mm 1.0mm and 1.2mm drill bits and a drill. Pliers Acetone or methylated spirits. A etch resistant touch-up marker.

Some Fine grit sandpaper or a scotchbrite pad. Preparing the pcb design The circuit design software EAGLE is used to design,optimise and print the required shematic of the power supply. Because the process of transferring the toner to the paper flips the image which has been printed, the orientation needs to be carefully considered. When putting traces on the bottom of the PCB the printout should be normally oriented as if looking through the board form the top as it will be flipped to the bottom during the transfer process. Traces on the top of the PCB require the image to be mirrored to appear in the correct orientation. Printing The toner transfer method relies on the fact that toner, being plastic based, will form a protective coating on the copper which is resistant to the corrosion of the etching agent. It is therefore important that the toner coverage is consistent and will not stick to the paper more then the copper board. The choice of paper is critical to the entire process. Professional Press n Peel films can be used but are usually very expensive costing several dollars per sheet. Instead inexpensive Inkjet paper can be used too. Things to remember while choosing glossy paper: 1. The paper will be heated to really high temperatures. Papers like Kodak Glossy Photo Paper or Canon Photo Paper Pro have a plastic film on the back which will curl up and melt when heated potentially damaging the cloths iron or even the fuser in the laser printer. 2. The paper must provide consistent toner coverage with no visible blemishes in the final print. Any blemishes in the toner will cause etchant to seep through and corrode the copper underneath. 3. Finally the toner must stick to the paper hard enough not to fall off during

handling, yet not stick to the paper when it is being peeled off the copper board. Once the paper has been chosen the image is printed as dark as possible on the glossy side of the paper to provide as much toner as possible. The Toner Transfer The next step involves transfering the toner on to the copper board. But the surface must first be prepared before the toner transfer process in order to remave the oxide layer present on it.This can be achieved by rubbing the board with sand paper. Sand paper is rubbed on the board in a circular motion to create very fine scratches and remove any copper oxide which has formed on the surface of the board. After the board has been sanded, it must be cleaned to remove any traces of dirt or chemicals which may prevent the toner from sticking to the copper. It is also important that the cleaner does not leave any chemical traces. Chemicals like acetone, nail polish remover, or methylated spirits can be used since they evaporate leaving no traces of themselves. After this the board is ready for the toner transfer. In order to transfer the toner from the paper to the PCB,a hot clothes iron and a flat surface is needed. Toner has a reasonably high melting point, and provided the paper is carefully chosen it is best to set the iron temperature as high as it will go. This does not apply if using press n peel blue film which will melt and or shrink if heated to a high temperature. When applying the iron, apply it with as much pressure as possible. While ironing rest the entire upper body on the iron. After the iron has been applied for a few seconds, the toner starts to melt and the paper sticks to the board. When this happens start moving the iron around the paper to ensure that all areas are properly heated and have pressure applied to them; otherwise areas under the steam-holes or other uneven surfaces may not transfer properly.A good indication that the job has been done is that the paper starts turning blackish. When the ironing is finished, a process which typically takes 3-6 minutes depending on board size, using pliers, the board is dropped in a container of warm water. Sometimes at this point the board will actually sizzle because of the heat. The board can then left to soak for 10-30 minutes. After the board has been soaked, it is time to carefully peel off the paper. Usually the paper will tear or wont come off properly. It is only important to clear areas which will be etched, any paper on the toner traces can stay. To scratch off the paper it is rubbed with the thumb. Toner is normally pretty sturdy and will not easily scrape off, so significant pressure can be applied. At this point, it is important to make absolutely certain that the traces are perfect. If the transferred results arent good enough,the toner can be removed with acetone and the whole process started again. Small scratches can be fixed with an etch-resistant marker. It is made perfectly sure that all the etchings are exactly correct, as next step is irreversible. Etching the Board There are two etchants commonly available for this process, Ammonium

Persulphate and Ferric Chloride.Ferric Chloride is used in this case. To etch the board it is dipped in a plastic container containing ferric chloride and the container is then swirled so that the solution covers all of the board area.In addition to this the solution is heated by placing it in front of a room heater. The etching process takes 10-40min depending on the size of the board, the temperature and how much solution is used. If the solution is mixed correctly the brushed look from the sanding process will disappear in a matter of minutes. To increase the speed of etching, solution is stirred. After all the copper visibly disappears from the board it is removed and washed with soapy water. The solution is then disposed off. Ferric Chloride should not be thrown down the sink as it may corrode the piping and is poisonous. Finishing the Board However it is also a good idea to seal the PCB with some specialised lacquer. The lacquer not only protects the finished PCB from corrosion, but it also provides a non conductive flux type coating to aid soldering, and at the same time provides some resistance to the accidental bridging of solder joints often caused by excess flux from the soldering process.A layer of acrylic is sprayed on to the PCB to provide insulation to the copper etchings.The board is then left out to dry for around 10 minutes. The next step involves drilling holes into the PCB. Standard hole sizes require 0.8mm, 1.0mm, and 1.2mm drill bits. The copper traces generally guide the drill into the middle of the hole however it is very easy to damage the holes at this point. To avoid this holes are etched with help of a compass. After all the holes have been drilled its time to put all the components of the circuit together.This is done by soldering the components on their positions according to the schematic.The heat sink is put into place with screws.The finished PCB is tested and ready for use.

Introduction
A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to one or more electric loads. The term is most commonly applied to devices that convert one form of electrical energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy (mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source. Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a power supply may obtain energy from: Electrical energy transmission systems. Common examples of this include power supplies that convert AC line voltage to DC voltage. Energy storage devices such as batteries and fuel cells. Electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators. Solar power. A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as an integral device that is hardwired to its load. Examples of the latter case include the low voltage DC power supplies that are part of desktop computers and consumer electronics devices. Commonly specified power supply attributes include: The amount of voltage and current it can supply to its load. How stable its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions. How long it can supply energy without refueling or recharging (applies to power supplies that employ portable energy sources). Power supplies for electronic devices can be broadly divided into line-frequency (or "conventional") and switching power supplies. The line-frequency supply is usually a relatively simple design, but it becomes increasingly bulky and heavy for high-current equipment due to the need for large mains-frequency transformers and heat-sinked electronic regulation circuitry. Conventional linefrequency power supplies are sometimes called "linear," but that is a misnomer because the conversion from AC voltage to DC is inherently non-linear when the rectifiers feed into capacitive reservoirs. Linear voltage regulators produce regulated output voltage by means of an active voltage divider that consumes energy, thus making efficiency low. A switched-mode supply of the same rating as a line-frequency supply will be smaller, is usually more efficient, but will be more complex.

Linear and switching power supply

a comparison
There are two main types of regulated power supplies available: A switch-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply or SMPS) is an electronic power supply that uses a switching regulator in order to control the conversion of electrical power in a highly efficient manner. This higher efficiency (thus lower heat dissipation) is the chief advantage of a switchedmode power supply. A linear regulated power supply, on the other hand, regulates the output voltage by dissipating excess power in Ohmic losses (by use of a resistor or a pass transistor in its active mode). Because a linear regulator regulates either output voltage or current by dissipating the excess electric power in the form of heat, its maximum power efficiency is voltage-out/voltage-in. To function properly, a moderately complex regulator circuit is used to achieve low load and ensure line regulation. Another benefit is linear regulated power supplies also have very little ripple and very little output noise (also known as EMI and RFI). In short, switching regulators are used as replacements for the linear regulators when higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter weight is required. They are, however, more complicated, as their switching currents can cause electrical noise problems if not carefully suppressed, and simple designs may have a poor power factor. Generally more costly, SMPS justify their cost based on performance a, reliability and size when compared with similarly related Linear Power Supplies. The following table outlines key differences between Linear and Switching Power Supplies

Specification Supply
Size and weight

Linear Regulated Power

Heatsinks for high power linear regulators add size and weight.Transformers, if used, are often large due to low operating frequency (mains at 50 or 60 Hz).

Switching Regulated Power Supply

Smaller transformer or inductor due to higher operating frequency (typically 50 kHz 1 MHz). Size and weight of adequate RF shielding may be significant. Smaller and lighter than Linear Power supplies. Limited only by transistor breakdown voltages in many circuits. Voltage varies little with load. Output voltage ripple is a disadvantage, which is generally handled with

Output voltage

A regulated Linear Supplys output voltage has negligible ripple, very small load regulation, and high reliability, thus making it an ideal choice for use in

low power electronic applications. Efficiency, heat, and power dissipation Efficiency depends on voltage difference between input and output;

bypass capacitance near the supply and at the load. output voltage is regulated by dissipating excess power as heat, resulting in a typical efficiency of 3040%. Output is regulated using duty cycle control; the transistors are switched fully on or fully off, so very little resistive losses between input and the load. The clear advantage of switching regulators is efficiency, typically 65-90% or higher. Some design complexities present (reducing noise / interference; extra limitations on maximum ratings of transistors at high switching speeds) not found in linear regulator circuits. EMI/RFI produced due to the current being switched on and off sharply. Therefore, EMI filters and RF shielding are needed to reduce the disruptive interference.

Complexity

Usually comprised of a transformer, rectifier, filter capacitor, and a bleeder resistor or 3 terminal voltage regulators. A much simpler circuit than switched-mode circuits.

RF/EMI Interference

Mild high-frequency interference may be generated by AC rectifier diodes under heavy current loading. Some mains hum induction into unshielded cables may be problematical for lowsignal audio. Unregulated PSUs may have a little AC ripple superimposed upon the DC component at twice mains frequency (100 120 Hz). Can cause audible mains hum in audio equipment or brightness ripples or banded distortions in

Electronic noise at the output terminals (Hum/Ripple)

Noisier due to the switching frequency of the SMPS. An unfiltered output may cause glitches in digital circuits or noise in audio circuits. From 10 to 25 mv ripple in some cases.

analog security cameras. Ripple can be usually 0.25 to 1.5 mv. Cooling Power factor Convection or fan Low for a regulated supply because current is drawn from the mains at the peaks of the voltage sinusoid, unless a choke-input or resistorinput circuit follows the rectifier (now rare). Can be 0.6 to 0.7. Convection Ranging from very low to medium since a simple SMPS without PFC draws current spikes at the peaks of the AC sinusoid. 0.6 to 0.7 without PFC otherwise can be >0.95 with PFC.

CURRENT FOLDBACK Foldback is a current limiting feature (a type of over board protection) of power supplies and power amplifiers. When overcurrent is drawn by the load, foldback reduces both the output voltage and current to well below the normal operating limits. Under a short circuit, where the output voltage has reduced to zero, the current is typically limited to a small fraction of the maximum current. The prime purpose of foldback current limiting in linear power supplies is to keep the output transistor within its safe power dissipation limit. An output transistor that can handle the power dissipation of supplying the current limit at the rated voltage will dissipate more power if it supplies the same amount of current into a short circuit, since the voltage drop across the transistor is greater. A simple current limit would therefore expose the transistor to risk of failure, or require a larger transistor. Foldback keeps the output transistor within its power dissipation limits under fault and overload conditions. Foldback also reduces power dissipation in the load in fault conditions, which can reduce the risks of fire and heat damage. Many power supplies employ constant current limiting protection; foldback goes one step further by reducing the output current limit linearly as output voltage decreases. However it adds complexity to the power supply and can trigger "lockout" conditions with non-linear loads. Foldback in switch-mode power supplies is discouraged because of these disadvantages, and since the benefit of reducing the power dissipation of linear regulators does not apply. Despite this foldback is still often implemented in them.

Acknowledgement
I express my profound gratitude to all those whose assistance and cooperation has made the winter training programme succesful.I especially thank Prof.D.V Gadre for his splendid efforts in undertaking our winter training programme. I extend my sincere appreciation and gratitude to Rohit Dureja Sir,Shanjit Sir ,Nirransh Sir and other members of the CEDT team for providing us with immense oppurtinities and assitance. Thank You.