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MATHEMATICS
FOR
ENGINEERING STUDENTS
BY
S. S.
KELLER
AND W<
F.
KNQX
CARNEGIE TECHNICAL S
NEW YORK:
D.
MURRAY AND
27
WARREN
STS.
1908
K4
Stanhope
P. H.
tf>re
PREFACE.
tics
is ordinarily included in treatises on Analyand Calculus, has been omitted from this book, not because it was regarded as worthless, but because it
MUCH that
for
the
student of
In Analytics the attention is called, at the beginning, to the fact that the commonest experiences of life lie at the
basis of the subject,
the
and at all stages of its development encouraged to consider the matters presented in the most informal and untechnical way. In the Calculus a somewhat radical departure has been
student
is
attempted, in order to avoid the difficult and somewhat mystifying subject of limits, or rather to approach similar ends by less technical paths.
The average engineer will assert that he never uses the Calculus in his practical experience, and it is the authors' ambition to make it effective as a tool, believing, as they
do, that
it is
it
in sufficiently
K.
731577
ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY.
CHAPTER
ARTICLE
i.
I.
Analytical
Geometry may be
called
the
The
always from
some
Figl
Fig.
i.
For instance, most of our cities are laid out with reference to two streets intersecting each other at right angles.
Analytical Geometry.
desired to indicate the position of a certain building " it is customary to it is located so say, many
If it is
in such city,
Let
squares north or south and so many squares east or west." the double lines in Fig. i represent the reference
streets,
in the
rately
and the lines parallel to them, the streets running same direction, then the point A would be acculocated, by saying it lies two squares east and three
squares north.
The government lays out the public lands upon the same sysj:m locating two lines intersecting at right angles '.(callecf\the iPyiiirfpal Meridian and the Base Line, respec1
; %
Then lines run parallel to these ^tivelyjuaejreference'ljnes. 'at" intervals* of six miles, divide the territory into squares
l 1
In this region any piece of located by indicating its distances by squares easily from these two reference lines. In short, since our knowl-
land
edge
is
practically
lie
all
Geometry
ART.
2.
at the
foundation of
The two
Axes, and their point of intersection is called the Origin. In the system most frequently used, the axes meet at
right
angles,
and hence
it
is
known
as
the rectangular
In comparatively rare instances it is desirable to system. have the lines oblique to each other, when the system is
known
ART.
as oblique.
3.
The
Distances are always measured from either axis, to the other; hence when the system is rectangular, parallel
the distances
mean always
perpendicular distances.
The
distance of any point from the axis of ordinates (right or left), measured parallel to the axis of abscissas, is called
the abscissa of the point, usually represented
by
x.
The
Analytical Geometry.
distance from the axis of abscissas (up or down), measured the ordinate of the parallel to the axis of ordinates, is called
point, usually represented
by
y.
Clearly if we would be accurate we must disto the left, and tinguish between distance to the right and
ART.
5.
instance, suppose
5
it is
required
whose
= abscissa, x
and ordinate, y
plain that the point might be located in any one of four positions: to the right 5 units and up 2 units; to the
is
left 5
to the right 5
and down
2;
or to the
left
however,
it
is
right
from the
those to the
left,
ward from
those
and
first
= +
= +2
will
5,
x= +
ART.
5,y
6.
= +
2, 2,
Y'
Fig. 2.
rounding space into four parts called quadrants, numbered called the X-axis) i, 2, 3,4, from the axis of abscissas (usually
4
around
to the left
i;
Analytical Geometry.
back
is
to the
X-axis again.
2;
Thus
is
XOY is
quadrant
(Fig. 2).
X'OY
quadrant
X'OY'
quadrant 3
ART.
7.
To
it
= point 5, y 3% [written for brevity (-5, 34)]. Let the axes be XOX' and YO#' as in Fig. 3.
x=
By what
left
is
of the Y-axis
it
and 3^
Since,
is
venient unit
may
a matter of relative position only, any conbe used, if it is maintained to the end of
5 units or f" to the left
Then measuring
and from there 3!
'
on the X-axis,
JP(-6,8
Analytical Geometry.
2.
The
points
(o,
2^),
3,
-2) and
(ij,
2})
are the vertices of a triangle. Construct it. 3. Construct the quadrilateral whose vertices are
(4.
i,
3)
and (its
2,
2).
An
equilateral
(o, 4) and its ordinates of its other vertices and the length of its sides. 5. The two extremities of a line are at the points (3, 4) and (5, 4). What is its position relative to the axes?
vertex at the point base coincides with the X-axis. Find the cotriangle
has
6.
7.
(
How
The
2, i),
far is the point ( 3, 4) from the origin? extremities of a line are at the points (3, 5)
and
respectively.
Construct
it.
8.
The
and
9.
(3, 5).
extremities of a line are at the points ( Show that it is bisected at the origin.
3,
5)
By
5)
(-
2,
and
line
(4,
midway between
and
i).
10.
(o, 8).
What
it is readily possible to use an angle and a distance, instead of two distances. By convention the angle is estimated from a fixed line
point in a plane,
around counter-clockwise; the revolving line, called the radius vector, is pivoted at the left end of the fixed line, which is called the initial line, and the pivotal point is
known The
as the pole.
ART.
is
9.
radian
is
Analytical Geometry.
Since the circumference of a circle
is
equal to
2717-
(where
r is the radius
also contains
360,
27ZT
= =
360
and
^- = ^- =
27T
7T
radian.
Hence
the
number
of radians in
any angle
7
*JL " JL
"
180
7T
180
That
is,
the
TT,
number
of radians in
is
an angle
is
the
same
fraction of
of
180.
For example
60
=
180
7i
radians
=
3
TT
radians.
TT
radians
=
8
TT
radians.
180
22 <
=
It
is
5. TI
radians
-5
n radians,
etc.
180
ART.
10.
be positive;
the
in the contrary
direction,
nega-
That when
distance
vector
to the point is measured forward, it shall be positive; the radius vector produced backit
shall be negative.
For example,
(Fig. 4)
:
Draw an
vector)
indefinite
line
OB
3
(representing the
=
radius
making an angle
of
radians
- of 180
3
60
A nalytical
with the fixed
initial line
Geometry,
off 3 units
OA; measure
on the
is
located (see
If
the point
had been (
3,
-J
the 3 units
If
would have
had
to P'.
the angle
positive
direction
OB".
The
is (r,
0) or
6}.
EXERCISE
i.
II.
(24,75), (-4,
-30).
8
2.
A nalytical
Geometry.
71
ZTC
77T
?
3.
r ' S'
7'
8'
2 '4 16'
"
-
Express in radians:
195.
5.
What kind
6.
of quadrilateral
is it ?
The
-
and
]
(6,
7.
j.
How
is
is
the point
8.
The
w ays
r
).
Give three
47
other
of denoting the
same
point.
AREA OF A TRIANGLE.
ART.
ii.
The system
its
ready method
the co-ordinates of
any known.
triangle
when
Analytical Geometry.
Let
ABC
AD,
(Fig.
5) be
diculars
BE
and
CF
Then
the co-ordinates of
A=
(OD, AD);
of
Fig. 5.
B = (OE, BE);
and
(*"',
of
C=
*',
/),
(*",
f)
/").
made up
of the trapezoids
we take ACFD ABC remains, that is, ABED + BCFE - ACFD = ABC. (a) area ABED = J (AD + BE) DE. By geometry, But AD = /, BE = /', and DE = DO + OE= -x'
from
3*.
.'.
ABCFD
ABED = J (/ + /') (x" - #') Also area BCFE = J (BE + CF) EF. But BE = V', CF=/ and EF = OF-OE =x*'-x*. area BCFE = J (/ + f'} (*?' - **) = J (AD + CF) DF. Again; area ACFD But AD = /, CF=y"andDF=DO + OF = area ACFD = (/ + /") (^ - ^).
area
/r
.'.
.'.
10
Analytical Geometry.
Substituting in (a):
Area
ABC = J (/ + /') (x* - *') + 4 (/ + /') (*"' ~ *") - i (/ + /") (*"' - *0 = - x'f + *"'/' - off + x'f-xnf /]. j [yy
of
the
accents
in
this
manifest.
of the triangle
(2,
whose
vertices are
(*',
6).
Let
(2,
3) be
/);
and
(3,
= -
13-
The minus
Fig. 6.
reference to Fig. 6 will show that a similar process will give the area of ABC, when its vertices are given in polar co-ordinates.
Polar System
ABC = ABO + OBC - OAC. ABO = i AO X OB sin AOB. AO - /, OB = r and AOB = (O - 0"}. A similar treatment of OBC and AOC will give
For
area
Area
the areas
CHAPTER
LOCI.
ART.
12.
II.
Whenever
and ordinate
of every point
on a
line is the
said to
For example,
if
the ordinate
line,
y=
is
Again, if 3 times the abscissa is equal to 5 times the ordinate plus 2, for every point on a line, then 3 x 2
= 57+
is
ART.
tion
13.
between the abscissa x and the ordinate y for every point on a line, if either co-ordinate is known for any point on the line, the other one may be found by substituting
the
known one
in
the
it
for
the
let
is
x
to
and a point
find
its
(
known
i
To
2
ordinate, substitute
14
= = 13; y
x
in
the
equation;
6J.
Therefore the
ordinate corresponding to the abscissa, x 2, is 6 J. Further, if the equation is given, the whole line
=
x
may be
reproduced by locating
its
points.
If
for
example be
given a series of values from o to 10 inclusive, by substituting these values in the equation, the corresponding
values of y are found, and points are thus located on the desired line. If more points are needed the range of
ii
12
Analytical Geometry.
values for
points are
x may be indefinitely extended, and if these For example, let the joined, we have the line.
2 2 the curve 9, to reproduce y equation of a line be x For convenience in calculating solve for y\ represented.
Then
give
xa
on
this line.
_~_4
\/9
9
= =
The
is
last
is
value for y shows that the point whose abscissa all; and since any larger values
to give
of
x would continue
y,
the
curve does not extend beyond x = 3. Since we have given x only positive values so
far,
all
our points so determined lie to the right of the Y-axis. To make the examination complete, let x take a series of
negative value thus:
If
= If # = If # =
x
Vg "N/9
y= v=
= 4 =
VjF=
\/5
2.83. 2.24.
V^
9=0= V o.
shows that the curve
is,
The
is
symmetrical with respect to the axes, that on both sides of the axes.
If
it
is
alike
now
these points are located with respect to the axes are joined, the result
it
is
an approxima-
is
and not
enough together.
The
result is
shown
Analytical Geometry,
scale.
The
points are
(o,
+3),
(o,
(3,
(
3)
[being
A
B'],
and
A' in the
(2,
(
\/8) [being
B and
\/S )
\/7),
i,
(-
\/J) [being
i,
C and C'],
\/8),
o) [G], _
2,
(-
2,
o) [F].
A'
Fig. 7.
Clearly
if
trace
the curve
it
is
necesfor
x between
and +3,
example
#=o
x
.2
= = *
x
.6
.8
i
= y = y = ? = y=
;y
\/9 \/9
\/9
\/ 9
= _
3.
.04
V8.90
= =
2.99. 2.97.
.16=
.36 .64
\/8.84=
\/8.64
= =
2.94.
2.89.
^=
^=^9-
i=
\/8^6~= Vs" =
2.83, etc.
Making
a similar table for the corresponding negative is three times as many points on the
Analytical Geometry.
curve as before, and as they are closer together the curve is much more readily drawn through them, and it will be
x2
16
144.
y =
f V 16
x2
Then
if
= = = = = =
O
.2
y=
y
|Vi6=
fvi6
.16
3.
= =
==
.04=
.4
.6
.8
i
y
y
y=
y
= = f ^15.84 1^15.64 = =
fVis
same
2.99.
2.98+
2.96.
2.94.
,etc.
=2. 9
The
scale as before.
Fig. 8.
ART. 14. Clearly a curve can be traced thus representing almost any form of equation. 2 Suppose the equation of 15 ^ is given. y#
+ 7#+
The location of a number of points by giving x a series of values and calculating corresponding values of y from the equation, will enable us to draw through them the curve
represented by the equation.
certain values of
x which
will
make
the value of
zero;
Analytical Geometry.
15
3
7
such values of x
will
xz
+
if
15
=
is
o,
that
these
values
of
indentically
But
X-axis,
for
zero for a point, the point must be on the by definition the value of y is the distance
to the point, hence the curve must cross If then none the X-axis at those points where y is zero.
x make y
make
y change from a
positive value for one value of x to a value for the next, or vice versa, it must pass negative through zero to change from one sign to the other, and
As
-\-
an
illustration,
take
ii
y.
As before make
and
If
16
Analytical Geometry.
If
the values of
in the
closer together,
INTERSECTIONS.
ART.
15.
The
point
(or
to
points)
in
which two
its
lines
intersect,
lines, being both equations, that is, the equations of the two lines are simultaneous for this point (or these points) and hence if the equations be solved as simultaneous by
common
both
co-ordinates
must
satisfy
any
the
resulting
values of
x and y
will
For example points) of intersection. To find the points of intersection of the circle x 2 -f y 2 = 2 10 x. 24 and the parabola y By substitution of the
x2 x
+ +
10
5
24
7
x2 x
or,
+ =
10
+
or
25
49.
2,
-- 12
y=
The second
and
V/ 2o,
120.
+ V2o)
\/2o).
Verify by
construction.
EXERCISE
III.
line
f of
its
abscissa.
line
of the ordinate
i.
A nalytical
Geometry.
of the line, for every point of 3. Express the equation which 9 times the square of its abscissa plus 16 times the
y.
2
6.
7.
2)
+ = =
36.
=
-f-
16.
x2
4 y
2
4.
2
8.
9.
36 y
=
y.
900.
5.
10.
f
7.
11.
12.
Construct
2
= the locus of y =
2
5.
of intersection of:
3.
15.
16.
17. 18.
i)
;y.
i.
2^ +
ART.
1 6.
^=5
and
3^-2*=
is
7.
If the
equation of a locus
expressed in polar
is
co-ordinates,
the
method
of procedure
exactly similar
The
r
difficulties.
=
If If If
If
4(1
Give
= = 6 =
o,
o
5
?
10, 15,
0=
= = r = r*
r r
o since cos o
4 4
(z
(i
_ -
996 )
.98) -97)
(i-
= = = =
i.
.
OI 6.
.08.
-12.
i8
If if If
Analytical Geometry.
if
if
= e = 6 = e = e =
20,
3 o,
40,
50, 60,
= r= r= r = r =
r
4 4 4 4 4
(i
(i (i
.94)
-87) .77) .64)
-5
)
=
:
.24. .52-
(i (i
= = =
.92.
1.44.
2. ,etc.
Fig. 9.
to
360
and
plotting
we
get a
TRANSCENDENTAL
ART.
17.
LOCI.
known
as trans-
cendental equations, that is, equations which cannot be solved alone by the algebraic processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and
division.
Analytical Geometry.
19
For example,
log x.
The
by
loci of
giving to
and
EXERCISE
1.
IV.
2 0.
0.
r r
r
2.
3.
= = = =
9 cos
10 cos
cos
.
4.
5
5.
3 cos 6
sin x.
6.
log y.
MISCELLANEOUS CURVES.
ART.
1 8.
Curve-plotting
research,
is
all
modern
results
scientific
to
the
of observation.
the
immense advantage
plete result of
of showing an investigation.
com-
For example,
relative
to its
if a test is made of the speed of an engine steam pressure, the pressures being repre-
sented as abscissas (by x) and the corresponding speeds as ordinates (by y}, a smooth curve drawn through the points
determined by these co-ordinates will reveal at once the behavior of the engine. Especially does this method aid
in comparisons of different series of observations of the
same kind.
20
Analytical Geometry.
for
Suppose,
example,
it
is
desired
to
represent thus
The
Analytical
Geometry.
21
test of
TEST OF CAST-IRON.
Stress Pounds.
Unit Elongation*
O
6,950
O
4.97
12,940
6,110
11.44
6.06
1.12
o
4,640 8,780
12,300
15,420
(permanent
set)
4.16
7.63
10.78
15.2
11,900
12.38
9.42
8,370
4,960
113
6.66
2.41
EXERCISE
V.
CHAPTER
III.
THE STRAIGHT
LINE.
ART. 19. Since two points determine a straight line and two points imply two conditions, there will be in the equation to a straight line, two fixed quantities (called
constants), which
must be predetermined
Fig. ii.
fixed points,
it is
determine the equation of a given straight line, then, necessary to express the relation between the co-ordinates of any (that is, every) point on the line, in terms of the two given constants.
22
To
Analytical Geometry.
23
y-axis,
first
we
take a point on
pass,
the
through
line
must
by giving
its
and determine its posidistance from the origin measured on and say the
to
line
makes an angle a
trigo-
with
be estimated as in
from the
tf-axis.*
It is required, then, to determine the relation between the co-ordinates of any point P, selected at random, on the line AB (Fig. IT), using b and any convenient function of a.
of
x,
The
similar triangles
character of the figure would suggest the use of the TSO and TPR, but a simple observation
shows that only the sides b and y are known; on the other to the hand we know the angle a, and a line through S #-axis, from S to PR, will be equal in length to OR and
||
will also
make
the angle
a with
AB
(alternate angles of
parallel lines).
SN.
t
Then
= =
a SN
y
in the triangle
SPN,
Z PSN
adjacent to
SPN, we
have,
PN
The conventions
positive
and
as to positive and negative direction for lines, and negative revolution for angles, is maintained in
is
Analytical Geometry.
hen
m
mx =
y
b b
= mx + y
terms of the
(A)
of in b
which expresses the relation between the co-ordinates of any point, P, and hence of every point on the line
known
constants
and
b.
.'.
= mx +
Fig.
is
12.
the equation of
AB.
Had
first
quad-
we would have
or tan (180
tanPSN= ^?, SN b a)
tan
=
X X
y = mx +
b as before.
Analytical Geometry.
25
is
and
b its ^-intercept.
The
takes
equation
If
m=
||
then
o,
it
the form y
b,
which
is
plainly (since
If b
m=
o)
a line
to the ac-axis.
o, the equation
becomes
line
may
whether the
may be either plus or minus depending the position of the point of intersection with ^-axis, upon above or below the origin, the form,
quadrants; and b
= = y = y
y
y=
mx + mx + mx mx c
20.
;
I,
a line across quad. II, b represents a line across quad. Ill, b represents a line across quad. IV.
ART.
/)
and and
(x", /')
find
its
equation.
line,
Let
AB
(Fig. 13)
be the
P and
/)
Take any
it is
point P' whose co-ordinates are (x, y). Draw PT _L to the *-axis, also PL J_ to QR, as
PLQ
or
and PKP',
P'K:KP::QL:LP,
But
P'K
26
Analytical Geometry.
and
LP = LH + HP
y
=-**+ y y y
_
or symmetrically,
X*
f
t
y,
oc
y,
x and
f>
',
y as required.
B\ \
'/-v
(x",y"\ >a I
Analytical Geometry.
the line, since the equation
27
relation
between
in
Hence,
substituting
these
b,
if
successively
the equation
y = mx +
we know
P, P'
and
/ = mx' + b y = mx + b f=mx" + b
But
points P and Q, neither must be eliminated.
(i)
(2) (3)
nor b
(3),
we
.
and
divide (4) by (5);
f-y^m
- y= m
(x
(x"
get
.
.
x') *')
(4)
...
(5)
(-
For example: Find the equation of the line through - 6). 2, 3) and (-4, - 6)*. Let (*', /) be (- 2, 3) and (*", /') be (4,
Substituting in (B),
* Since (B) is perfectly symmetrical it is a matter of indifference which point be called (#', y') and which, (x", y"). The results are It is to be observed that x and y with accent marks the same.
usually mean definite points, while general co-ordinates are represented by unaccented x and y. So that substitutions are always made for the accented variables, when definite points are involved.
28
Analytical Geometry.
ART
21.
When
an angle and a
Then y
the
line
Let the tangent of the angle be m and the point be (V, y'). = mx + b (i) can represent the slope equation to
This equation satisfies the condition that "the line. should have the slope m, but it must also pass through
if
Hence,
line,
= mx + b y = mx' +
y
Subtract (2) from (i);
f
= mx + b =>*' +
mx
mx*
=m
(Q*
(x
x'}
Fig. 14.
ART.
* It
22.
When
on each axis.
is
to
is
special
form of
()
where (V,
Analytical Geometry.
29
(0,
P and Q,
respectively
b)
and
(a,
0),
-\-
be the determining points (Fig. 14), and let y be the slope equation of the line AB; then b
= mx = b
and
m=
tan
PQX=
PQO. =tanPQO
a
- tan
Also
.'.
m=-a
m
or
and
b thus expressed,
by
V
[dividing
=
a
b,
2-,
(D)=
line, since
AB
ART.
23.
There
is still
Fig.
15-
straight line
*
line
The same
(a, o) for
(V, /) and
30
Analytical Geometry.
origin,
from the
Let
this
perpendicular
makes with
the #-axis.
OD
be a _L to the
AB
from the
Let
origin,
(x,
and
ft
y) be any
similar
crosses
of P,
we have two
ODF
:
:
AB
the jc-axis)
and PEF.
:
Then PE
Call
OD
EF DF
:
[homologous
sides].
OD,
p,
and OF,
y
:
a,
: :
But
;COS
*
ft
COS
ft
P= p
-r
ft
x\
I
s ft
\cos
or
ysm
cos
ft
=
#
t
cos
/?
ft
x
p
[dividing
bv
p]
ft
that
is,
y
is
sin
/?
cos
(E)
This
normal.
p being known as a
The
centre
line
AB
line
is
as a
and p as a
mining the
Exercise:
AB
radius, hence we are practically deteras a tangent to a given circle, the posi-
By
intercept equation,
=
b
i,
in terms of
p and
ft,
derive
A nalytical
Geometry.
31
ART. 24. Each equation has its characteristic form. For instance, the slope equation y = mx -f b, has the form of a first degree equation solved for y, hence if any
degree equation be solved for y, it may be compared For example, given the directly with this slope equation.
first
equation
= % x + 45 com2 y 8. 3 x Solving for y, y = f and b = 4. paring this with the typical form; Hence the locus of 2^ may be constructed
3^=8
as follows,
First to
remembering the meaning of m and b, (Fig. 16). construct any line making an angle whose tan-
gent
is
By
trigonometry
if
we
lay off
on the
Fig.
16.
is
FLO =
same
=
^
f>
nence an 7
drawn
to
||
ED
the
makes
the
angle.
If this line is
drawn through
Analytical Geometry.
point G, 4 units above the origin required line, as AB in the figure.
(b
4),
it
will
be the
In this case
m=
it is
and
4 being
is
negative,
3d quadrants,
in every
and the
case
It is
which one.
Hence
we know where
usually easier to
make make
and these points are most where the line crosses them.
axes;
is o,
depending on
whether
the
y or the
#-axis.
Hence
K/8/
Fig. 17.
cept on the
#-axis, set
y =
point of crossing
^-intercept.
in the equation.
o);
the value of
Analytical Geometry.
33
= =
o,
03^=8
x
3x=
=
8.
(x
intercept).
Set
y
the
line
0=8.
y
4 (y
intercept).
ART.
25.
is
The
characteristic
equation
hand member
and the other member consists of the sum of two fractions whose numerators are respectively x and y. For example, to put the equation 3 x 4y = 7 into intercept form.
To make
by
7.
i,
the equation
must be divided
f* -
y=
(O
To change the left hand side to the sum of two fractions having x and y only for numerators, the equation may be
written thus:
x
j
+
,
"'v
b
b
comparing
this
*+-!, a
evidently
and
|.
verified
in
Let
= =
o in
o,
(i),
then
o
i,
a.
Let
then o
^=
7
y =
What
is
J.
typical of the
normal equation ?
34
Analytical Geometry.
ART.
26.
Any
equation of the
first
first
may
A*
This equation
-f
Ey
C.
may
which
slope
is
is
A B
and y - intercept,
C B
that
is,
m=
-B
whose A and
-f
Again
:
The
-f
i_x
equation
21
\-s
Ax +
"By
= C may
is
be put in
the form
(DJ which
the
intercept form,
where
Again:
normal
form,
/?,
cos
/?
ft
p,
it
is
necessary
to express cos
(Fig. 18).
It
sin
has
OM
the
and
ON (MN
C C and B A
/?,
Z OMN = Z PON =
=
MON,
Sin
ft
^>
in
right
triangle
^ ^
2
-,
2
2 A/A + B
VA +
B2
Analytical Geometry.
35
and cos
ft
MON
and
VA + B PON, OM OP
2 2
:
MN
that
ON,
is,
Whence
'A 2
+B _
2)
Ax
Ey
VA + B
2
VA +
2
B2
VA +
2
B2
(E )*
t
The
sign of
4-
\/A 2 + B 2
C, for p
2
is
in
Ax
By =
and since p
is
essentially
this
+ B2
equa-
36
Analytical Geometry.
is
which
plainly
obtained
2
from
2
,
Ax + Ey =
C,
by
B that is, the square root dividing through by \/A of the sum of the squares of the coefficients of x and y.
For example,
In this case
to
put
\/A 2
Dividing then by
where
*.
cos
/?,
=
5
sin
/?
and
5
p.
From
line,
= C B)/
it is seen that a general equation Ax + can assume any of the type forms for a straight hence it may always represent a straight line.
the above
ART. 26
to the
(a).
Another method
is
of reducing
Ax +
B_y
=C
normal form,
:
easily derived
consideration
If
two equations both represent the same straight line, they cannot be independent equations, but one must be obtained from the other, by multiplying it through by
some constant
2
factor, like
$y =
and 8 x
12
y =4.
That
of
is,
all
same number
as
times
the
8=4X2, 12=4X3
Now
if
and 4
/?
=
y
i.
Ax + Bv = C and x
same
cos
sin
/?
p are
to represent the
straight line,
then
that
is,
B= n
sin
/?
..........
(2)
Analytical Geometry.
37
To
A =
2
B2
-.
38
Analytical Geometry.
EXERCISE
VI.
Straight Line.
What
i.
and
Construct them.
3-
sy= oc
2y=3x +
x
o.
i.
2.
-
4.47-7* + =
i
3^ + 2^ + 7=0.
o
-
5.
7-
*-iJ?=ii
+ y=
line
6.
8.
\y - 2X + - 3. y =
=y +
i#point
9. (o,
;y-axis at the
10.
y
11.
What is its equation? 3). What are the vertices of the triangle whose 2 y + i? x + i = o, $y + x = 2, x=
Find the
vertices of the quadrilateral
sides are
whose
sides are
x=y, y+x=2, $y
12.
(
2x=$, 2x +
are
y = -i.
o),
(
The
4).
vertices of a triangle
(2,
its
3,
i),
5,
What
sides?
13.
of 45
14.
2)
equation
What
common
chord of the
circles (x
is
2 = 2 25? i) (y 3) 50 and x + y What 15. The points (6, 8) and (8, 4) are on a circle. the equation of a chord joining them ? 16. Which of the following points are on the line
= ~ZOC+
What
2;
(2,
I),
(-2,
),
(2,
2),
(5,2)?
(i,
17.
is
6)
and
(-3,5)? 1 8. What
have that
19.
it
slope
must a
line
may
pass through
(i,
(3,
on
Show
Show
that
5)
lies
(o,
2)
and
(2, 8).
20.
i,
f)
and
(2,
3)
Analytical Geometry.
39
ART.
28.
To
jrom Let y = mx + b, and y = m'x + b', be the equations of two intersecting lines, AB and CD, in Fig. 19.
their equations.
\
tan-^m
Fig. 19.
and m'
respectively, tan
FHX= m
and tan
FGX=
w'.
In the triangle
GFH, formed by
or
(i)
GFH,
?
6;
FHX,
a; and
HGF,
/9.
Then by
(i)
0= a-
(ia)
in the tangents of
and w', that is, Since the result must be expressed in a and ft, the trigonometric formula for
4o
Analytical Geometry.
3)
must
tan (a
ON
/?)
But
since
tan a
tan B
'-
fi,
/.tan
= ^^^-. i + mm'
6 from
(F)
Which enables us
to calculate
and
lines
m'.
For
f*-f y=
and
i*
+ iy=
S*
ij.
y= y=
Since
- I* + !.
always form two angles,
two
lines
intersecting
which are supplementary with each other, and since the only difference that can result in the formula
tan e
=
i
+ mm
is
is,
it
to its
makes no
f and m'
which slope
Say
in above,
m=
f-i) (-1)
Substituting in
formula (F),
tan Q
=
i
=
-
+
=
(f)
i-
1=: if =
I
i
will
s|
4.9167.
this
show from
value that
Make
Analytical Geometry.
41
or
ART.
29.
To
find
condition
for
perpendicularity
parallelism of lines
In formula (F),
+ mm'
,
are_J_,
go
and
.*.
tan $
oo
that
is,
+
=
mm'
is finite
equals
oo
only
when
its
denominator
i
o,
.'.
in this case
+ mm'
lines are
o or m'
=
iff
(a)
That
For
is,
two
when
are
example,
3^2^=5
are
and
+
o
= n
parallel,
=
m
and
hence,
tan
0=o.
-
L That
rr-i
is,
m m - mm =o
T
or
o.
Whence
That
line
is,
us to readily
For we can find the slope of the J_ from the slope of the given line by (a) and of the parallel by (b\
the use of the formula for a line through a given with a given slope will give the required equation. point
Then
Example:
of
aj_
to
3^ +
2^=5
42
Analytical Geometry.
i,
3).
The
slope
of3# +
is
| \y =
|x
f ],
The type equation for a line with a given slope through m (x x'} a given point is (C) y' y
Here
Substituting;
y
3
or
= m= f x = = $ (x + 3 2 x = n.*
f
,
and
/=
3.
i)
ART.
triangle
30.
In Art.
it
of a
may
vertices
Fig. 20.
are
known.
By
may now
be found, and
it
this equation to the JL with the original equation be seen that the coefficients of x and y have simply interchanged, and one of them has changed sign, which suggests
Comparing
will
_L
to
line.
Analytical Geometry.
43
(F).
It will
any
point.
Art. 31
how
To
the
lengths of
the
sides
may
be easily
obtained.
ART. 31.
points.
(#',
and
and
in Fig. 20.
to the #-axis.
OF =
x'
and
OC =
ABH,
They
oc".
are
/
2
and /'
Draw
2
also
AH
||
Then
Call
AB = AH + BIT
L =
2
2-
AB,
(BC
(OF
+ OC) +
2
f
(otf
or since (x
-x"Y
L=
(x"
x7 ) 2
(f
- /)
(written symmetrically).
(i,
Example
Call the
f ) and
(f , J).
(x", y").
2
Then
= V(| -
i)
+ (Jf
f)
VTV +
ART. 32. To find the co-ordinates of a point which divides a line between two given points into segments having
a given
ratio.
:
Say the ratio is p q, the points are (x', /) and (A and B in Fig. 21) and the required point P
(#*, /')
(x,
||
y).
Draw BH,
Then AF
PG
and
AF _L
y,
to the #-axis,
and
AK
to the
OG =
To
x,
and
PG = OH = x".
/,
and
BH =
:
/'.
:
:
Also
OF -
x*,
Also
AP PB
of (x
f
,
q.
/) and
(x", y")
(i)
44
Analytical Geometry.
Since the triangles
AP AB,
:
that
is,
PN (BH :
AF)
AP AB,
:
or
PN :/'-/::/>:
q.
pG
=
P
+
q
y>
[from
or
_ pv"
+ qV +q
Fig. 21.
Likewise,
= OH
Analytical Geometry.
If the
45
point
is
to
then p
q,
and the
formulae become
and
ART. 33.
,
To
=
2
given line. Since parallel lines are everywhere equally distant, the expedient suggests itself of drawing a line through the
given point parallel to the given line, and determining the distance between these two lines at the most convenient
point.
Again, since perpendicular distance of course is meant, the normal equation is naturally suggested, because it is
determined by a perpendicular from the origin. Clearly, since these two lines are parallel, the angle the equation will be the same for both, and they will
only in the value of p.
/?
in
differ
for
will
be
Then
let
cos
/? + y and x cos
sin
/?
ft
sin
of a parallel line.
If this line
it
(x', y')
then
must be
satisfied
.'.
by
(x', y').
cos/?
+ /sin/?=
d
p'
.....
(2)
where
P'-P=
[d being
.......
+
(3)
The
when
the point-line is farther from given line; the minus sign, otherwise.
46
Analytical Geometry.
From
.'.
(3),
/=
</
p
ocf
d.
(2)
becomes
cos
ft /?
or
x' cos
+ / sin = + / sin /? /?
/>
d.
(G)
Since any equation to a straight line may be put in normal form, the above expression is always applicable. By taking advantage of the general form of normal equation,
"FB 5
the
\/A
+B
x/A
+&
For in
^
corresponds to cos
/?.
/.
=
\
2
+B
x/A
A^+ 5/-C
This formula (G')
may
be stated thus:
to
To
a given
line,
o.
Ax + By
C=
x and y
and divide
root of the
the
left
hand member
sum
x and
4y
y.
The
2,
3) to 3
9.
Comparing Ax + ~By = C, A= 3, B = 4, C= -
9,
Analytical Geometry.
47
- C
(-
2)
4 (3)
(~9)
VA
6
+ B2
12
Since
it
is
is
not
important.
SYSTEMS OF LINES.
ART. 34.
different
Since parallel lines have the same slope, but intercepts, and since the slope is determined
of
entirely
parallel
x and
y,
the equations of
Thus Ax
+ By = K
Then two
is
Ax
+ By =
C.
absolute terms represent parallel lines. Again; since the relation between the slopes of perpendicular lines
is
and
and m' are determined by dividing the coefficient of x by the coefficient of y in the equations of the perpendicular lines, if the coefficients of x and y be interchanged and the
sign of one of
them
m'
will
be
satisfied.
The
in the
is
dicular to
Again;
is
Ax + By = C. (Ax + By - C) +
(2)
(A'*
+
C'
B'y
C')
o (i)
A* + By = C
and A'x
B'y
...
(3)
For, transposing
C and
(3),
48
Analytical Geometry.
Ax + By - C =
A'x
Let
f
o.
E'y
C'
o.
(x
/)
represent
lines,
their
it
intersection
point.
Since
this point is
on both
satisfies
Ax?
and
multiply (5) by
AV + B'/ (A*'
+ B/ - C = C' =
(6)
If
(V, y
be substituted in
(i)
we
get (6),
but
we know
(6) is true.
f
.'.
(X, y
satisfies
f
,
(i),
and hence
Since
(i) is the
equation of
of lines
a line through (x
stant,
y).
is
an undetermined con-
we can
any number
through (X,
y) by
Example:
section of
By
To 3^
x
+
is,
9-
6)
+K
(2
9)
o.
If the
(3,
line
must
say
i)
i),
K
y,
may
5
2
be determined.
For substituting
(3,
for
x and
whence
or
+ K=
(9
(3
6)
+K
6)
(6
9)
=
-
o,
+
3
(2
+
#
9)
o,
y =
24.
Example :
(2,
i).
Find the
line
J- to
is
3;y=5
through
Its
equation by
Art. 34
$x+ y=
Since
(2,
k.
i
i)
must
5
satisfy
is
it,
k, or k
5.
Hence
y=
Analytical Geometry.
49
EXERCISE
1.
VII.
line
whose
intercepts are
and
2.
mine
-3,
3.
The
points
(5,
i),
(2,
3)
and
(i,
its
4) are
the
vertices of a triangle.
4.
5.
medians.
In Ex.
3, find
6.
What What
(
2^3^=5
through
7.
2)?
the
What
(
is
i,
equation
of
line
||
to
2^3^=5
2
through
8.
y
9.
2)? the
angle
between
and
whose
(8,
4)
and
is
(6,
8) are on a circle
centre
to the
10.
(i, 3).
What
What
line joining
11.
are the co-ordinates of the point dividing the ( 3, 5) and (6, 9) in the ratio 1:3?
each other.
12.
Show
that
lines
joining
(3,
o),
(6,
4),
(-
i,
3)
form a right
13.
triangle.
2),
Show
is
of a triangle are (4, 3), (2, that the line joining the mid-points of
The vertices
(3,5).
parallel to,
and equal
50
14.
Analytical Geometry.
Show
that
(-
2, 3),
(4,
i),
(5, 3),
and (-1,
2) with
(5,
5) are
the vertices of a parallelogram. 15. Show that the line joining (3,
i) is
2).
and
(13,
i),
(4,
of
5,
3),
and
(5
What
are
vertices?
(2, 3),
Three
i),
(-4,
18.
(-
Find the point of intersection of the medians of the 5, 3), (7 6). triangle whose vertices are (i, 2), (
19.
line 5
the point
2,
3) to the
20.
gram
21. 22. line
Change
;y
5 to the
normal form.
trisecting
Find the co-ordinates of the points 3, 2). joining (2, i) and ( Find the distance from
(2,
the
23. 24.
is (3,
5) to 2
6.
Find the
i)
altitude
and base
is
of the triangle
25.
of the quadrilateral
(4,
whose
(6,8),
26.
-4).
whose
vertices
of the parallelogram
are
(i, 2),
(-
5,
3)-
What
other sides?
28.
What
is
5,
and
3,
5)?
By
x
medians
of the
triangle
whose
sides
are
and
y=2x-\-i y-\-x-\-i=Q
t
-f 2.
Analytical Geometry
30.
51
(i,
2),
(-1,2).
31.
The
base of a triangle
is 2 b
is d?.
of the of the
CHAPTER
IV.
TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.
ART. 35.
It
the position of the axes of reference or even to change the inclination of these axes from a right to an oblique angle,
-X'
Fig. 22.
or both.
To
accomplish
this
it is
any point on the line in terms new co-ordinates determined by the new axes and neces36.
sary constants.
ART.
To change
changing the direction of the axes or their inclination. Let P be any point on a given line whose equation
is
to
be transformed.
Let
its
co-ordinates be
x
52
= OC
and
y= PC
(Fig. 22),
Analytical Geometry.
referred to the axes
53
OX
new
and OY. Let O'X' and O'Y' be O' is at the distance O'A = a,
at the distance
to
O'B
b,
from OY.
not changed.
new axes
Now,
PC = PD - CD = PD It will
O'A, or x
O'B, or y
0,
= x' -a =y -b
f
the
new
new
new
43; Example: What will the equations become, if the origin is moved to the point
67=3
direction
(2, 3),
xf
and y
=
)
y'
3-
+
2
2)
Expanding
accents;
and
x y may be simplified by transferring the axes. ART. 37. To change the direction of the axes, the angle remaining a right angle.
Let O'X" and O'Y" be the
ing the angle
+ 2) + 6"+ 3 -6 (/+ 3 = 3. = 16 or dropping collecting, x' -{-y = 16, which indicates how an equation
4 (*'
2 ) 2
/2
new
P [OD and PD
||
be
(x,
y)
and
the
new
co-ordinates
[O'A and
PA
and
in the
Draw O'C and BA to figure] be (V, /). to OX, then Zs AO'C and BPA both equal
OX
0.
.
AE J_
.
OD =
= OF + O'C - BA
(i)
54
Analytical Geometry.
AO'C, O'C,
That
is,
O'C
= =
O'A
cos
AO'C
yf cos 6.
Fig- 23-
Also in
BPA,
BA = PA sin BPA or BA = /
sin 0;
and
OF=
a.
Substituting in (i),
Again:
O'F
and
b;
= a + #' cos y sin 0. PD = y = O'F + AC + PB AC = O'A sin AO'C or AC = yf sin PB = PA cos BPA or PB = / cos 0.
x
. .
(2)
Substituting in (2),
= x=
y
If in
b 4-
xf
sin
-f
f y cos
^-^
cos
sin
^
be substituted for x
and
same
locus
Analytical Geometry.
55
As a rule the origin remains with the origin at (a, ). the same, hence a = o, b = o, and (K) becomes,
= = x
y
x' sin
y' cos
x' cos $
y' sin #
3
become
when
Here and
is
30
changed
J \/3
30?
J; cos
30
7= iaM- JVSY,
Substituting, 3
or
(I
VT~
A
i) X?
(t
+ V3) / =
5-
ART. 38.
the axes are changed from rectangular to oblique, and the origin moved to the point (a, b), gives rise to the formulae,
= x=
y
+
-\-
x' sin 6
x' cos 6
)
(f>
<
,^^
J
and being, respectively, the angles Y-axis and Y-axis with the old X-axis.
made by
the
new
When
the origin
is
not changed,
b
= = y x=
a
o and
x' sin
x' cos 6
(J)
becomes
ART.
to polar.
39.
To change
is
co-ordinates
from
rectangular
The method
ing
of
and the new co-ordinates, using necessary constants. In Fig. 24, let O' be the pole and O'N the initial
the co-ordinates of
line,
ordinates of
O' being (a, b); the rectangular coP being (x, y) and the polar, (r, #), respec-
Analytical Geometry.
tively,
Z PO'N
in the figure.
is
<j>.
The
angle
in
between the
It
is
x and y
terms of
6 and
(f>.
The right triangle usually supplies the simplest relations, so we draw O'AJJo PB, giving us the right triangle PO'A = FB, a part of x. involving r, 6 and O'A
Fig. 24-
OB = x = OF + FB = OF + O'A, x = a + r cos (0 + <>) or = O'P cos PO'A = r cos (0 + 0)]. [since O'A PB = y = AB + PA = O'F + PA, Also, y = b + r sin (0 + (M) or ^-= a -f r cos ((9 + 0) = o and (M) becomes to the X-axis, If the initial line is = b + r sin ^ M = a 4- r cos
Then
</>) ^
$
||
/^
jc:
A nalytical
If the pole is at the origin,
Geometry.
a
57
o and b
o
CM."\
and
ART. 40.
nates.
It
is
=r sin =rcosO
To change from
polar
to
rectangular co-ordi-
here necessary only to solve equations (M"), say, for r and 0, as (M") gives the usual form.
= = x*
2
r r
sin
6
6.
cos 2
Add;
[since sin
2
2 2
(sin
i].
cos 2 6)
cos
Dividing the
first
cos o
to rectangular
Example: Change
form
Substituting in above equation, remembering that 2 cos 2 6 (i tan 2 6) sin 6 cos 2 6 cos 2
tan 2 6 _ 2 sec 6
i i
tan 2 6
tan 2
or,
58
Analytical Geometry.
EXERCISE
VIII.
Transformation of Co-ordinates.
1.
What
to
(
does y 2
*>
=
J
px become when
the
origin
is
moved
axes?
2.
What
is
does
to
a 2y 2
(
+
,
x2
,
a 2b2
become when
?
the
origin
3.
moved
o
J
8 = o become when What does y 2 + x 2 + 4 y 4:^ 2) ? origin is moved to (2, 2 = Sx become when the axes are turned 4. What does y
through 60, origin remaining the same? 2 = 2 px become when 5. What does y
the
origin
is
moved to the point (/,)? 2 2 become when the 6. What does a 2 y 2 + b 2 x 2 = a b origin is moved to (h,k)? What does 2 \/3 x + 2 y = 9 become when the axes 7.
are turned
8.
30,
What
is
does
x2
a y
a 2b2
-1
the
to
Y-axis
the
right,
9.
(1+2
cos 6)
and
Change
(x
2 )
a 2 (x 2
to the polar
equa-
tion
of Ex. 9. to
11.
Change p
=
COS 2 6
rectangular co-ordinates,
Analytical Geometry.
12.
59
Change
to
rectangular
co-ordinates,
under same
conditions,
13. 14.
p
a sin 2 #.
a sec 2
2
p p
= =
cos a
to polar co-ordinates,
15.
Change
4a 17. #3
16. 18.
je
ay*
jc
+ 3^ = a*. + 9/=
2
^
36.
2
.
CHAPTER
V.
THE CIRCLE.
ART.
41.
To
it
Remembering
namely, that
is
must represent every point on that locus, it only necessary as usual to find the relation between the
co-ordinates of any point on the circle in terms of the necessary constants, which are plainly in this case, the co-ordi-
Let P be any point on the circle A, the co-ordinates of whose centre are (h, k). The condition determining the
Fig. 25.
curve
is
centre.
Draw
them
AB
APB,
Analytical Geometry.
61
(i)
k.
(L)
+y
Calling
2 h,
m\
2 k,
and
(h
+
o
k2
.
.
),
x2
It is
+ y + mx + ny + R =
2
(L')
evident from (L') that any equation of the second between two variables in which no term containing degree the product of the variable occurs, and where the coefficients
of the
same,
(L) by adding
m
to
2 -
both sides
4
n2
,
we
have,
x2
+ mx + - ^!
4
2
-4
!
f-
+ nx +
4
)
_L
_ R2 *
4
2
or,
44
,
-)
Comparing with
~ m " --i,
(L),
we
.
find
2
K i,
n -2
-, r
= w +^
2
-4
2
That
and
is,
),
the radius
\/m
n2
2
.
62
Analytical Geometry.
of the centre
and the
x2
+
6,
6 y
2
26
2
Comparing
this
with (L/), x 2
2,
we
find,
m=
-
+ R =
2
= o. + mx +
ny
+R
=o,
m --
22
,
Wx
-),are(-
-22
-,
4
v )
(i,
-3),
and
the radius
= i V4 + = i \7i44
This equation put
(x
in
i)
36
(- 10 4)
=
2
6.
be, 36.
(y
3)
ART.
circle,
42.
As
if
it
and
constants,
three conditions are given that will furnish simultaneous independent equations between these constants, their values can be found, and hence the equation
three
to the circle.
The
three conditions
may
points on the circle, or two given points and the radius, etc. Example: Find the equation for the circle passing through
the points
(3, 3), (i, 7), (2, 6).
Taking the general equation, x 2 + f + mx + ny + R 2 = o these three points must each satisfy this equation
.
(I/)
to
if it is
on
in
Hence, substituting them successively for x and y 2 (L'), we get three equations between m, n and R as
it.
follows:
Analytical Geometry.
63
2 2
o
o
or
(i)
(2)
. .
(3)
m m
= =
16
(4) (5)
10
...
n
4,
2
6.
whence
and
x*
w = R = +
2
;y
12.
6 y
12=0,
the required equation. ART. 43. When the origin is at the centre of the circle, and k are both zero, and the equation becomes, h
x>+f=r*
which
is
(L")
ART. 44.
The
to
(L) by making
rectangular
initial line
polar equation is readily derived from the substitutions for transformation from
the
X-axis
as
Then
x
k
= = =
p sin p cos
0,
6,
0',
#',
h=
where
circle
(p,
and
(p
Making
(p cos
or, p cos
2
2
we
P cos 0')*
2 pp'
(p sin
/2
2
get
r\
cos
cos 0'
sin d'
2 2 p sin
2 pp' sin
+p +
cos 2 d'
sin
2
/>
0'
+ = r
2
.
64
2 2
Analytical Geometry.
/o
Collecting,
(cos
+
2
sin
0)
p'
(cos
sin
0'
sin
6')
2 pp' (cos
2
cos 6'
f
sin 0')
2
2
.
whence
p
[since
cos
and cos
6' cos
To
2
find
r
2
.
the
x2
Since a line
two conditions, and a tangent must be perpendicular to a radius and touch the circle at one point, the radius being
in this case the distance
one condition and the point of tangency another. Knowing the equation to a line determined by two points,
(*"*')
Fig. 26.
circle,
we
are able to
convert this condition in the special case of the tangent into the point of tangency and the distance from the origin.
The
(*",/)
f
,
y'}
and
Analytical Geometry.
65
circle
be
B and C on
satisfy
O, then
to
/) and
hence
(V',
/')
must
the
equation
the
circle;
x'z
-f2 =
......
(V',
If
these conditions be
it
equation (B),
will
y)
in
circle.
(y"
or,
x" 2
(**
-x' 2 = -
y'
2
o,
2
)',
factoring,
-/
+
*')
whence
y/ '
)=- (/-/) _ y -- + X y* -=
(x
(/'+/),
'
-.
r
xf
x'
y"
Comparing (B) with the equation to a straight line having a given slope and passing through a given point,
.
.
(B)
y
It
is
= m
-
(x
2L x'
x'}
(C)
so that the slope of a
evident that
= m
f
,
x"
line
y'}
and
y'
;
sented by
Hence
the value of
? x"
~ -
x
f
*"
x
represents
y'
y"
the slope of a secant line to the circle, and if this value be substituted in (B) the result will be the equation of a
(x
y')
66
Analytical Geometry.
Then if (#", /') is taken nearer and nearer to (V, /) the secant will approach the position of the tangent at (^ /), and when (V', /') coincides with (V, /) it will
be the tangent.
Clearly
it
we
where we
please, since
Substituting in
(B), y
x'
-/=
Making
y
x?
y'
and
f=
2
y',
= -
^
xxf
x'
2
(x
- *0 = y'
2
y
2
.
(x
*');
transposing,
But by
(2),
...
xn
xtf
+yy'=r
...
(T c )
would serve as well to make (V, y') approach Evidently (x", y"}, only the line would then be tangent at (x", /').
it
Example: What
circle
is
x2
=
r
2
10 at
i,
3)?
i
Here
10, yf
and
Substituting in
(T c ),
x
is
+ $y =
/=
3.
10 or 3 y
-x - 10 =o.
(V, /) point of tangency, not (x, y)\ the co-ordinates of point of tangency for never substitute
Observe that
the general co-ordinates x and y. circle Again: find equation of tangent to the outside the circle. from the point (5, 7!)
x2
+
.
9,
The
it
equational form
is,
xxf
yy'
(i)
and
(S>
is
point tangency (V, /). its equation, but it 7i) De i n g on tn i s tangent must satisfy not the point of tangency and must not be substituted for
remains
to find point of
The
Analytical Geometry.
(x',
67
(i),
5 a/
it
+ V / = 9.
5
(2)
Also,
/)
is
on the
circle
must
satisfy circle
equation; that
is,
*"+/
That
=_9
(2)
(3)
and
(3),
we
get,
is,
namely, 63
we know by Geometry;
3^=
[Gotten
CIRCLE.
ART. 46.
circle
To
express
its slope.
the
equation
of
a tangent
to
in terms of
Evidently the tangent being a simple straight line may be determined by its slope as well as by the point of tangency,
of m.
line
if
the slope be such that the line will touch the circle.
it is
Hence
If
we
a question of determining this n'ecessary value take the general slope equation to a straight
b
it
and
line will
and
is
sufficient.
Again, regarding the tangent as the limiting position of its two points of intersection with the
approach coincidence
if
we combine
among themselves
that the
shall coincide, or
result.
become one
point,
Let y
line,
and x 2
= mx + b, +y =
2
(i)
r
2
,
68
Analytical Geometry.
Regarding (i) and (2) as simultaneous, and substituting the value of y from (i) in (2), we get a quadratic in x, whose two roots are the abscissas respectively of the two
points of intersection.
We
get then,
x2 x2
(i
2 )
=o.
(3)
By
into
the
we know
that the
two values of x
be the same in
(3
if it
can be separated
two equal
factors, that
is, if it is
By
if
the binomial
is
theorem
terms
it
will
twice the
(like
of the
and
last
Hence
roots)
if
(3) will
equal
mbx
2 2 2
2 r'
if
),
),
If this
condition be
fulfilled, clearly
secant y
= mx +
b will
become
= mx
r\/i
+m
...
(T c> m )
The
the
slope, as should be the case, having ^-intercepts numerically equal, but opposite in sign, or vice versa.
same
Example
line
oi b in
&x +
2
b,
that the
may
be tangent to the
circle
x2
+y
25.
Analytical Geometry.
69
2
,
Bv
condition formula, b
have,
b
=
\/i
^/i
64
225
we must
Hence
+w =
225
i5
i5
3
85.
or
= 15 y
ART. 47.
is
15^=8 x
any curve
point.
at
evident from geometry that the normal to the circle any point is the radius drawn to that point. Since the normal is perpendicular to the tangent, if the
It is
is
known
)>
is
lm'=
and as
it
we have
all
equation.
To
Let
normal
r
to the circle
(V, /).
x 2 + y 2 = r2 The equation to
.
xx
yy
2
,
or in slope form,
is
= /
+/
is
(i),
/
slope is
perpendicular to
its
x
y'
'-
x'
The
y
But, mf
is
= m y'
,
(x
/) with
.
.
.
slope m'
.
is
[by (C)]
here equal to
'V
70
Analytical Geometry.
is
y'
oc
-, (#
#0,
xfy
x'y'
xy'
x'y',
whence
This
t.
xf
.........
(N c )
may
?!_,
its
value
m
x
or
my + x =
ART. 48.
o.
to the circle
of a tangent
By
is,
Art. 31,
if
- K - x'} + &- y') = x + y - 2 (x,x' + ytf) + x' + y' but if (x', y'} is on the circle and (x y^} on the tangent, x' + y' = r and x^xf + ytf = ^ ^ = x + ^2 _ 2 f r = ^2 + y _ r (Dc
d2
2
2
,
lt
.-.
_|_
If the origin is
it
is
easy
to
show
in exactly the
(L), that
= V( Xl The
(ft
k}
2
.
ART. 49.
may
Analytical Geometry.
71
circles, in
order
Let the
(
(
circles be,
j \
<
dl
circles.
to
(Q)
and (C 2 )
and
But
...
(^
d.2
(3)
Since (xlt
(x
y^
h)
+ (yv
k)
-r = (x2
m)
(y-n)
- R
(4)
gives (3)
which we know
to
satisfies (4).
But (jCj, y ) is any point on the radical axis, hence every point on that axis satisfies (4), and /. (4) is the equation of the radical axis to (Q) and (C 2 ).
for any point on a curve is the distance measured on the #-axis from the foot of the ordinate of
The Subnormal
with that
axis.
Let
[Fig. 27]
be a
circle,
OP
Then
AT =
subtangent and
OA =
72
Analytical Geometry.
it is
to
AT = OT which
is
OA.
OT =
by
setting
Fig. 27-
y=
o in
its
equation
= (y
Then
in equation
(T c )
r
setting
o,
we
get
+o=r\
x
or
Also,
= OT
xf.
=:
OA =
/y*t
yy'
/\rf
point
(3,
4)
on a
What
is
Here
xf
3,
/=
4 and
From
v/hence
this last
equation
r
2
-
=
3 3
^
is
5-
25;
Then
x2
25.
Analytical Geometry.
73
The origin is taken at the centre of the circle in these discussions because that is the usual form encountered,
and the processes are exactly the same wherever the
origin
may
this
be;
the
greater
simplicity of results
recommending
form
INTERSECTIONS.
ART.
51.
By what
it
intersections of lines,
two
circles intersect,
the points of intersection will be readily found by combining the two equations as simultaneous. If the circles are tangent, the unknowns x and y will have each one value, or rather each will have its values coincident.
x2
2
{x
or
+y 4 #+ 2 y = ,/. - 2 +y y=4
2 2
o (i)
(2)
intersect.
(2),
x 4 y x - y=
(3) [x
i
=
i
4,
. .
.
x from
(3)
y
2
-f-
+ 2y +
=
i
i]in (2),
4,
whence from
(3),
\/|.
The
(i
(3)
VI
Is
it,
+ \/f ViT
,
VI).
and
verify results.
satisfy
evidently the common chord, for both and it is the equation of a straight line.
points
ART.
circles.
(
52.
circle
Xz
\x*
then
+ y* + A* + B y + C = o (i) two circles, + f + A lX +1^ + ^=0(2) (are any (x + y + Ax + Ey + C) + n(x +y* + A x + B y + C = o ... (3)
2 2 2
l
l 1
74
is
Analytical Geometry.
the equation of a circle through the intersections of (i)
and (2). For since (3) is a combination of (i) and (2) it must contain the conditions that are common to both, and
the only conditions
common
(3)
is
points of intersection.
it
or
0,* i-f-w
which
is
Further, (3)
(i)
If
satisfied
satisfies
both
(2).
and
made up
exclusively of (i)
and
EXERCISE.
The
Circle.
What
and the
radii of
following circles?
1.
2.
3. 4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Analytical Geometry,
75
circles,
(h,
k)
&
J I
=
k
2j
i
11.
12.
h=
h
*--*
=
= = 4 r= V r = 5
r
to following
*2
17.
18.
19.
20.
(-_ij, + f = 6 at (v/2, 2). + / = 34 at (- 3, - 5). + y = 25 at point whose abscissa is 3. + ^ = 6 at point whose ordinate is + - i) = 100 at (6, 7). (* + 2 x + (y- 3 )2= 25 at (3, ?). # + y = 20 at (?, 2).
+/=
2
9 at
3).
*2 *2 x2 x2
2 2
x/T-
o.
22. 23.
and
24.
25.
8.
3
2
o.
6 x + 8 y = i, which also passes through the point (4, 5). 26. Find the equation of the circle passing through the intersections of x 2 + y 2 = 16 and x 2 + ^ 2 + 2 rv = 8, which also passes through the point ( i, 2).
intersections of
-f
and
x2
+3y
Find the equation of the circle through the three What are the co-ordinates points (o, o), (2, 3), and (3, 4). of its centre and its radius ?
27. 28.
(2,
Find the equation of the circle through the points - 4), and (- 2, - i). 3), (3,
76
29.
Analytical Geometry.
(-
4,
4);
(-
4,
2);
(-
2,
2).
Find the equation of the circle passing through the and having x and ^-intercepts respectively 6 and 8. origin 31. Find the equation of a circle circumscribing the tri30.
are
o,
6,
and
5-
32.
and
(4,
Find the equation of a circle passing through (i, 5) x -\- 4 = o. 6) and having its centre on the line y
33.
(2,
of a circle
through
(3,
o)
and
7)
34.
(f
f)
35.
is
30'
and
CHAPTER
ART.
VI.
CONIC SECTIONS.
53.
The
made by
are
a plane intersecting
called conic sections.
If
at
its axis,
the plane
is
is
parallel to
an element
intersection
If the
called a parabola.
all
plane cuts
is
called an ellipse.
is
When
the plane
cone
the ellipse becomes a circle. If the plane cuts both nappes of the cone, the section
called a hyperbola.
is
The hyperbola
intersects the
collectively conies.
evidently
(where
it
two nappes).
The equation of a conic. the standpoint of analytical geometry, a conic is defined as a curve, the distances of whose points from a fixed straight line, called the directrix, and from a fixed
ART.
54.
From
This ratio
readily
is
It
can be
follows
that
this
definition
;y-axis
the
and F the
Draw AP
perpendicular to
the directrix,
PB
perpendicular to #-axis,
e,
and
e,
join
P and
F.
Call
then
PF = x A.
77
Analytical Geometry.
or
PF =
The
co-ordinates of
e.
PA
PB.
(i
are
FPB].
PF 2 =
(oc
p)
-\-
Hence
squaring;
collecting;
(i)
becomes, \/(x
p)*
2 2
+y = ex. y*
2 2
.
(a)
which
is
The polar equation is much simpler. It may be derived by transforming (a) to polar co-ordinates, or thus;
dinates.
Fig. 28.
F and
= Z
Then
But
that
is,
cos
PFB =
or
0.
OF = AP-&
whence
Analytical Geometry.
Substituting in (i); p
79
=
(i
e (p
cos 6
+
=
p)
ep cos 6
Transposing and
collecting;
e cos 6}
ep.
e cos
THE PARABOLA.
ART.
55.
The parabola
is
which
a fxed point and a fixed straight in entire accord with Art. 53.
e
line.
This definition
is
becomes y 2
or y
is
px
2
-f
=
As
o,
it
px
(i).
the origin at the vertex (in Fig. 29) of the parabola, and as the vertex is midway between
and the focus by definition, the above equatransformed to new axes having their origin at the * vertex by substituting (xf + for x and leaving y unthe directrix
is
tion
changed.
The
co-ordinates
of
the
new
origin
are
f*-i
oi with
8o
In Fig. 29,
directrix,
let
Analytical Geometry.
the vertex
and the
#-axis,
p,
origin.
PB
perpendicular
if
to the
and
let
Draw AP F be the
equal
-
||
and
focus.
defi-
Then
nition.
DF
be represented by
OF
will
by
PF = PA
But
.....
PF = xPB* +
FB= -vPB* +
B ~ OF )
and
PA = OB + DO = x +
2
i
Substituting in (a);
V/y*
I
_^_
/ x __ \
PY
2 /
#-}-, 2
^? L
squaring;
-b
\
}
-f
(x
\
f-
lx
\
\
\
2 /
2 I
px, as before.
its equation, the characteristic property of a parathat the ratio of the square of the ordinate of any is, point on it to the abscissa of that point is a constant, for
From
bola
J =
OC
2 p.
This relation
is
is
used
in physics to
show
the
that the
path of a projectile
symmetrical
the form,
a parabola.
When
curve
is
x2
As an
ART.
abscissa
(Ap ), the
of
the
focus
(F),
be substituted, the
Analytical Geometry.
resulting values
of
81
thus
= =
whence
p.
together, extending
Fig. 30.
above the focus to the point below on the curve, form what
is
(GH,
Fig. 29.)
2 p,
The
ART.
latus
and
is
often called
To
First Method.
ical
The
mechan-
Let the edge of a T-square (AB, Fig. 31) represent the directrix; adjust a triangle to it, with its other edge on the axis, as DEC.
of constructing the parabola.
means
is
EC,
at
C and
end
at F.
Keeping the
82
Analytical Geometry.
base of the triangle with a pencil
(as at
G)
where
distant
as
at
it
will
be
equally
from
AB
and
=--
F,
G;
for
=
=
EG
E'C'
since
Fig. 3i.
=
GF
--
- GC'
E'G
GF,
EC
GC'
GC'.
it
and
= E'C'
is
more con-
venient to construct by points. Let AB (Fig. 32) be the directrix; F, the focus, and OX, the axis. Lay off as many points as desired on the axis, as C, D, E, G, H, etc.; then with F as a centre and radii
successively equal to
etc.,
draw
arcs above
D, E, G, H,
etc.; erect
perpendiculars to
tersecting
OX
arcs
in-
these
at
C' and C", D' and D", E' and E", etc.
These points
the
of
inter-
on
parabola,
all
for
they
the
are
equally
distant
from
AB
and
F by
construction.
By
the parabola
58. polar equation to the parabola is easily derived from the general polar equation to a conic, by i. remembering that for a parabola, e
ART.
The
Analytical Geometry.
83
Hence
becomes
ART.
It
2
r
i
ecos
A
p
is
=
i
cos
59.
equation, y
2 px,
evident from the form of the parabola that x cannot be negative without
making y imaginary, hence no point on the parabola 2 = 2 px can lie to the left of the Y-axis; that is, the curve y
In has but one branch lying to the right of the Y-axis. order to represent a parabola lying to the left of the origin,
the equation
would have
to take the
2
form
px,
-
EXERCISE.
are the equations of the parabolas passing through the following points, and what is the latus rectum in each
What
case?
I. 5.
(1,4);
2.
(2,
3);
3.
(i
J);
is
2
4-
The equation
of
parabola
(3,-4). 4 x. What
abscissa corresponds to the ordinate 7 ? 6. What is the equation of the chord of the parabola
y-
=
7.
tiv-e
end
2 In the parabola y 9 x, what ordinate corresponds Construct the following parabolas. to the abscissa 4?
8.
y
y''
10.
= =
6 x.
9.
4cc.
ii.
x2 x2
= =
y
9
2
y.
Sy.
12.
For what
points
on
the
parabola
of
will
the
points
on the
84
Analytical Geometry.
2
parabola y
dinate
?
10 x,
if
the
abscissa equals
f of the or-
y y
= =
18
2 = 2
17.
1 8.
= + +
2^5. 2^5.
2
y
2
== 12.
#
1
the
2 px become when What does the equation y origin is moved back along the axis to the directrix ?
= =
33.
ART.
bola.
60.
To
The
to the circle
process employed to find the equation of a tangent is just as effective for the parabola.
the equation to through two given the points be points,
If in
line
situated on a parabola,
the
equation
If
becomes
to the
that of a secant
the two
made
to
approach
the
Fig. 33-
coincidence,
secant
becomes a
tangent.
line,
(B)
let
the points
(x',
y')
and
2
(x",
y"}
be on the parabola
= =
px'
(2)
(3 )
px"
Analytical Geometry.
arise
85
in
from
substituting
these
values
the
parabola
equation.
= 2 py* - 2 px'= 2 p (x" - /) (/' + /) = 2 p (x" (/' Factoring; (/' + /) (x" *'), Dividing through by
x"
n yn _ y
x'). x').
-xf==
y"
+'/'
-^-^7, x x
is
in
(B);
P
f
(x
x'}
(4),
which
now
the equa-
tion of a secant
ABC
(Fig. 33),
the point
f being (x", y") and C being (x y'). f If now the point B approach C, (x", y ) approaches f " = = x' and y (x /) and eventually x" /, and the secant
,
ABC
Making x"
=
7
x',
y"
=/
,
in (4),
it
becomes,
(TP)
-y -
c*
-X)
DCE
f
which
(*',/)
is
at the point
Simplifying (Tp ), yy
f
y'
px
px
yy
or
yy'
px
p (x
= +
= =
[since y'
2 px'];
[transposing, collecting
and
factoring].
Corollary:
The
OD,
is
x= -
p (x
x'.
yf\
86
Analytical Geometry.
That
is,
the intercept
is
ART. 61.
The equation
is
normal.
same point, it has the same equation except for its slope, which is given by the relation for perpendicular lines,
m
In the tangent equation
m= ^
is
Hence
In Fig. 33,
CG
is
the normal at C.
of the
ART.
slope.
62.
The equation
tangent in terms of
its
As
it
in the slope
common
The
equations to
parabola and
line are,
f=
and
Eliminating
= mx +
2
px
........ .......
(i) (2)
y, to find
(3)
The two
values of
be the abscissas
These two points will of the two points of intersection. coincide if the two values of x are the same, and this can
Analytical Geometry.
87
only
occur
if
x2
-f (2
mb
is
2
p)
oc
is
perfect
the case,
b
2
if
x 2 (mb
or
m
2
py = m x
2
pmb
whence
Substituting this
value of b in (2),
which
is
its slope.
ART.
Equation
to
the
normal in terms
of the slope
of the tangent.
the
equation to the
parabola,
we
get the co-ordinates of the point of tangency in terms of and p. Since the normal passes through this point it is
necessary to
know
then,
these co-ordinates.
2
Combining
and
y'
px
f
y = mx +
2
off
we
get
~
2
,y'=
is
IX,
/
=
The
m'
[since
it
is
perpen-
dicular to the tangent, whose slope is m]. The equation to a line through a given point with a
f
is
m' (x
x'}
.....
(C)
and
w',
m + m x = pm +
2
m'
.
88
Analytical Geometry.
This equation being a cubic in w, three values of m will it, hence through any point on the parabola three normals can be drawn, having the three slopes given by
satisfy
ART.
64.
The
making
it
of peculiar in-
that the tangent to the parabola makes equal angles with a line from the focus to the point of tangency
To show
-K
FT
Fig. 34-
and a
line
drawn through
the
same point
axis of the parabola. (Fig. 34) is a tangent to the parabola intersecting the axis produced at L.
LM
PON
OX.
at P,
Draw
FP and PK
the
to the axis
||
Then
yf
ZLPF= ZMPK.
By
,
Art. 60,
Cor.,
tangent ^-intercept,
OL =
/)
Analytical Geometry.
89
Also
OF =
2
r
/.
LF = x +
2.
[the
length].
sign
of yf is neglected for
we
QS
be the directrix.
Then
PF = PQ = GT = GO + OT =
.;,
LF =
LPF is isosceles;
hence
But
.-.
[since
PK is
to
||
LX].
PR be = [since Z LPF
Let
angles].
normal;
then
FPR =
Z RPK
being right
Since the angles of incidence and reflection are always equal for light reflected from any surface, it follows that
light issuing
from a source
at
F would
surface of a paraboloid mirror in parallel lines, (as PK). ART. 65. The diameter of any conic may be defined as
chords.
chord
is
understood to be a straight line joining any In Fig. 35, AB being the locus
a diameter of the parabola PON. find the equation oj a diameter in terms of
is
CD
66.
is
one,
ART.
To
9o
Analytical Geometry.
Draw
other.
chords
(like
CD)
to
||
each
determine the locus of the middle points of these chords, that is, the diameter corresponding to them.
To
and
If (i)
= mx + = 2 px
(i),
(2)
and
(2*)
nates of
C and
D, the points
y by substituting
Fig. 35.
mx
2
+ b) = + 2 mbx + b =
(mx
2
2
2 2
px,
px
o
"*V*
Now
in a quadratic of the
U +4=
z
2
(3)
form
az
+b=
o, the
sum
Analytical Geometry.
of the
91
of the first
two values of the unknown equals the coefficient (a) power of the unknown with its sign changed.* Hence the two values of x in (3), which are the abscissas
respectively of
cient of
C and D, added
with
its
in (3)
sign changed.
C and
respectively
(x
y')
and
(x? /')
t
Then
x'
+
,
oc"
2 nib
m
(2),
we
get
from
(i)
m
Substituting in (2); y*
py
~ m
f-^L+trL. = m m
by
principle cited above,
y'
(4)
y"
m
/) and
(V', /') are,
In Art. 32
it
was shown
middle point of a
/*'+;*"
/+/\
and
but
-^ + Va -4^.
2
~ Xa 2
2
its
coefBcient of z with
sign changed.
92
Analytical Geometry.
Calling the co-ordinates of the middle point (E) of
CD,
f
.
(X, Y).
TU Then
and
v X= Y =
*?
_
+
2
b,
xff
.
mb p _____
...
(5)
-^^=-2
......
(6)
Remembering that an equation to a line must express a constant relation between the co-ordinates of every point
on that
tion
is
cannot form a part of the equathe y-intercept, of the chords, is constant, since the
we
chords are
would ordinarily be necessary then to eliminate b between (5) and (6), but in this case (6) does not contain b and hence it represents the true
parallel.
It
We
will designate it
thus
It
CD
for evidently represents every point on this diameter, was any chord, and hence the expression for its middle
point will apply equally well to all the chords. Cor. I : The form of this equation shows that the diameter is always parallel to the X-axis, that is, to the axis of
the parabola.
Cor. II
Combining (D p ) with
y
2
the
parabola equation,
we
2 px,
y
whence
*-r
=t m = 2 px
2m*
tn
Analytical Geometry.
93
By
Art. 63
it
was found
whose slope
which
is
is
\2
here.
slope,
m ),] I
A
Hence
m, as the parallel chords, and is, therefore, to them. That is, the tangent at the end of a diameter is parallel to
system of parallel chords.
its
Definition:
The chord
is
ART. 67. The two following propositions are interesting as applications of the principles already discussed. To find the equation to the locus of the intersection of
tangents perpendicular to each other.
It is
of
The
is
then y
If
m'x
-\
m'
the
m'
m
= m
(
and
(2)
becomes, y
(i),
^
2
(3)
m)
oo
-\
2 \
m]
is,
];
whence x =
2
(i)
and
(3)
is
the equation of
is
But x =
2
all
the equa-
hence
94
that
Analytical Geometry.
are
perpendicular
to
each
other
intersect
on
the
directrix.
ART.
68.
To
any
tan-
from y
the focus.
H
&,
The equation
The equation
of
any tangent
line is
= mx
(i).
to a line
is
by (C), y
in'
lx
(2).
The
point [-, o)
Since (2)
is
-),
y=
m/
)
;;/
2 /
m
x.
--,
2
(3).
(i),
=
(
Whence
But x
to the
o,
o is the equation of the Y-axis, .'. every tangent parabola intersects the perpendicular upon it from
ART. 69. It is sometimes desirable to express the equation of a parabola with reference to a point of tangency as origin, and with the tangent and a diameter through
the point of tangency as axes. Knowing the co-ordinates of the point of tangency in
is
terms of the tangent slope and knowing that the diameter to the axis, it is easy to apply the transformation
||
Remembering
to the old,
that the
new X-axis
is
(a
diameter)
is
parallel
hence
is
6=0,
new Y-axis
a tangent and
Analytical Geometry.
95
origin become,
Also
(a, b)
new
x
^y
Equations
<
J
= =
a
t
& -f
x/ x
cos 6 -f
sin
/i
y cos
7 sm
/
<k.
i
o'
+
,
9,
become,
=
2
1-
xf
+y
cos o
cos
<^
[since cos 6
= =
2
= =
i].
+y
sin
[since sin
sin
o].
f=
we
get,
sn (h
or since
cos
xf
+/
r
-
cos
m=
.
tan
sin (h
cos
<j>
(p sin
^T^C^> +
/2
;y
sin
sin
0=2
cot
2
Since
we 2
be written,
=
y
2
c6
+i=
x
-^
this
may
2 px,
= *p(*+>)
x>
96
Analytical Geometry.
where
angle
it
is
the
makes with
70.
the
ART.
its
The parabola
body describes a
path, determined by the resultant of the forces of projection and of gravity acting together upon the moving body
[neglecting air resistance].
In a given time,
space,
t,
with a velocity,
v,
a body will
move
s=
S
vt.
(i).
2
Meanwhile
(2) [g
it
falls
through a space
=
2
gt
acceleration
by
gravity.]
Square
(i)
and divide by
S
(2)
g
s,
which
like
if
undiverted by gravity,
space,
S,
is
an
abscissa,
and
that
the vertical
that
the
body
would
Also
fall
by action
:
of gravity, is like
an ordinate.
is
g
*>
Hence
That
-=
S
is,
^
g
or s 2
^- S
2
is
2 exactly like y
2 px.
g
is
a parabola,
if
we
neglect
EXERCISE.
Find the equations
ing parabolas
1.
:
of the tangents to
f = 6x
2
at
at
(,
4).
2.
3.
x2
= 9x = 6y
(4, 6).
at
(6, 6).
Analytical Geometry.
45.
97
/=
y*=
-4*
4 a#
98
22.
Analytical Geometry.
The
base of a triangle
is
10 and the
sum
of the
Show that the locus of tangents of the base angles is 2. the vertex is a parabola and find its equation.
23.
is
The
=9 x,
3.
of its parameter.
to the
24.
x2
parabola
CHAPTER
THE
ART.
71.
VII.
ELLIPSE.
defined,
for
The
ellipse
is
the purposes
of
of
distances from two fixed points, called foci, always the same; that is, constant. It will be seen later that it is a
conic in which e
<
i.
The
line
AA'
(Fig. 36),
through the
foci,
F and
F', ter-
is
called the
to
is
the line
BB' perpendicular
minor or
ART.
centre
72.
To
(Fig. 36) as origin and the major and minor Draw PF' and PF, lines from axes as co-ordinates axes.
any
Also
PD
perpendicular to AA'.
[(OD, PD)
in Fig. 36]
ioo
Analytical Geometry.
represent J
;;
AA'
PF', by /;
OB, by
b,
PF, by
It is required to find the relation between PD and OD, using the constants, a, b, and c. The right triangles PDF and PDF', immediately suggest the means, as they contain
together the co-ordinates (x, y) and part of the constants, and also PF and PF' whose sum is a constant by definition.
r = y + (c - x) or r = Vy~ + (c ~ x) In PDF' PF' = PD + DF' V = y + (c + x) or c + xr r' = V/ + or = a constant; By definition r + /
2
2 2
,
In
PDF,
PF 2 = PD + DF 2
2
......
-
(i)
.....
let
(2)
mine
this constant.
ellipse
FA + F'A =
this constant.
+ FA = FF' + 2 FA. + FA = F'A' + FA' = 2 F'A' + F'F. That 5^ + 2 FA = 2 F'A' + #, FA = F'A'. whence = F'F' + 2 FA = F'F + FA + F'A' = 2 a. /. FA + F'A /. r + / = 2 a.
But
F'A
Also
F'A
is,
Adding
(i)
(c
and
x)
(2);
2
+
y*
+ yy +
2
(c
x)
+/= 2
(3)
+ (c + x) = + (c-x)
2
2 4 a
4 a
vY
2
(c
x)
j-r2cx
whence
4 ex
-{
2T=4a
+/
2 4 a
+/=
4 a \x CX
2 4 a \/y
+./ + (c
x)
2
.
Analytical Geometry.
101
- 2j^x -f a = ay + a c -2^oHoc+a + (a - c * = a (a - c ay
x2
4
x2
(4)
The form
of this equation
may be
readily changed by
BF + BF' =
but
2 a,
BF = BF'
(since
BB'
is
perpendicular to
a.
AA'
at its
middle).
BF=
a2
b
2
=
*
that
is,
or
= = +
'
c c
2 2
.
J
>
*'
c
+ ^'^
\
,-
'V
^ ^'
;-'
\
-
.'
a2
2
Substituting in (4) a 2? 2
*2
a 262
(A e )
is
The form
of this equation
its
sym-
two axes.
is
that of
=
i
eP
'
cos 6
where p = distance from directrix to focus and e ART. 73. There are, by definition, two latera
<
i.
recta,
one
through each focus. Since they are ordinates, their values are found by substituting in the equation the abscissas of
the foci, that
is,
x
a2
=
x
2
\/a
in
2
.
Substituting this
value of
b
2
whence
/+ y =
2
(a
(A e ),
b
2
=
a
a 2b2
a2
That
is,
latus
rectum
102
Analytical Geometry.
74.
ART.
In Fig. 37,
Also
A'F'
e,
since A'
is
(the ellipse),
whence A'F'
= e A'N
[Since
Also AF'
= eAN,
(2);
(2).
is
a point on conic.]
Add
(i)
and
+ AF' = e (A'N + AN) = e (A'N + A'N + AA') = e (2 A'N + 2 A'O) = 2.1 (A'N + A'O) = 2 e ON, or AA'
A'F'
that
i
s>
a =r
2 e
ON
-cfr
ON = -
(3)
But
- A'N) = e AA' = 2 ae. = AF' - A'F' = AF' - FA = A'F', Art. 82] = FF = 2 c. [since FA 2 ae = 2 c [since FF' = 2 c\ c = ae ...
.
(4)
Again,
NF'
= NO =
/>
OF'
= -- c= - -
ae;
that
is,
NF'
Analytical Geometry.
103
Hence
may
be written,
a
i
ie cos
e
= [taking
Va* a
F' as pole].
b
2
<
This
the
is
ratio
less than i, by above equation. the eccentricity of the ellipse is expressed thus; between its semi-focal distance and the semia, e is
always
The sum
by the
its
any point on
We know
a constant;
sum
is
is
now we
show
the
equation.
ellipse
P Draw
ABA'B'.
also
(Fig. 38.)
FT
P
and FP,
PD
perpendicular
In
to
The
co-ordinates of
are B
(x, y).
B'
Fig. 38.
F'PD,
=
2
PD + FD"2
2 2
(i)
but
PD = f =
F'D
(a
*2 ) [from
ae
(A,)],
and
F'O
+ OD =
+x
IO4
Analytical Geometry.
FF
= a2
2
(a
x2
x2 )
(ae
+ *) =
2
^- + a a
2
aex
tf-
^
a2
a>
+ +
a2
- ^+
aex
x\
[since
? _ 2Ll^] =
^-
a**
("
>
-/>*'
[adding
and x 2 ]
a2
+
2
ae#
^2
[for
^^* =* *
2
2
].
/.
F'P=
ex
(i)
By
FP=a-*
FPD,
(2)
and
(2).
FT + FP =
2 a.
2 a.
FP
sum
of
To Construct
ART.
76.
the Ellipse.
The
major
:
sum
of the distances of
equal to the
First
axis, gives
Method
its
and attach
Take a cord the length of the major axis, extremities at the two foci with a pencil
caught in the loop thus formed, and keeping the cord It will be an ellipse, for the stretched, describe a curve.
sum
of
attachment (the
is, the major axis. Second Method: Taking one of the foci as centre and any radius less than the major axis, describe two arcs above
axis,
Analytical Geometry.
centre
105
to
the difference
between the
major axis and the first radius, describe intersecting arcs. These points of intersection will be points on the ellipse, for the sums of their distances from the foci will equal the
sum
them
is,
As many points
as desired
will
may
be an
Fig. 39-
As
foci.
in Fig. 39 let
A A' be the major axis, F and F' the AB as radius and F' as centre describe
F
as centre describe
will
Then
arcs
n and
and S
be points on
the ellipse.
Taking any desired number of points as C, D, etc., perform the same operation, thus determining any desired number of points. A smooth curve through these points
will
ellipse
con-
struction
the relation
The
and those on
shown
is
in
Art.
97
known
as a
and
is
only an approximation.
io6
First
Analytical Geometry.
Method: Let O be the centre of the ellipse- A A' the major axis; BB' the minor axis; BCB' the minor circle and ADA' the major circle. (Fig. 390.) Take any number of points on the major circle as R,
From these points draw the points of intersection of draw lines to the major axis, AA'.
radii
||
S, T, etc. and ordinates, and through the radii with the minor circle,
Where
these parallels
D
Fig. 3Qa.
The intersect the ordinates will be points on the ellipse. be made as close together as desired by drawpoints may A smooth curve joining these of radii. ing a great number will form the ellipse. Take the point S, its radius, OS, points
and
its
intersection with
BCB',
: :
P.
Draw PN.
:
In the triangle
OSN'
OP OS
:
N'N
SN',
is
that
is,
/,
hence
point
three
on
the
ellipse.
is
known
as
the
centre
method, or three point method, and is approximate only. (Fig. 396). Let AA' and BB' be the axes, intersecting at
Analytical Geometry.
107
the diagonal A'B.
perpendicular to A'B and prowith C as a centre and BC as C; radius describe arc MN; with E (whose cuts AA') as
From
BOA'D
and draw
DE
duce
to
meet BB'
at
DC
centre
and A'E as radius describe arc A'N'. With O as centre and OB as radius describe
arc
BF,
cutting
AA'
at
F.
On A'F
as
diameter construct
the
semicircumference A'B"F, cutting B'B produced upward at B." Lay off BB" from O toward B' to C'. With C as
centre
and CC'
RS.
With
as centre
and
T.
as radius
draw
RS
at
T
A
as
MN,
elliptic
quadrant
also
A'B.
BB' and
below AA'
io8
Analytical Geometry.
EXERCISE.
What
ellipses:
1.
and
eccentricities
of
the following
9
2
2.
x2 *2
+ +
is
16 y 2
144.
16.
3. 4.
4/ =
x2 2 i *
+ 9y = +$/=
2
81.
I.
5.
In an
sum
any point
and
between
foci is 3'.
the ellipse equation ? 6. In a given ellipse the sum of the focal radii of any point is 10", and the difference of the squares of half this
is
What
sum and
is
7.
between the
foci is 16.
What
of
3.
The
is
eccentricity of an ellipse
is
-f
the point
whose abscissa
axis of
is
What
8.
The major
an
ellipse is 34",
is its
between
9.
foci is 16".
What
equation
axis
is
Find equation of the ellipse, in which the major 14" and the distance between foci = \/3 times the
axis.
minor
10.
In the ellipse
x2
8,
twice
its
ordinate?
What
are
the
co-ordinates
64,
of
the
is
point,
on
x2
16 y 2
whose ordinate
of
3 times its
x2
of
16 y 2
25
and
x=
3.
13.
the
intersection
points
the
25.
ellipse
i6 y 2
14. 15.
^2
288,
and the
circle
x2
common
chord.
to the ellipse
Analytical Geometry.
109
and
1 6.
circle
of Ex.
13
at
whose
is
An
arch
is
an arc of the
ellipse
chord, which is parallel to the major axis and is bisected by the minor axis, is 24' long. The greatest height of the arc is 8'. Find the equation of the ellipse and plot
30',
its
and
the arc.
17. A section of the earth through the poles is approximately an ellipse; a section parallel to the equator is a circle. What is the circumference of the Tropic of Cancer,
the angle at the centre of the earth between a line to any point on it and a line to a point on the equator being 2^-2^? 1 8. If two points on a straight line, distant respectively
a and
b,
from
its
and X-
moved around,
the extremity
will describe
an
ellipse,
From
ART.
this,
suggest a
ellipse.
77.
Tangent
The method
and
Taking
equation (B)
no
A nalytical
(of,
Geometry.
/)
2
be on the
2
ellipse,
ABA'B',
say m and n, then they must satisfy the equation = a p X a y + = a b ..... a y' + b x' That .... a /' + b x" = a b and
2
m
is,
(i) (2)
^/2
whence
Substituting this value of
-
y/ -
_ y --^
in (B);
which
is
the equation
of
the
secant
mw
(Fig. 40).
If
(x", y") is
made
takes place,
2
mn
x'
or
Cor. Letting
= y=
'
^7
a 2 y' 2 a 2 y' 2
*~"'
xx'
,.
= -
+
2
b x'
2
2
.
x'
)
a b
get
in
(T
we
RM = OM - OR = OM +
b
2
*'.*
a 2 yy'
= xx' =
y
o in (T e )
a2 b2
,
x=
x'
* It
is to
= OM.
be observed that only length is considered in estimating and subnormal, hence it is unnecessary to regard
Analytical Geometry.
in
Then subtangent
= RM =
x7
a2
x*
x'
b2 x'
ART.
78.
its
slope
rela-
by the
Fig. 41.
The
tangent slope
is
x' -
is
and
its
equation will be
(N.)
in
(N e ) we
get
the
^-intercept
RN = OR - ON =
- ON.
ii2
Analytical Geometry.
Letting
o in (Ne ),
(x
2 J xf
a2
a2
xf,
Then
ART.
Let be a secant
79.
RN =
x?
_7,2 - ---/*2
x'
7,2
-/
.
= mx
2
-{-
.......
b
2
(i)
(2
)
a y
x2
a2 b2
Combining
a
2
(i)
and
a2
2
m
b
x
)
+
2
x2
(a
m +
2
= = =
a 2 b2 a 2 b2
o.
Now
if
this secant
of
intersection,
by
this
equation,
become one point, the point of tangency. As we know the condition that this equation should have equal roots is
or,
or
m + b (a c - a b = ^<c - a m b + a b c c = c =
2
(a
)
4
(a
me}
2
2
,
a2
a2
b*
= ^m ^ m +b ^/a m + b\
2
it
and
that
is,
the slope
= mx
^a m +
2 2
(T e m )
,
ART.
80.
To draw a tangent
to the ellipse.
It will
ellipse
has the
Analytical Geometry.
113
same
major
ellipse
^-intercept as
having the
to
draw a tangent
an
circle
meet
of tan-
Fig. 42.
gency on the
ellipse will
the ^-intercept of the tangents to the circle at this point and to the ellipse will cut the X-axis in the same point.
Draw a tangent to the circle at this point and join the point of intersection with X-axis with the point of tangency on the ellipse. The last line will be a tangent to the ellipse
at the required point.
(Fig. 42.)
Then
RP
is
Supplemental Chords.
ART. 81.
point on an
plemental chords.
H4
Analytical Geometry
Let AP and A'P be supplemental chords of the ellipse ABA'B' for the point P. (Fig. 43.) The equation of AP through the point A [whose coordinates are
(a, o)],
is
[by (C)]
(i)
y= m (xB
a)
The
ordinates are
a)],
m',
.
is
.
[by (C)]
. . .
(2)
multiplying (i)
and
(2) together,
y>
= mm
(y*
-a
2 )
....
(3)
which expresses the relation between the co-ordinates of But P (x y) is on the ellipse, hence P, their intersection.
}
a 2 y2 or
2
+ =
x2
(a
a2 b2
4)
ordinates of the
tion;
Since (3) and (4) express the relation between the cosame point, they must be the same equa-
hence comparing;
mm'
which
gives
the
relation
ART. 82.
between the slopes of supplemental chords. The equation to a diameter of the ellipse.
it
The diameter
will
be remembered,
is
Analytical Geometry.
Let
ellipse
RS
ABA'B'
2 2
be any one of a system of parallel chords of the (Fig. 44), and T its middle point.
2 2 equation of RS, and a y
2
Let y
equation.
Combining
(i)
and
of
(2),
we
get an equation
if
and
S, respectively,
R
2
and
2 2
S, if
x be eliminated.
a2 b2 a2 b2
,
e)
mxc
b
2
+
+
,
a a
2
-\
a2
2
me
m +
..
_ 2
+b c + b ^_^
2
x x2
= =
&2= Q
(3)
Then by
a2
me
b
2
m +
a 2 y2
a 2 y2
b
2
+
2 b
2
Z>
^ m
yc
= =
a2 b2
a2 b2
1 16
A nalytical
a2
Geometry.
2
2 b
yc
b c
a2 b2
2
,
= +
and
Since c
is
2b 2 C
a2
>
Y=
^m- =
2
2 a,
+b +yC M w +6
2 2 . 2
.
--.
(6)
a variable
it
(4)
express the relations between the co-ordinates of these mid-points of the chords in terms of
(6),
and
for
we must
Divide
(6
by
(4)
Y_ X
a2
m +
2
__
a
2
- a 2 me
a
2
m +
2
is
it
expresses a constant
relation
and RS
between the co-ordinates of the mid-point of RS, stands for any one of the parallel chords, m is a
all
have the
same
slope.
The form
of this equation
it
ellipse is
chords.
Analytical Geometry.
117
Conjugate Diameters.
ART. 83.
It will
be observed
in the
equation
;
=
a2
x, the slope is
a2
that
is,
it
is
a2
divided by m, the slope of the chords. If a system of chords be drawn parallel to this
eter, their slope will
first
diam-
be that of
b
2
this diameter,
namely,
a2
m
be
-
The
of chords,
by above
b
2 1
principle, will
b
2
a2
* ~ ~T~ = m a2 m
is
is
Hence
is
= mx.
The
the
same
as that of the
chords of the
hence each
the system determining the other. Such diameters are called conjugate diameters
and
are
ART.
84.
The
are
its
farther a chord
drawn
farther
any system of parallel chords, as the chords are and farther from the centre, their points of
intersection
and their mid-points approach coincidence, and eventually the chord becomes a tangent at the end of
the diameter,
when
n8
Hence
This
the
Analytical Geometry.
is
combined with the relation between conjugate defined in Art. 83, enables us to readily draw diameters, any pair of conjugate diameters. Thus: at the extremity
fact,
of
drawn
tangent will
be the conjugate
to the
given diameter.
ART. 85.
The
co-ordinates of extremities of
its
a diameter
conjugate.
Fig. 45.
Let the co-ordinates of R, the extremity of the diameter RS, be (V, /), to find the co-ordinates of R'.
* This
may
The
ellipse
intersection point
of the diameter y
b2
=
x with
the
a 2 y2
+
b
2
b2
x2
y'
a2 b 2
is
\/a
m +
2
and
substituting
these points for points of tangency, we find the slope of the tangent Hence tangent at x', y' t to be m, but this is the slope of the chords.
is
parallel to chords.
Analytical
Geometry.
119
Draw
equation
the tangent
is
(Fig.
a 2 yy
b xx'
45) a2 b2
is
MN
.
at R.
By xx
f
(T.)
its
Then
since
a 2 yy
is
(i)
it is
MN,
but
drawn through
the origin,
is o.
Let the
ellipse
2 equation be as usual, a
^ +
x2
a2 b2
Since (#',/)
is
on the
a y'
2 2
ellipse;
b x'
a2 b2
.....
(2)
and the ellipse equation be combined, the resulting values of x and y will be the co-ordinates of the points of intersection, R' and S'. Substituting the value of y from (i) in the ellipse equation,
If (i)
a2
b
2
y
x'
2 2
(b
+
2
a 2 y'
2 }
.
a,
/
2
x2
a2
(a
2 }
__ a , b ,
2 [Since b x'
f
a 2 y'
a 2 b2
point (x
/) being on
the ellipse.]
Whence
b
.
*-f>
and hence
y
a/
-F
120
Analytical Geometry.
ART. 86.
co-ordinates
RT
The length of conjugate diameters. Draw the and R'T' of R and R' respectively, R and
B
(Fig. 46.)
Then
if
*',
ORT
,2
and OR'T'
OR =
and OR' 2 = OT' 2 + R'T' 2 =
+
b
2
Then
OR + OR' =
2
2
5r
b x' 2
2
+ /' +
a* y'*
+
b
2
a 2 y' 2
+
a
2
x' 2
a 2 b2
^r + -^==
a2 b2
.
a2 b2
.
2
for since (x
r
,
/)
is
on the
x'
2
ellipse,
a 2 y' 2
That
is,
the
sum
of the squares of
any pair
of conjugate
sum
Analytical Geometry.
121
a'
&',
and
b'
a2
2
.
ART.
87. Major and Minor auxiliary circles. The circle drawn with the major axis as diameter
is
The
circle
drawn with
is
called
is called the eccentric angle of the ellipse. The eccentric angle of any point is determined, thus: Produce the ordinate of the given point to meet the
P on
Fig. 47.
major auxiliary
line
circle,
and
join this
point of meeting on
The
and the
axis,
measured
ellipse.
of the point
on the
ART. 88.
the ellipse
and
on the major
is
.
circle.
The
equation of the
major
circle,
whose radius
a2
a, is,
.
x2
-j-
a 2 or y 2
x2
(i)
122
Analytical Geometry.
and P,
(*',
/).
P
2
Then from
2
(i),
2
y"
2
a2
x'
2
x' 2
(2)
Also,
y'
=b
(a
(3)
P
'
f
or
a2
:
2_
y"
=
a
whence y f
y"
a.
That is, the ordinate oj any point on the ellipse is to the ordinate of the corresponding point on the major circle as
the semi-minor axis is to the semi-major axis.
Corollary: Let
circle.
Q be the intersection
and OP'
of
OP' with
the minor
(Fig. 47.)
Join
Q with
since
:
P.
b
:
Then
and
or
OQ =
:
:
/ f
is,
a,
:
= a, / /'
:
OQ
is,
OP',
to
PD
That
P'D
OQ
OD;
OP'.
that
parallel
QP
is
parallel to
the
axis.
Hence RP,
of
the prolongation of
the abscissa of
P and
P'.
OD
drawing an
ellipse.
Thus:
Draw two
minor axes
positions.
concentric circles with the given major and as diameters, respectively, in their normal
angle with the major axis, as AOP' in Fig. 47, the terminal line of this angle intersect the two and P' respectively. Then the intersection of circles in
Make any
let
and
the abscissa,
RQ,
of
P', will
be a point on the
ellipse.
Analytical Geometry.
123
This
(Fig.
may
OP'
47) in the right triangle OP'D, cos P'OD a cos <, say, and drawing
OD
(= RP)
QE
perpen-
dicular to
PD = QE = OQ
a cos
<f>
OA,
t
sin
<
QOD =
a 2 y2
b sin 0,
2
for
x and
2 2
b sin
+b
2
x2
<f>
thus,
a b sin
+
sin
2
a b cos
(f>
=a =a
b b
2
,
cos 2 <f>=
i,
hence since
the ellipse.
OD
and
PD
is
on
ART.
89.
The
eccentric
diameters.
(yf,
and
that of
- -^ +
,
the extremity of
Fig. 48.
the conjugate diameter RS be <f>. (Fig. 48.) Then in the right triangle OP'T',
124
Analytical Geometry
cos
P'OT'
p~
or cos d
= -
(i)
OPT,
sin
P"OT =
^. =
sin
*__-.
[Art. 88]
That
is,
sin (180
<j>)
6=
=
a
(2)
.'.
sin
=
90
and
(2),
whence by trigonometry,
=
(j)
or
<j)
90.
That
is,
the difference
the extremities of conjugate diameters is a right angle. ART. 90. By combining the slope equations of
readily proved, as
two
is
parabola,
oj their 'intersections
circle,
whose equation
x>
y*
a2
2
.
Also by a similar can be shown that the major auxiliary circle is process the locus of the intersection oj a tangent with the perpendic-
This
ular
to it
from a focus.
ART.
91.
The
ellipse
possesses
physical
property,
somewhat similar to that possessed by the parabola, namely: The angle formed by the focal radii to any point on the
ellipse is bisected
Geometry
tells
tri-
Analytical Geometry.
to the other sides, hence,
if
125
(Fig. 49) that
It is
we can prove
is
F'N
FN
F'P
FP
our proposition
established.
necessary then to find values for these four lines in the same terms. the ^-intercept of the normal was found in Art. 78, Cor. to be
ON
a2
xf
where x f
is
Fig. 49.
Let
(Fig. 49)
be
c
(*',
Then F'N
F'O
+ ON = =
a
e,
+ cV =
c
/).
ae
(since
hence
ae\
But
(Art. 75)
f
2 2
ex
ex
ae
e (a
ex
F'N
F'P
FN
It
if
FP
or
F'N
FN
F'P
FP.
light or
sound
issue
ellipse
it
will
126
Analytical Geometry.
ART.
92.
The area
oj
an
ellipse.
Draw
and
the major auxiliary circle to the ellipse construct rectangles as indicated in Fig. 50.
ABA'B',
.
Then
mnpo
is
Area mnpo
Let the points on the (V, /'), (X", /"),
= mn X
pn.
beginning with p be (V, /), and the corresponding points on etc., f f the circle beginning with R, be (x y^, (x", y 2 ), (x" y 3 ) etc. f Then Area mnpo = (V x") y
ellipse
, ,
.
The corresponding
mnRS =
.
(x
Ix'
f
mnRS =
mnpo
- x") yv - x"\ y_ = ^=
v
\x
x"J y
y'
b'
a typical rectangle each circle rectangle is to each ellipse rectangle as a is to b, hence by the law of continued proportion, the sum of all the circle rectangles is to
this is
As
the
sum of all the ellipse rectangles as a is to b. As the above expression is independent of the
size
or
Fig. 50.
the
the
individual
rectangles
the
relation
infinite.
is
the
number
of rectangles
becomes
But
Analytical Geometry.
in this latter case the
127
sum
Area Area
a
b
That
circle,
is,
=
a
?ra
2
.
times
the
area of
the
no 2
nab.
EXERCISE.
What
ellipses ? ipses
1.
2.
3. 4.
5.
6.
7.
+ 3 / = 3 at the point (f i). x + 25 y = 225 at the point (4, ?). 9 = 25 at the point (?, 2). 25 x + 100 y x + 2 y = 18 at the point (?, i).
x*
,
i).
(i,
f \/2).
to the
above
ellipses.
What are the equations of the tangents to 16 y 2 + 9 x 2 = 144 from the point (3, 2) ? 9. What is the equation of the tangent to
8.
2 9 x
the ellipse
25 y
225, that
is
the ellipse y 8x 5.
10.
What
4 y
2
is
x2
+
11.
4,
x \/3
i ?
What
is
2 4 x
9 y*
36,
the equation of the tangent to the ellipse which is perpendicular to the line
^- 3 *=
5?
128
12.
,
Analytical Geometry.
is |.
eccentricity is
13. Find the equation of the tangent to the ellipse in terms of the eccentric angle of the point of tangency. 14.
What
y
4
2
x
9
i,
axis?
15.
What
-\-
is
4^ +
16.
9^=o? 2 y x=
The middle
is
(
and
3 are
?
supplementary
chords of an
17.
ellipse.
What
is its
equation
= =
225
18.
5,
2 point of a chord of the ellipse 25 y 9 What is the equation of the chord? i).
x2
The
is
64
2 2 equation of a diameter to the ellipse 4 x +16 y x. What is the equation of a tangent to the 4y
ellipse at the
19.
end
of
its
conjugate diameter ?
of
the
*V^
i,
16
9
line 2
with the
20.
2
i.
4 y
Find the equation of the normal to the ellipse x 2 + 4 which is parallel to the line 4 x 37= 7.
?
21.
Show
from
is
22.
diameter
the
of
the
ellipse
x2
16
3
y2 *9
i,
which
bisects
chords
parallel
to
23.
which pass
through
3)
internally to
x2
25.
Analytical Geometry.
129
24.
The
is
equation of an ellipse
x2
is
v2
144
i.
169
What
is
whose abscissa
5?
25.
Find the equation of the chord joining the points [called the chord of contact] of two tangents to 2 2 the ellipse 9 x + 16 y = 144, drawn from (4, 3) outside
of contact
the ellipse.
26.
base
i
2 a,
Find the locus of the vertices of triangles having the and the product of the tangents of their base
angles
27.
& c
The minor
axis of
an
ellipse is 18,
and
is
its
area
is
is
24.
What
and
50.
Find the
it is
CHAPTER
VII.
THE HYPERBOLA.
ART.
93.
The
characteristic of
the
hyperbola
is
it,
that
the difference of the distances of any point on two fixed points, is constant.
from
With
this
To
foci are
be any point on the hyperbola, whose and whose vertices are A and A'. Draw F', the ordinate PD and the focal radii PF, PF'.
In Fig. 51,
and
Fig. Si.
The
co-ordinates of
are
the origin,
OX
and
OY
the axes.
Analytical Geometry.
to find a relation
131
right tri-
between
OD
(i).
PF2
_ cy
|-
since
FD = OD - OF = x
2
-c]
(2)
(x-c)
In the right triangle F'PD, PF'2
==
2
.....
2 2 2 2
By
definition,
constant
m,
say.
- r=2
Transpose and square;
m.
(x
and divide by
(
4;
m \/y +
Square again;
~~ C
Y=
2
ex
m
2
2
.
(4)
it
x and y
o,
is
We then get the value of hyperbola. the ordinates of A and A' are o.
Letting y
o in
(4)
(m
x2
=m
(m
132
Analytical Geometry.
whence
but
x2
= m
OA
2
;
x
or
=
OA',
m,
x here equals
hence
that
call
is,
AA',
Let
the ellipse
(5)
ellipse
or
-a
(A)
is
ART.
94.
A
a,
greater than
= a
is
>
i.
Then
=
i
e cos
(e
>
i),
becomes
a(e
i
i)
e cos
ART.
95.
To determine
2
b in the figure of
a hyperbola.
The
and
relation c
c
triangle with
as
a2
B and
b,
a2
Analytical Geometry.
It is
133
plain that the curve does not cut this minor axis,
for, setting
o]
in (A,),
a 2 y2
b
2
=
=
a2 b2
=
96.
A/
To
b\/
i,
an imaginary value.
ART.
point, r
any
and /.
Fig. sia.
In Fig. 510,
or
PF =
2
r
2
= =
= PD + FD + (x - c)
2 2
.
2
,
(i)
Since
ae,
and
(i)
becomes,
r
2
or
=f+ X=y +x
( 2 2
ae}\
2
aex
a 2 e2
134
2
Analytical Geometry.
By
(A h ),y
=
=
(*
-<z 2 ).
/.
^
b
2
+* 2
ae*
a2
( fl2
2
fr
*2
b
2
aex
a2
e2 .
2 [But a
+b
= +
2 ]
=
<r
aex
a2
x2
2 tf&v
a 2e2
x2
aex
a 2 [since a 2
b2
.......
By
exactly similar treatment of (3) Art. 93,
(3)
we
get,
/=
Subtract (3) from (4),
the constant difference r
axis.
f
ex
r
f
a
r =
.......
2 a,
(4)
r is
ART.
97.
comparison of the
if
ellipse
and hyperbola
b
2
is
sub-
2
,
since the fundamental processes in deriving tangent, norall curves, the equations for these lines in relation to the hyperbola can be derived from the corresponding equations in the
ellipse
by substituting
for b
2
.
Analytical Geometry.
135
For example
(a)
The
ellipse
y+
f
b2
xx >
a2
62j
is,
xx
2 2
xxf
f
a yy
= =a
2
a2 b2
b
2
. .
.
(T h )
The
slope form
is,
y
(6)
= mx
^/a
m -
2
. .
.
(T A
is,
is,
_
(c)
= _
a
b
2
2
y
x'
(x
x/]
The
subtangent then
is
00
is
b 2 x' -
a2
(d)
the
same
The
is,
vb
2
a2m
*,
is,
a2
m m
[
and
b
2
m', say,
is
mm'
2 replaces b ].
136
Analytical Geometry.
98.
ART.
As the
ellipse
becomes a
a,
circle
when
its
axes
become
equal, for
when
= =
a 2 y2
so
if
x2
a 2 b 2 becomes y 2
x2
a2
it
become
the
equal,
we
call
an
equilateral
hyperbola-analogue of
a\ then
the circle.
In b 2
is
x2
a 2 y2
a2 b2
let
x2
is
a2
the equation of an equilateral hyperbola. ART. 99. The latus rectum of the hyperbola
its
readily
found from
equation by setting
x
Whence
2
=
2
=
2
\/a
b
2
2
.
b (a
+
b -
a 2y2
=
a
a b2
a2
'
l = + b
=
latus rectum, since
it
2y=
2 b
is
the
EXERCISE.
What
x2
2
and
eccentricities
of
the following
hyperbolas
i.
3.
5.
7.
a;
2.
4.
6. 8.
2 x2 4 y = 4. 2 8 f = 15. 5 x 2 2 = 12. 4y 3 x
4% 2
is
i6y
if
64.
9.
What
is
7,
and
half the
Analytical Geometry.
10.
137
What
The
jugate axis
11.
is
the equation of the hyperbola, whose con6 and eccentricity, ij? co-ordinates of a certain point on a hyperbola,
is
whose major
tion.
axis
is 20,
are
6,
=
is
4.
Find
its
equa-
12.
The
eccentricity of a hyperbola
if,
focal
5,
is
32.
Find hyperbola
latus
equation.
13.
In a hyperbola
its
= =
20,
and the
rectum
Find
14.
equation.
The
conjugate axis
10,
axis
is
Find the equation. = 16 and the transverse 15. The conjugate axis f of the distance between foci. Find the equation.
In
the
axis
16.
hyperbola
25
x2
4y
100,
is
find
the
its
whose ordinate
2$ times
find
In the hyperbola 25
x2
the
V
:
of the following
2
16 y
4x
16
and
an d
3.
19.
499
4-2L
16
6
2
=L
$y
2x + 8=o.
20. 21.
22. 23.
9 y 9 y 16 x 2
2
25 ^
2
400 and
2
4X
2
-\-
16 y 2
100.
16.
24.
16 y2
25.
50 and #
=
,
Ex.
22
inter-
sect?
138
Analytical Geometry.
method
ellipse.
of
The definition of the hyperbola suggests a mechanical construction similar to that for the
is
constant,
a fixed length of string be taken, attached at the two foci, and the same amount subtracted from each of two
branches, continually, the hyperbola results.
Fig. 52'
In Fig. 52,
pivoted at F',
to its free
let
a straight
edge of length
2 a,
be
and one end of a string of length- / be fastened end, N, and attached to the focus F, at its other
end.
string stretched
of the hyperbola.
branch
For
at
any
point as at P,
Analytical Geometry.
'39
The
other branch
may
ing at F,
and attaching the string at F'. Second Method : The hyperbola may
by points, making use of the definition. Let AA' [Fig. 52 (a)] be the major axis, F and F' the 'foci and O the centre.
Fig.
5a.
Let
LK
[Fig. 52 (b)]
number of points on
Fig. 52b.
LP > LK
as radius
and F and
describe arcs as at G, H, G' and H'; with the same centres and as radius, describe intersecting arcs at G, H, G' and H'. The intersections will be points on the ellipse for the radii LP AA'. The same process
KP
- KP = LK =
with points R, S, T, etc., will 'give as many points as desired. smooth curve through these points will be the hyperbola.
140
Analytical Geometry.
CONJUGATE HYPERBOLA.
ART. TOI.
axis
coincides
with
is
the'^-axis.
MEN
RB'S
(Fig. 53).
Fig.
53-
Its
equation
is
readily found to be
ay -
oc
a 2b 2
ART. 102. If the equations of two conjugate diameters be combined with the equation to the original hyperbola, it will be found that the results will be imaginary for one
of
the
diameters,
Let
= mx
(i)
Analytical Geometry.
141
and
.
.
<>
be conjugate diameters.
a 2y 2
a 2b 2
(3)
we
get
from
(i)
and
(3),
a 2b 2
b
2
a2
'
from
(2)
and
(3),
a2
If
if
m 2
2
b
b
2
a2
m
2
is
2 plus, a
the
first
is
plus,
and hence
x, real, the
minus, and hence x, imaginary, or vice versa. But if (2) be combined with the conjugate hyperbola,
a 2y 2
x2
=
>
a2b2
2 a.
a2
which
is real,
if
2 .
isreal
intersect,
one,
conjugate, as aa!
and
the
original
(Fig. 53)
.
ASYMPTOTES.
ART. 103.
An
asymptote of
the
hyperbola
may be
are
whose co-ordinate
which, nevertheless, intersects at least one of the co-ordinate axes at a finite distance from the origin.
To
it is
neces-
142
Analytical Geometry.
Fig. 54-
of a line be
= mx +
a 2y 2
(i)
to the hyperbola be
b~x 2
a 2b2
(2)
2 2
a 2 mcx
a 2c 2
(a c
2 2
x2
(b
a2m2 )
a 2 mcx
=ab +ab =
2 2
,
be
infinite
if
that
is, if
= m =
x2
2
o,
or
m=
Analytical Geometry.
143
For
ax 2
+ V b - 4 ac ^ _
2
QJ"
+ bx + c = o - b - Vb - 4 ac
2
-
a
the denominator 2 a
infinite,
a o or a
In either case
values of
is
if
o the
will
be
the coefficient of
/. if
x2
m=
a 2y2
the line y
= mx +
x2
a 2 ^ 2 at infinity.
We
that
is,
in
Va m b y = mx = mx + c, if c = Va m y
2
,
2
,
= mx +
becomes a tangent.
If
m=
a a2m2
however,
~
/T
2 7l 2
<:
a2
o.
/.
at infinity
= mx +
Hence
becomes a tangent
if
=
is
and
m=
a
or
x.
The form
of these equations
pass through the origin. ART. 104. Relation between the equations of the asymptotes
and
bx)
b
2
(ay
2
bx)
b
=
2
o,
a y
or
x2
a 2y 2
o.
144
Analytical Geometry.
this
Comparing
given
its
a 2y2
a 2b2
it is
observed that
,
term a 2 b 2 hence
two asymptotes
=
a
x and y
=
a
its
2 2
are the
equations of the
asymptotes to a hyperbola,
b
2
equation
may
be written,
a y
C=
()
indicating the primary hyperbola;, the its conjugate. If in addition a point is given plus sign, which the hyperbola must pass, C can be deterthrough
the
of
minus sign
mined.
For example The asymptotes of a hyperbola are y = J x and y = J x. If the hyperbola passes through the
:
point
(6,
2Va),
(2
y
2
x)
(2
or
Substituting;
4 y
+ C=
y
2
x)
o.
(2
VI) 2 -
(6)
C=o,
whence
x2 whence 4 y 2 4 = o are the equations to primary and conjugate hyperbola. Corollary: The same principle will clearly apply no matter where the origin is taken, since both hyperbola and asymptotes are referred to the same point as origin, and hence
4,
C=
their
3
For example,
if
=
3
o and
its
;y
+
C
2jc
is,
+ 3=o,
equation
i)
+ 2X +
its
3)
(2
o.
ART. 105.
hyperbola to
It is often
asymptotes as axes.
Analytical Geometry.
'45
By
Art.
38,
made by the new axes (the and using the transformation most readily the result is
= =
x' sin 6
X' COS
.,,.
reflex
ZXON = Z -XON,
MOX
(Fig. 55).
Fig. 55-
Since
\
the
new axes
from
a
are
asymptotes,
their
is,
slopes
are
and
a
tan
tan
=
<j)
146
Analytical Geometry.
whence by Goniometry,
b
'
COS
+
sin d>
2
ft
0= -=4 Va +
2
'
2
ft
=
'a
2
cos
d>
=
2
Va +
2
ft
Va +
2
(/-*')
ft-
....
(i)
*=
*2
a 2y 2
a 2b 2
or
(/
whence
Dropping
+ ^) 4 ^y =
2
(/
a2
- y) =
2 2
-fft
.
a2
2
,
accents,
4*y=a +
2
=c
2
.
(A a>
h)
which
totes.
It
its
is
its
asymp-
of a hyperbola referred to
ART. 106.
referred to its
Equation
of
tangent
to
the
hyperbola
asymptotes. Pursuing exactly the same method as- before, we determine the equation of a secant line and revolve this line to a
tangent position.
Analytical Geometry.
147
The
(x',
/) and
(x", y")
is
If the points (x', y') and (x", /') are on the hyperbola, 2 c they must satisfy
4xy=
.-.
4X'y' =
4x"y"=
c
c
...... ......
=
x'y'
(i)
(2)
Subtracting (i)
from
x'y'
(2)
and simplifying;
o
or
x"y f
x"f
...
2
x"
(3)
x"y"
Factoring;
or
x"y
x" (y"
x"
Substituting in B,
y')
^-
= =
x'y'
x"y
y' (x"
-^
x')
x'
x"
y=
As
2
OC
(x
x') (4).
and
y approaches /,
y
x',
y"
Substituting in (4);
=-
^
f
(x
x')
whence
x'y x'y
x'y'
xy
2 x'y',
+ xy +
-,
^=* v
148
Analytical Geometry.
EXERCISE.
Tangents and Asymptotes.
x2
2 -
2 2
2.
16 y
= = = = =
12, at (12,
2)_._
3. 4.
5.
x2 i6# 2
25
4/=
-
4 at
J 44
(?,
|).
(?, 3).
9y
25
at at
/
2
-- 16
6.
7.
36 y
x2 x2
400
(3!, ?).
8.
What
and subnormal ?
bola 16
What are the equations of the tangents to the hyperx 2 9 y 2 = 144, parallel to the line 3? 5^ + 3=0? 10. What are the equations of the tangents to the hyper2 bola x 2 4 y = 4, perpendicular to the line y = -2^ + 3? 11. What is the equation of the normal to the hyperbola
9.
x2
12.
4y
16
x2
13.
.
= 4, perpendicular to the line y = 2 # + 3 ? Find the equations of the common tangents to 2 2 2 400 and x + y = 9. 25 y 2 2 Find the slope equation of a tangent a 2 y 2 b x =
2
a 2 b2
14.
2
x2
15.
y = 3, drawn through the point (3, 5). Find the equations of tangents drawn from
2
of
tangents to the
hyperbola
5) to
(2,
the hyperbola 16
16.
2
x2
25 y
400.
Find the equations of the tangents to the hyperbola 2 y 9x = 144, which with the tangent at the vertex form an equilateral triangle.
16
17.
bola 16
x2
25 y
of the hyper-
400.
Analytical Geometry.
18.
149
hyperbola having o for its asymp-
What x + i
it
is
the
equation
of
3
the
5
o and 3 x
totes, if
19.
Show
passes through (o, 7)? that the perpendicular from the focus of a
hyperbola to
20.
2
9y
its asymptote equals the semi-conjugate axis. Find the equations of the tangents to the hyperbola 2 x = o intersects it. 4 x = 56 at the points where y
21.
the
= ^-intercept
Two
2).
x2
2
25 y
2
= =
225 has
Find
its
equation.
22.
(i,
4y tangents are drawn to 9 x 36 from Find the equation of the chord joining the points
of the distances
is
of contact.
23.
The product
to
its
hyperbola
constant
?
asymptotes
constant.
What
is
the
that the sum of the squares of the reciprocals 24. of the eccentricities of conjugate hyperbolas equals unity.
25.
Show
The
a 2y 2
b 2x 2
directrix
of
the
hyperbola
^1.
c
[c
= Va +
2
],
show that the major auxiliary circle passes through the points of intersection of the directrix with the asymptotes.
Supplemental chords. Supplemental chords in the hyperbola are denned as they were in the circle and ellipse, hence from the relation
ART. 107.
between
ellipse
relation
between the
is,
mm' =
Since this
is
[putting
15
it
Analytical Geometry.
follows that there
is
diameters,
which suggests an
ART.
Since
08.
The
eccentric angle.
the
ordinates of
the
Fig. 56-
The
<j)
angle
</>
x
is
a sec
and y
b tan
(x, y).
These
for substituting;
a 2 b 2 sec 2
<
tan
a>b\
Analytical Geometry.
or
sec
is
2
<fi
151
tan 2
^>
i.
which
true by goniometry.
construct this angle for a given point, the auxiliary circles [with radii a and b] are drawn. (Fig. 56.)
To
Let
PD
P be any point on the hyperbola. Draw its ordinate and from the foot of PD draw a tangent to the major
touching
it
auxiliary circle
at
C,
then Z.
COD =
<
for
For,
draw
BE
circle,
then
OCD,
'-
cos
COD
= - [OD = =
a sec
abscissa of P]
or
Again
(i)
OB
(2)
The
triangles
COD
.'.
BOE
:
are similar.
:
:
OB OC
BE CD,
:
whence
- OC 2 BE = OB x CD = OB VOD
2
OC
or
BE =
2
az
(x
OC -a
a
2
).
But
f- -
(x
a2)
from
(A A
).
.-.
BE =
y.
Hence from
or
(2) tan
COD = y
b
y=
Comparing
(T)
b tan
COD
...
(3)
and
for 0,
we
see that
COD =
Hence
the eccentric
angle
is
152
Analytical Geometry.
the foot of the ordinate of a point, a tangent to the major Then the angle formed with the axis by auxiliary circle.
the radius
drawn
to the point of
tangency
is
is
the eccentric
The
eccentric angle
used to best
advantage in the calculus. ART. 109. There are two interesting geometrical properties of the
its
asymptotes.
the
(a)
The product
is the
any tangent on
asymptotes
same.
Fig. 57.
Let
BPC
(Fig. 57)
be a tangent at P, then
its
intercepts
on
OX and OY
respectively, will
be found
by
setting successively
o and
o in
its
equation,
^
,'
+-=2, S
'
'
whence
and
= OB = y = OC =
2 yf
2
, )
(*',
Analytical Geometry.
multiplying;
153
2
OB
OC =
4 x'
Since x'y'
(6)
is
on the hyperbola
<?/
= a +b 4 x'y' = a + 6
2
y'
(a constant).
2
.
77ze araz
is
asymptotes
(Fig. 57),
triangle formed by a tangent and the constant. The area of the triangle
//ze
BOC
by trigonometry,
is
Area
BOC =
^OC
2
gin
BQC = OROC
2
.
^
cos
sin
OB.OC.
But
~==.
.
a
.
=QB.OC
2
.;.
OB OC = area BOC =
a2
(a
+b +
2
.
That
is,
of the semi-axes.
EXERCISE.
General Examples.
1.
2 36 x
If
^=3^ +
16 y 2
15
is
a
is
chord
of
the
hyperbola
576,
what
lies
mentary chord ?
on the hyperbola 4 # 2 9 ^=36. Find the equations of the diameter through this point and
2.
The
point
(5,
f)
of its conjugate.
3.
line passing
its
through a focus
conjugate hyperbola. 4. Find the angle between a pair of conjugate diameters of the hyperbola, b 2 x 2 a 2y 2 a2b2
.
of a hyperbola
and a focus
of
154
5.
Analytical Geometry.
x2
6.
Find the equation of the chord of the hyperbola 2 16 y = 144, which is bisected by the point (2, 3).
Show
is is
whose
base
constant,
angels
7.
a negative constant,
a hyperbola.
Show
What
In
the
is
is
bisected
9.
by the
x? 2 hyperbola 9 x
line
16 y 2
144,
what
is
the
3^=0?
difference of
is
Show
eters intersect
11.
The
base of a triangle
is 2 a.
2 b
and the
Show
a hyperbola.
12.
[Take the middle of the base as origin.] For what point of the hyperbola xy = 12 is the sub-
tangent
13.
4?
that
Show
an
ellipse
same
14.
bola
What are the equations of the tangents to the hyper2 x2 4 y = 4, which are perpendicular to the asympIn
the
of
2 16 y 2 = 400, find the hyperbola 25 x conjugate diameters that cut at an angle
totes ?
15.
equations
of
451 6.
2
In the hyperbola 16 x 400, what are 25 y the co-ordinates of the extremity of the diameter conjugate to 25 y -f 16 x o?
17.
In the hyperbola 4
is
x2
o.
diameter
3 y
9 y
=
is
What
one of
its
system of chords ?
CHAPTER
VIII.
Higher Plane Curves because their equations are more complex, that are used extensively in engineering. These
we
THE CYCLOID.
The cycloid, much used in gear teeth, is the curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle of given The circle radius, as the circle rolls along a straight line.
may
circle,
and the
directrix.
Fig. 58.
P(
OE =
x and PE
r cos 6.
for P,
and
Z PCB,
6.
Then PE
= CD - CB = r -
156
Analytical Geometry.
That
Also
r sin 6
is,
r cos
..........
-
(i)
...............
is
x = OE = OD
ED = OD - PB =
is
rO
(2)
Since 6
an extra
necessary.
From
whence
i
(i)
cos 6
= -
-^-
- y ,
cos 6
vers
=
r
or
vers" 1
*-
1 r vers" ^r
r sin
vers" 1
r)
2
.
or
r vers"
\7 2 ?y
For
vers" 1
^-=
r
6,
vers
0=i
cos 6,
cos* 0.
/JlrJ!
J_
Whence
an
fl
vers" 1
j
)
and
r sin ^
r sin
V2 r
2
.
Analytical Geometry.
157
From
is
readily
constructed
by
points.
The
first
method
if suffi-
is
employed
in mechanical
Method
Let
be the generator
the directrix.
circle
in
its
XX' of M.
Make
OV
also
OV into 6 equal
parts.
Then
V^^/~K
^\""\
Analytical Geometry.
sive positions of
N, and
if
these be joined
by a smooth
curve,
we have
by N.
ART. 112.
Second Method
drawing
"
for very small arcs the arc does not sensibly differ
from
its
with the comstepped passes, thus really getting chords not arcs, but by taking the distances small enough, any degree of approximation
chord, so the divisions are
off
"
may be
attained.
this
Draftsmen use
slightly
modified
method,
which
E'
ABODE
Fig. 60.
Fig. 60.
circle.
Let
off
MN
the generator
Lay
it
any small
on
MN
a sufficient
number
as a chord
differ
from
arcs
Then AB, BC, CD, etc., will practically on C. Draw a series of circles
having the
radius
of
equal corresponding
(or parts
C.
From
B, C, D,
"
etc.,
successively
step off
"
with com-
passes on the arc passing through them, i, 2, 3, etc., units These will give points on the cycloid as A', B', (as AB). etc. The curve drawn through these points will be C', D',
Analytical Geometry.
'59
ROULETTES.
The hypocydoid is described by a point on the circumference of a circle, which rolls on the inner side of the
circumference of a second
If the
circle.
on the outside of the circumgenerator ference of the directrix, the resulting curve is called an
circle rolls
epicycloid.
The two
ratio
circles
relative radii,
and
if
the
between them
many
The common
is
ratio is 4.
epicycloid resulting
known
collectively as roulettes.
To
(Fig. 61).
Let
Fig. 61.
Draw
the co-ordinates of P,
||
CD and PA to CD and CY (_[_ to CD through C) be the axes. Let Z BCD = Z BC'P = Z C'PA - 0; = r and C'B - /. CB
CF
and
PF
(x, y)\
C'
perpendicular to
CD, and
let
</>,
160
Analytical Geometry.
Then CF
=
<j>
<f>
(i)
and
(/>
[a
is
C'GC].
Hence
cos (a
(f>)
=
(f>
180
6.
cos (180
0)'=
cos
[Goniometry].
Substituting in (i);
x
Likewise,
= y =
(r
/) cos
r') sin
<j)
-f r'
r'
cos (a
sin (a
</>)
(2)
.(3)
(r
(j>
0)
BD =
and
arc
rcj)
BP = r'
;
by method
a, or
of descrip-
=
,
(3
x=
(r
/) cos $
+ / cos
- /
sin
(r
. .
(a)
y
If
<^>
/)
sin
(r
^^
(b)
(ft) the rectangular the hypocycloid results, but in this general equation for
form the equation would be exceedingly complicated. But if r = 4 r', as is customary, the result is comparatifely simple, thus:
(a)
(b)
becomes;
becomes;
= = y = =
?
} r cos
</>
| r cos 3
<^>.
r sin
<yS
r sin 3
c/>,
or
(3
(a')
and
T,
(3 sin
<
sin 3
0)
3 4 cos
(6')
By Tngonometry
>
)
cos *-
(/>
cos
3 sin
sin 3
= =
</>
f smd (p
Analytical Geometry.
161
r cos3
r sin
3
.
Hence
and
(a'}
f
(b
Combining
Add;
(a"}
and
(&");
= becomes y = #* =
becomes x
<
(a")
(b")
<j>
r* cos
<,
#3
y$
sin 2 <
i].
ART. 115. To construct the hypocydoid. Let C be the directrix; (Fig. 62) C' the generator circle; the generating point. Divide the quadrant P'K into 8
equal parts and the semicircle PE' into 4 equal parts. Let P start at P', then when A' and A coincide as the circle C'
Fig. 62.
rolls,
will
be at the distance
DD'
at the dis-
tance
AT
A
from A.
Hence with P x
and DD'
as radius describe
with
an arc intersecting another described This intersection as centre and A'P as radius.
point will be a point on the hypocycloid. When B' is at B, P will be at the distance
BB' from
P'
and
at the distance
intersection of arcs
and
so on.
62
Analytical Geometry.
number
of
are divided
more accurate
will
be the hypocycloid.
two
many
parts as the
circumference of the generator circle and similarly for any In the figure 62 the ratio is 4. ratio.
ART.
cycloid.
1 1 6.
This method
for
the cycloid,
using,
is
directrix,
which
now
Fig. 63.
Let C be the centre of the directrix and C' the Fig. 63. " " on the circumference of C generator circle. Step off any small equal arcs as AB, BD, DE, etc.; at A, B, D, etc.,
draw tangent
circles
equal to
7
.
From A,
B, C, D, E,
etc.,
Analytical Geometry.
"
successively
step off
163
times the distance
"
i,
2,
3,
4, etc.,
the resulting points will determine the hypocycloid. An exactly similar process will produce the epicycloid, if the generator circle be rolled on the outside.
AB,
ART. 117.
Another form
of
roulette
is
the
involute,
which
described by a fixed point on a straight line, that rolls as a tangent on a fixed circle. Let C (Fig. 64) be the
is
directrix circle
and
MN
Fig. 64.
"
Step
off
"
as
division
any small equal arcs on the circumference of CD, DE, etc. Draw tangents at the points of
3, 4, etc.,
resulting
determine an involute.
this
whatever
circle is
produce an involute in
of cycloid, evolute,
SPIRALS.
ART. 118. A spiral is described by a point receding, according to some fixed law, along a straight line that There are a number of revolves about one of its points.
164
spirals,
Analytical Geometry.
one of which
in
type of curve.
The
it
makes,
the
rectorial angle.
The
hyperbolic spiral
constant.
Fig. 65.
Calling the radius vector, r the vectorial angle 6 and the constant C, we have by definition,
;
To
construct
it
ii
Analytical Geometry.
165
Make
r,
as follows;
,
When
o,
r =
oo
TT
3 \.
I 4-
0=
6
->
4
(45),
'H
=
-,
"S-
(60), r
10.5.
(75),
8.4.
~,
.(90),
r-7-
r=
One complete
360
4 5,etc.
to
describes a spire, as from GO to B [Fig. 65], and the circle described with the final radius vector of the first
spire, as radius, is called the
measuring
circle,
ELEMENTARY CALCULUS.
ELEMENTARY CALCULUS.
CHAPTER
I.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES.
ART.
i.
Variables
and
constants.
Suppose we wish to
x3
x2
6;
and
certain arbi-
trary values, calculating from these the corresponding and dependent values of y. Now in such a case both x and y
are variable
quantities,
x being
called
an independent,
and y a dependent
variable.
In general: A Variable is a quantity which is subject to continual change of value, while an Independent Variable
is
supposed
to
dent Variable,
pendent Variable
known.
x*,
Examples
y =
y=
x
is
tan x,
log x.
the independent,
and y the
dependent
variable.
When
as
TT
a quantity does not change or alter its value such it is called a Constant Quantity, or
.
y=x
of
4x +x +
z
6'
we know
there
is
a corresponding value of y;
if
not necessarily
2,
different,
for
3,
o,
and
if
o,
but
169
170
Elementary Calculus.
When
two
x and
y,
are
related in this
manner we say
that y is a /unction of x.
y=
to
log x,
we
we y value; we
if
therefore call
y a function
Again,
to each
if
we
hour of the day, we can involve the observations in a curve, and we say that the height of the barometer is a
function of the time, because to each change in the time there corresponds a certain definite barometric height.
It is
quantity P is a junction of a quantity Q, can assume there corresponds value which when to every a certain definite value of P. " " It is customary to express the term function of by F (x), the symbols F, /, <j> (Phi); thus we write sin x
In general,
sin
(f>
(x),
meaning
a quantity which assumes certain definite values cos x, dependent upon the size of the angle x. Again, if y or in the case of an equation such as then y f (x)
an angle
x3
x*
This
latter
5 x mode
we may
also write
y=f
(x).
of expressing
an equation
briefly
by
F (x) or y the symbol y f (x} is in very general use. From the definition of a function, given above, we see
that
if
it
is
itself
-^ D
is
a function of
5 tan
a function of a.
Elementary Calculus.
171
and
Further, the area of a triangle is a function of its base also of its altitude. Such a double relation is indicated
thus: area
A=
its
/ (b, h),
function of
side.
If
= y=
y
its
x2
we may
f (x).
write this equation in the general form Again, the volume of a sphere is a function of
radius, or
V=
<f>
(r).
ART.
3.
In algebra,
geometry,
ing values.
quantities
which enter
unchang-
Now, suppose we wish to find the greatest value that y can assume, between x = 3 and x = 2 when y = x? 4 y? Here we have two variables, x and y entering + x 4- 6.
t
number
is
of
which may have an infinite values and from which one special value of x
is defined by the condition imposed. problem, such as the above, involving the relation of two or more variable quantities, comes within the province In general the differential of the differential calculus.
sought, which
calculus supplies us with a means of obtaining information regarding the properties of quantities, the number of
infinite,
to
some known
law.
One
comparative
simplicity
with
which
complex
problems
involving variable quantities are solved, problems, which if attacked by other methods, would require long and tedious operations and sometimes be impossible of solution.
ART.
4.
The
Differential
Coefficient.
Suppose an ob-
and
to estimate
this
speed at 10 miles
an hour;
now, a statement to
172
effect
Elementary Calculus.
vation
would imply that the bicycle at the moment of obserwas travelling with a velocity, which if maintained
It does not follow, however, that this will be the case, for
reduced or accelerated;
further,
the
no way
time of observation, having reference to the speed only, at the exact moment when the bicyclist passed the observer.
Should
it
be desired to
contacts in
its
time taken in
path, which on closing would cause the traversing the space between them to be
automatically registered.
/
Then
if
velocity, s
space,
time,
we have
v =
In choosing a position for the second contact, we would undoubtedly select a point near to the first; because the
speed of the machine at the moment of passing the first contact would be unlikely to remain constant for a space say of 100 yards, but would be less liable to change in 10
yards, less in
i
yard,
that
if
still
less in i foot,
and so
on.
result,
Hence
it is,
we wish
body
to obtain
at the
an accurate
of
moment
passing a
we measure
as short a portion of
its
path as
practicable,
time interval.
Let us
now examine
form
velocity.
Now, uniform
Elementary Calculus.
5 miles in
i
173
hour,
174
In general
Elementary Calculus.
we may
is
two
quantities,
each of which
beyond our comresult in an appreciable and prehension, may, nevertheless, practically useful quotient, a fact which should be most
so small as to be entirely
carefully noted.
When we
A/
used
that
ering a small
is
we employ
to
Thus
means
we
| =5
Carrying
this
or
A,
still
5.
A/.
conception
further
we may
consider
in
As
to
other words, that the space taken is infinitely small we indicate by ds, and call ds a differential of space.
This
The same process of reasoning applied to A 2 gives dt as representing an infinitely small time interval or a differoften refer to ds and dt simply as differential of time.
We
entials.
The
infinite
We
will
still
have
=
dt
and ds
dt.
The
and
dt,
referred to
quotient;
by German mathematicians as a
5,
differential
hence
in
our
case,
is
called a
differential quotient.
Again,
ds
if
we
-^
in the
it
form
dt,
multiplies
Elementary Calculus.
the differential of the dependent variable dt
fore called a differential coefficient.
and
is
there-
differen-
entials;
implies
the
same quantity regarded as that factor the independent variable which makes
ential oj the dependent variable.
It will
oj the differential of
it
tible of
be found later that these conceptions are suscepa deeper meaning and lead to results of great prac-
tical value.
upon
meaning
of the
Much
and
misunderstand-
that
=5
5. dt, it is
customary
to
coefficient; in the
speak of the 5 in either case as a differential former case it is strictly a quotient, which
when we
write ds
5.
dt.
which
n
is
left
lower
76
Elementary Calculus.
and
in
which the
Now
by an inspection
of
A A A we
2, 3, 4,
see that
Square.
Elementary Calculus.
177
speed of the bicycle at the moment of passing the point fcf observation, then the smaller the space measured, the more accurate would be our results; this would clearly hold if
the bicyclist passed the observer with an accelerated velocity. Now this case is similar to that of the square above mentioned, for suppose the side of the square,
which
is
con-
tinuously lengthening,
linear units,
we
3
pass through the point at which might ask ourselves, what is the
moment when x
side.
= =
3 centimetres,
and
let
y be the area
of
square on
x',
we
let
x2
9.
Now
an
let
increment,
which
we
will
y-x'<
represent by
Ax
A x =0.1
centimeters; thus
becomes
x+ Ax = 3 + 0.1 = 3.1.
we now have
Fig.
2),
Upon
a second square;
two squares
(see
and
due
Fig
the increase in
to the increment
this
area of
y,
A#, is represented by the shaded strip; increment, which we will call Ay, is obviously an
increment of area.
We
on (x
thus have:
Area
of square
A#)
Area
of square
on
x
(x
Difference
Now
the
the difference
Ay
0.6 1,
is
square y, in square centimetres, during the time = 3.1 centimetres; intro that x increased from 3 to x
x=
178
Elementary Calculus.
to,
we
0.61
.1
_ Ay _
Ax
We
will
now
tabulate a
-2
number
of values,
calculated
Ax
f or
3 centimetres:
If
A* =
o.i then
4^ = ax
=
.1
6.1
A* =.01
A* =.ooi
A Ax =
42 = ^2621=6.01. .01 Ax 42 = Ax
Ay = z Ax
:22622i
.001
6.001.
.0000001
.00000060000001 .000000 1
6.0000001.
We
more
If
A*
Ax.
Ax
is
infinitely small,
in
number
hand
and
one would be
infinite,
the value of the quotient would be truly 6. If Ax becomes a differential of length, dx, then Ay, becomes a differential
of area, dy,
and as the quotient 6 is the result of the comparison of these two differentials, it is, therefore, a differenquotient; thus
tial
we
write:
TT
~~n
- -=
ri
6 at
the
units
in length.
As before
Elementary Calculus.
179
dx
of the
independent
and
is therefore called
differential coefficient.
We
manthus,
ner,
result;
(x
A*)
(3
+ .ooi) =
2
2 (3)
+ A* (.001) + .000001
=9
By
subtraction
Dividing by
A:
180
this
Elementary Calculus.
matter more generally and see is a rigid truth.
6.
.
if
the
result
above
indicated
ART.
2 ofy= x
Fig. 3).
Suppose we have a square the side of which is x (see The area x 2 we call y, thus we have y= x 2
,
.
Now
let
receive
an increcan be
lar-
+ Ax
2
.
Comshown
we
(x
(x Aa
Fig.
3.
,
+ +
of
The
an area
of
x Ax and
.
the square S
Ax
These parts taken together represent the the square y when x changes to x + Ax, increment Ax. We thus get
:
Ax = A.T2 increase Ay of
. .
in virtue of its
Ay =
(Increase of square y)
x. Ax-{-
Ax2
P P2 .)
1
(Two
rectangles
(Square
S.).
We further notice that the square S is much less in area than the two rectangles P t and P,. Now the smaller the increment Ax, the narrower become the rectangles and
the less the relative area of S. This is easily seen, for suppose Ax is exceedingly small, then the rectangles P x and Po may be represented by long thin lines (see black line Fig. 4), while S is reduced to their intersection.
Elementary Calculus.
If
181
consider the lines representing these rectangles infinitely thin, then the sides of the squares become infinitely short, while the lines
to
now we
be
PL-
the
square
tends
to
PI
x
pig.
4.
dx then
is,
(dx)
is
evanes-
cent, that
tends to "vanish.
We
If
had above,
becomes dx then
Ay =
dy =
xAx +
xdx
(Ax)
2
.
Ax
and
dx
=
thus find that
if
2 X.
We
x 2 then
,
2 x.
In other
dx
if a quantity y (in our case the area of a square) is dependent upon another x (here the side of a square), in such a manner that y x 2 then the
rate of increase of
at
increase of
at the
called the differential quotient of the expression y x 2 or more generally, the differential coefficient of x 2 with respect to x.
quantity
is
ART.
method.
7.
Differential
coefficient
of
x2
Analytical
now examine a general analytical method of the differential coefficient of x 2 with respect to x in obtaining x2 the case of the function y
will
We
182
Elementary Calculus.
Given
then
+ A;y =
(#
-f-
now
and
Subtracting;
= A#) = + A;y = =
y
2
x2 x2
+ +
.
2
2
x2
Ay
.-.
?= 2
A#
If
*- 2* + A*.
of
A#
A#
alone tends to
vanish or
evanescent.
Hence again we
find
if
y=
=
x
2
x2
is
which
is
also the
x 2 with
dx
respect to x, for 2
is
the
x when we
ART.
8.
write
-^-
in the
form of
dx
Differential coefficient oj
d-y
dx.
= X
if
s
.
We
to dart
will
now
j (x)
and the
dy
x3 what
,
is
the relation of
line,
then
x3
will represent
Now let x
whose volume
Fig. 5,
the side
Now
is
if
we examine
volume
we
which
3
is
the
,
difference in
of the
two cubes, (x
3 A^;) and x
.
made up of three slabs each of dimensions x. x A:*; = x 2 Ax together with three parallelopipidons of dimenAx A^ = x A# 2 and of one cube of volume sions x
.
.
A# Ax A# =
.
.
A^e3
Elementary Calculus.
183
3
Hence we have
and
\y
x 2 Ax
2
x A# 2
I=2=x
x&x
Fig.
5.
If
becomes dx then,
dy
dx
*2
2
+3x
dx
(dx)
(dx)
rememberis finite,
ing the ratio of the infinitely small quantities dy, dx, 2 it is in fact the quotient 3 x
.
Hence
or
if
x3
then
=
dx
dy
x2 x2
dx.
of
Therefore
regard to x,
that at
the
is 3
differential
coefficient
x and
the expression
dy =
y
3
=
2
x9 with
,
x dx means
volume
in
184
units of
Elementary Calculus.
volume
is
x 2 times
in linear units.
If the
sides be 2 inches
A#
is
.001
then
x2
x Ax
A^; 2
=
Obviously
right
12
.OO6
.OOOOOI.
of the
.'.
when
-2
A#
becomes
dx
-^-,
then -2-
12.
dx
This
result
we could
expression
-*
dx
x2
for putting
2,
we
get
=
|2L
at the
3 (4)
12.
Meaning, that
as fast in units of
moment when the side x is two volume of the cube increases 12 times
side in linear units.
volume as the
y
ART.
9.
d.c.
of
= x
3
,
analytically.
Orders of
Infini-
tesimals.
If
y=**,
y
3
.
then
+ Ay = (x + A^) y + Ay = y? + 3 y= X Subtracting; Ay = 3 # A# + 3 #
.*.
And
then
if
Jy=3
8
(Z
+ 3^
(^)
(dx)
Elementary. Calculus.
185
it
Now
first
dx
3
is is
an
infinitesimal,
and when
first
occurs in the
2
power,
said to be of the
of the second
Obviously the
an infinitesimal
the
first
compared
itesimal
to
finite quantity,
of
pared
with
2
any higher order as evanescent when comone of lower order. Then the quantities
in the
3
3 x(dx) sion
expres-
Hence
and
ART.
10.
dy
= =
3 3
x dx x dx *2
2
(dx)
(dx)
dx
^=
d.c.
The
and
the gradient.
In engineering work grades are often described by referhoriring the rise in level of a point to its corresponding We thus speak zontal distance from some fixed position.
of a grade of 20
ft. ft.
in 100
ft., ft.,
resulting
from arise
in Fig. 6,
of 20
in 100
in 5
ft.,
as indicated
The
is
vertical rise
honzontal distance
Now
tangent
AB BAG = -5- = - =
Ar>
(11
5
_ BC
0.2,
(See
Rg
6-)
and
since the
natural tangent of
19')
0.2
unit,
therefore,
the
[86
Elementary Calculus.
imately 11
the#-axis.
19'.
Suppose a straight
AB
to
make an
angle
DCB
with
Fig.
7'
Let the co-ordinates of any point Q on Let x he increased by A#, and y by A;y.
AB
7,
be
x and
y.
we have
Z DCB =
^'
and
r^
Ay ^
QR
=% =
increment
tangent
Hence
If the
Z DCB.
ZDCB.
is,
A# becomes
&. =
tangent
a function whose graph is a straight line, the ratio of an to dx gives the infinitely small increment of the y-ordinate
Elementary Calculus.
tangent of the angle which the straight line
#-axis,
and therefore
will
its
gradient.
We
now
test
this
numerically
by
following
example. Given the linear function, y = 0.7 x + 2, to find the differential coefficient with respect to x, namely, the value
of
2Z-,
and
dx
88
ART.
ii.
Elementary Calculus.
The gradient
of a curve.
bodies,
"B
and B 2
travelling in
parallel paths, the former with an accelerated velocity of 2 ft. per second per second and the latter with a uniform velocity
of 2
line
ft.
per second.
starts
upon a
left
AjA 2
B2
starts
of
it
B2
Fig. 9.
In the
ated,
first
case, that of
5
/
Bv
is
acceler-
we have
s
=
2
,
\ at
2
,
where a
hence
J (2 )
and
therefore,
= = s
is
2 is the
2
/
.
acceleration,
constant,
and we have
vt,
The
and B 2
B,
time intervals.
Br
Space traversed from rest at the end of
J second
1
B2
second
= = seconds = seconds =
9,
1
ft.
i ft.
4
9
ft.
ft.
= = seconds = seconds =
i ft.
ft.
4
6
ft. ft.
In Fig.
two bodies
paths,
E and B
and
depicted the relative positions of the graphically, showing a portion of their using the data given in the above table. Notice
2
we have
Elementary Calculus.
that during the
189
first second, B travels slower than B 2 and t has caught up with B t at the end of the first second, and for one instant of time the two are abreast, and
,
that
B2
same
velocity, after
Bj
is
shown by
second.
B 2 and
SIN FEET
B2/H
7/ /R
Fig. 10.
we
Plotting the values given for s and / in the above table obtain in the case of B t a curve (see Fig. 10), and in
that of
B2
a straight
line;
this latter,
it
will
be noticed,
touches the curve at the point P; which point corresponds to the positions of the two bodies when they are, for an
instant of time, one foot
from the
line
A,A 2 and
traveling
190
Elementary Calculus.
We
line is
(Art.
makes with
the
a line
is
a geometrical tan-
the slope of the geometrical to a curve, at a point, shows the steepness of the tangent curve at that point, but the gradient of the line is measured
direction.
same
Hence
by the tangent
is
We
fol-
lowing definition:
The gradient
oj a curve at any
point
measured by the tangent oj the angle which the geometrical tangent, at thai point, makes with the abscissa.
Now
tan
the
gradient
:
of
the
line
NH
is
measured by
MNP =
NM
=
%
2,
and
from
time increment of
curve,
Let us now take increments to the ordinates of P; let the /be A/ = PQ, in both the case of the
and that
of the. line;
we
As
QR, and
-
As
= QK.
Hence
=
==
A/
PQ
As
for the curve,
QK
if
QR + RK
is
~~
Now
clearly in
this
case
A/
,
infinitely small,
then
becomes
Hence
line
at the point
= 2.
at
Elementary Calculus.
191
of the
2, is
That
function
is,
the
,
value of
=t 2
(i, i),
namely
dt
the tangent at P.
of
the
angle
the
geometric
tangent
makes
We
will
now
/ (x)
see
if
this
statement
is
susceptible of a
general application.
Let y
Fig. ii.
graph
y =
If
is
shown
in
Fig.
n.
MB =
= y. x and (x) has the co-ordinates = Ay, and the ratio of the rate A* then
OM =
P upon
MP
QK
independent variable x,
-
will
be expressed by
Ax
Now
Ay = ^-
tan
KNB
which
192
Elementary Calculus.
The
value of
as
A*
will
ment A#,
straight
line
we have already seen, except in the case when the function is linear. Further
is
of a
the
value of
--2-
Ax
moved
as can be readily inferred from the figure, for if P were to the right, then an increment A# would bring
about an immensely increased corresponding increment, Ay, because of the steeper slope of the curve, and therefore
-
A#
value.
NK
gradually decreased, then the point will continually approach the point P, while the secant will cut the abscissa at a more and more acute
If,
however,
A#
is
angle,
until
its
finally,
when
A# =
dx,
the
is
secant
will
take
limiting
position
AH, which
the
geometric
and we have
It is
dx
at the point
P, and,
Hence,
if
j (x),
of
which the
it
geometric tangent to the curve at any point with the x-axis, while, at the same time it
upon
makes
the
expresses
From
putting
Art. 9,
we know
we
find 3
that
if
x3 then
2
-*
(tOC
x2
x=
i.i
x2
3 (i.i)
3.63,
therefore
Elementary Calculus.
193
=
doc
3-63;
which on referring
to a table is
found
to
be the
We
the
rate
of
increase
of
the
given y ordinate
is
x?,
the
that
ratio of of
to
the
i.i, is
3.63.
This
at
makes an angle
36' with
Let us
test the
Fig.
12.
is
that point
it
whose abscissa
will
is
i.i.
If
the angle
KRx
be measured,
be found to be about
to the curve at
makes with
lation, 74
the re-axis,
36'; the
is,
discrepancy
due
unit of
10 times that
used on the
In
order that the tangent should represent the true gradient of the curve at P, we must refer the ordinates and abscissas to the same scale, or we will not obtain the true
Tan
20
0.363
194
In order to
Elementary Calculus.
make
this
!R
Fig. 13.
scale
for both
ordinates
and
Upon measuring
will
the
angle
PR#
with a pro-
tractor
it
be found to be 74
36' approximately,
which
3.63.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
I.
Now,
/.
y= = y + Ay
y
2
2
x2
(x
2
$x +
i.
Ax)
3 (x
A#)
3 3
i.
but,
+ Ay = 2 # + 4 # A# + 2 A:v y = 2x
2
# X
A# + 1
+1
Elementary Calculus.
195
2
Subtracting;
Ay =
.-.|2
x A#
A# +
A#
2
.
= 4*-3+*A*.
then
2 <fo is
If
A#
becomes
<fo,
evanescent.
Hence
II.
-^
4#
3.
f/JC
Find the gradient of the curve x 2 x + 2 = y at the point where 1.15, and the angle the geometrical
x=
2
tangent
at this point
makes with
-f 2j
2
the #-axis.
-X y= ^
y y
+ Ay = O + + Ay = x + = X
2 2
>>
.'.
A*)
2
(x
+
2
A*)
^c
2,
# A#
A,T
A^ +
2,
.V
w
.
4- 2.
Ay
2 a;
A#
AJC
+ A^
-^ = 2^ A^
To
x
1+
A.T.
Hence
^
=
-^-
i.
find the gradient of the curve at the point 1.15 we substitute as follows:
where
-2-
=
is
1=2
(1.15)
1.30.
Hence
26'
1.30
and
since tan 52
1.30,
we
therefore,
tan-
x=
1.15
makes an angle
of 52
at
is in-
creasing at the instant when the side is 6 feet long, supposing the latter to be subject to uniform increase of length at
the rate of 4.5 feet per second.
196
Elementary Calculus.
Let
By
that
Art. 7,
is,
the rate of
the rate of
we
get
dy =
2 (6) (4.5)
54
S q. ft.
per second.
EXERCISE
Find the
differential
I.
coefficient
of
the
following
five
functions by the
1.
method
of Art. 7.
= 2 x - 3. y= (x- 2)
y
2
(A?
3).
# X
6.
x2
tell
y.
(a)
from the appearance of the graph ? (b) Find the general expression
curve at any point.
(c) Find the angle which the geometrical tangent makes with the curve at those points on it where x o, x },
X
x
= (d)
2,
= ~
2-
Draw
2,
=
(e)
=
c
and
f and by actual
measurement.
it have upon the gradient of the the scale for the ^-axis was made graph any point, 10 times as large as that of the ^-axis ?
What
at
^
effect
would
if
Elementary Calculus.
197
(/)
If
f (x)
and-ax
for a certain
value,
what
2 J at with respect to
t.
What
8.
mean ?
A man
is
which
area?
9.
4 inches; after heating he finds the diameter to have increased by .006 of an inch. What is the increase of
If
x be
is
increasing uni-
what
rate is
is
the side
10.
ft.
when
If
per second per second, and we call the space traversed at the end of the first second s, show by arithmetical
if
computation that
As
is
any
positive increase of
s,
then
As
of the
is
body
at the
end
As
taken.
CHAPTER
II.
DIFFERENTIATION.
I.
An Algebraic Function is one in which the 12. only operations indicated are, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, involution, and evolution; further, such
ART.
finite number of terms, and any exponents involved must be constant. Examples
'
x2
2 x,
(x
m}*.
(x
fy y%
n}$.
_|_
^
-7
ft
j
.
(*-4)
In distinction to the above
we have
scendental Functions, which cannot be expressed algebraically in a finite number of terms; examples of which are as
follows:
sin x, tan x, vers x, log e x, e x
.
the following
+ bY =
an
+ na n~
n (n
I
~
2
*). a n ~ 2 b 2
1.2.3
For convenience we
will
put n
= Cv
i
.
=C
2
2,
etc.
we
thus get,
(a
b)
an
+C
a"- 1 b
+C
198
an
~2
+C
an
~3
&
+ ..,
ART.
If
13.
then
Expanding the right-hand "member, as explained in the previous paragraph, and multiplying through by a, we get ~ 1 n x"- A x + a C2 xn 2 (A x) 2 y + Ay = ax + a
But, y = ax\
.-.
A)/
and
If
+aC =a
Ax
_
Elementary Calculus.
Differentiation of
199
axn and x ax
n
,
y= + Ay =
a (x
Ax)
+ aC 3 xn ^
a
1
(A*) .+
a
.
=
3
Qx"- Ax +
.
C2 xn - 2 (Ax) 2
xn ^ (Ax) 3 +
xn ~ l +aC xn ~ 2 kx + a C
all
member
bering
and remem-
= Cj
we
get
dx
Now
we
get
if
in the function
= y =
axn
i,
n
,
and
$.= dx
differentiate
nx-i.
respect to x.
the
First, multiply
To
xn with
x by
the index
Example
To
x4
y
-^;
=4 x 4
3 4x
rfx
differentiate
xn
Example: y
x3
5 (3)
x3 - 1
15
x2
2oo
Elementary Calculus.
results
The
all
values of n,
whether
student.
the proof of the positive, negative, or fractional latter two cases is simple, and is left as an exercise for the
Examples
:y= - x-3
&.=
-! x- 3
= -
^ x~*
y=
Example:* y
xr
ot
Elementary Calculus.
If
201
becomes dx,
dy
then
dx
In a similar manner
du dx
dv
dx
that
if
we can show
y
=
_
u
du dx
v
.
w
dv
.
...
then
dy
dw
dx
"
'
dx
Hence, the
dx
sum
of several
of
functions is the
sum
of
the
Example:
=
dx dx
x3
x2
3.
By Art.
14,
=0
=
9
x2
10
2.
ART.
If
1 6.
Differentiation of a product.
.
re-
dx
x and v
3 x.
Then
AMF
Ar
x = 5v
Fig. 14.
a*"
v can be geometrically represented by a rectangle ABCD sides are each of (see Fig. 14), two of whose opposite
.
202
length u
Elementary Calculus.
5 x,
v=
If
3*.
is
increased by
Ax
then,
and
Hence
AE,
AG.
which
is
AEFG
and
ABCD,
is
are obviously 3
respectively.
made up of three small rectangles whose areas x (5 A#), 5 x (3 A#), and (5 A#)(3 A#),
Hence Ay
(5
A#)
(3
A*)
(3
(5
A#)
(3
A*).
.'.f^=
3*
(5)
+5*
(3)
+5
A*).
Now
if
A#
is
last term,
A#
(5)
^ = 3*
But and the
of the
+5* (3)
=
3 x,
....
=
dx
5
(i)
x and v
and that
second
is
=
dx
3.
Hence
substituting in (i);
^_ =
<fo;
^L
cfo
d#
In general
if
= + Ay =
y
(w
Aw)
(v
Av).
Elementary Calculus.
/.
+ A? =
A;y
uv
-f
vAw
+ wAv +
.
but
Hence
= vAw + u&v + Aw
Av.
Dividing by A#;
If
A#
becomes
doc
then
A#
Av
=
dx
dv which
is
evanes-
dx
is finite, it
is
multiplied
by the
TT
differential dv,
to vanish.
Hence
Again
if
dy -^-
du
dx
dx
u
z
.
+
.
dv dx
--
then putting
= v =
y
w\
we
get
y=z.
dy
-f-
w,
and
dx
-= w dz h z dw
dx dx
u
.
.....
.
(a)
But
since
z=
.
v,
dx
dx
dx
dx
in (a)
we
get,
dy _^_
= vw
du
dx
dx
+ uw
dv
dx
uv
dw
.
dx
like
differential coefficient of
any number
sum
by
2O4
Example:
y
Elementary Calculus.
(3
+
3)
2) (5
6)
Z=
(5*
-6)
+ =
(3*
+ ,)
(3*
(5* -<*)
(3)
+ *)
(s).
.'.
dy -^~
30^
8.
ART.
Let
17.
Differentiation of a quotient.
y
z/
= -
when
and v
are functions of #.
We
have,
vy,
' '
dx
dx
dx dx
dx
dx
but
->
v
du_
/.z;.^L=
'
^-dx
v
' .
d#
^L,
dx
u_
dv
and
dy -J
dx
v dx v
dx
we
get
^
of
dy =
du v dx
~u
dv
dx
Hence, the Differential Coefficient of a fraction whose numerator and denominator are variables, is equal to the product
the
differential
coefficient
of
the
differential coeffi-
Elementary Calculus.
If
205
- where
is
c is
of a constant
zero,
we
dx
dv
Example:
dy _ dx~~
__
y
dx
v2
v 2 dx
x x
dx
dx
(i
+x
_ (i
+x
dy
2
}
_ ~
x
2 2
i
)
dx
ART.
1 8.
+x
Suppose we wish
evaluate
x2
x=
+3^ +
2
2,
when
1,2, etc.
2
Putting
2
Vx + 3 x + =
then
if
y and x
"2/z
+ $x +
and y and y
2,
x =i
x
Clearly z
is
= 2,
z= z =
6
12
depends upon
of
that of
is
a function of #, and further the value of y We z, hence y is also a function of z. a function of z which in turn
is
is
a function
a function of a
at first,
function.
This
term
is
sometimes puzzling
and care
206
Elementary Calculus.
it
is
thoroughly understood.
Let
and
z
if
= F (z) = / (x).
Now
If
x undergoes a
likewise.
change
x becomes x
z
becomes
+ A#, + Az,
Az
[An
identity,
Ay _
A)/
found
A#
Az
A#
by multiplying and
dividing
^Ia3
by
Az.]
and
then
if
Ax
**-
becomes dx,
&
dz
&_.
dbf
o*
Hence,
i/
F(z) and z= /(^), the differential coeffiwith respect to x, is equal to the product of the differential coefficient of y with respect to z, times the differential coefficient of z with respect to x.
y=
cient of y,
Example I :
where
Since
= \/u,
to find -2-
dx
x2
we
have,
the above,
+ 3 = u. y = \/u, y = F (u)
dx
y
and u
}(x).
From
but
$L = *L. *L,
du
dx
u*.
Elementary Calculus.
207
and
since
u
/. -^-
x 2 +3,
2 x.
'
dx
\A
\/x*
+
3,
In general
Given,
we would proceed
y =
thus:
Example II:
y=
(x
2)
(#
3)
Art. 16
we
get,
(i)
As
the expression
(x
3)
is
a function of a function,
we
have,
dx
and
Substituting (2) and (3) in (i)
we
find,
dx
and
&- =
x5
45 x*
io& x*
87
x2
36
54.
208
Elementary Calculus.
EXERCISE
5 x?
II.
x 2 -x+2.
2.
ax 2
bx
c.
8 a*
-I.
22.
23. 24.
(3
X *
2).
y= y=
x 2 (2 x3
(x
i).
2
i)
Oc
i).
25.
Elementary Calculus.
209
26.
y y
y
==
X 2 \/2 X 2
I.
27.
28.
=
'
X2 x2
X2
b
+
I
29.
-x +x' b 2
x
2
30.
v/ b
31-
+x
(x
-b}
i
(x*-b)*
32.
y
y
Vx +
X2
\/x
33-
\/X
34-
+
X
^ 7
35-
\/a
I
x2
\/x
36.
v/
i
+Vx
-x/i- ^ + Vi-*
37-
v^
\
38.
y y
39-
40.
X\/
210
Elementary Calculus.
Differentiation of Transcendental Functions.
/THT
II.
ART.
19.
The value
of
sin a.
infinitely
small.
is
urement
many advantages. It enexample, to compare directly the rate of change of a sine with the rate of change of its correables us, for
sponding angle.
It is
now examine
an a
as
the
and
a dimin-
A
for
any angle
sin
a < a
sin
<
tan a.
get
Dividing by
sin
a;
sin a,
we
sin
sin
a
a
sin
cos
a a
sin
i
Fig. 15.
<
cos
But coso
i,
hence
=
cos o
i;
cos
i,
and when
is infinitely
reduced,
-- = a
cos
-
i;
therefore;
we may put
a. is infi-
the expression
-- or
sma
sin
when
the angle
and a
Elementary Calculus.
211
quantity,
(cos
i,
as
a)
shown by
i
in
advance of
cos
rives at that value.
and
will
reach
when
cos
ar-
Again,
^^L =
a
J1BJL
a
a
_J: cos
but
-
we have
seen that
-and
cos a
tends to approach
a
If
we may put
when a
is infinitely
small.
ART.
20.
Differentiation of
sin
x and y
cos x.
y=
y y
sin x,
sin (x sin
then
And
+ Ay = + Ay = y = Ay = Ay =
.*.
A#).
cos
A# +
cos
sin
A#.
sin x.
sin
cos
.'.
sin
A^ (cos A#
(
sin
i) i)
Hence
but
=
A#
AjC
is infinitely
cos A^ -
when A#
small,
/.
when Ax becomes
dx, then
)
^L = dx
.-.
i(
+cos*
......
(i)
-2-
dx
212
Elementary Calculus.
we may show
y = cos x,
-%-
= =
tan
sin x.
dx y
ART.
If
21.
Differentiation of
x and
y=
cot x.
y=
tan x,
then
COS cos
-
X
.
By
Art. 17,
(sin
x}
sin
xd
(cos x^
dy
_ cos x
__ cos
2
cos
x
2
sin
sin x)
dx
dy dx
Jy
</#
cos 2
+
2
sin
cos
g?
#
_
i
2
(tan #)
<fo
cos 2
t
#
that
In like manner,
if
= =
cot
x we may show
i
-r-
dy
=
y
dx
sm 2 ^
esc x.
. 2
ART.
If
22.
Differentiation of
sec
# aw^
y=
cosecx.
sec ^, then
y=-
Differentiating,
we
find
sin - x
-
dy
dx
s
-f-
=
.
cos 2
tan
sec x.
[Since
-^ =
***-
-1- =
tan
sec x.]
Elementary Calculus.
213
Similarly,
when y =
cosec x, then y
= -^
and
dx
sin
The
memory
y
*
cos
= sn x] -- =
dx
x x #
sec
y y
sn x
C sc 2
y
y
-2-
=
=
sec
dx
-*-.
= cot x;
-%-
dx
tan
#
esc #.
x:
-- =
dbc
i
cot
Since vers
we have
also
if
= y=
cos x,
\i
vers x,
sin x:
dx
covers
x=
sin x,
=
dx
cos x.
EXERCISE
i.
III.
y=
y = y=
tan (bx).
sin (3
2.
y y
v
=
= = = =
cos
x
tan
3.
5-
# 2 ).
4. 6.
\/W.
.r
cos ( xH )-
6 sin
7.
y y
= =
sin (i sin #.
5
ax 2 ).
S.
cos
V x
cos 4 a^
.
g.
10.
x2
* Note that the differential coefficients of all the co-functions have a negative sign. The significance of this will be seen later.
214
Elementary Calculus.
ii.
y=
y
y
tan (nx).
12.
y=
cos 5 (3
re).
13.
=
= =
cos n
cot
sin n x.
3 J cot
14.
-\-
re.
15.
re
tan
tan3
re
.
re
sin
x cos
re
17.
y
y
=
=
tan
re
(sin re).
18.
19.
y
y
= \/a
=
sin
cos 2
re
+
a
.
b sin
2
re.
20.
ax
(sin re)
Of what functions
efficients:
21.
dy -*
= =
5 sin
4 4
re
cos
re.
22.
-f-
dx
a [cos
(b
+ ax) + sin
(b
ax}],
dy___
dx
24.
-2-
20 x cos 4
re
sin 2
re
2
.
25.
Elementary Calculus.
215
= A + B# + C* + D^ +
2
series,
(i)
(i)
when
the
number
of terms
is infinite is
We
The
can approach
this
of accuracy
by taking a
sufficient
number
3
of terms.
is
as follows:
= A + Ex + Cx + D^ +
2
...
calculation of
is
when A, B,
C,
etc.,
are constants.
The
often
make
order to calculate the logarithms of numbers, we use of a series in which x either is equal to or in-
volves the quantity whose logarithm is sought, and hence the latter can be calculated to any required degree of
accuracy. Such a series to be of practical value should possess the it must converge rapidly, so that following properties
:
it
not require a large number of terms to be taken before the necessary accuracy is reached, and it must be
will
2 and it y = A + Ex + Cx + Dx? has been found that the determination of the value of
the
form
+
(i
when n becomes
infinite,
forms a suitable
start-
ing-point from which to begin investigations with a view of This will be obtaining a practical logarithmic series. discussed in its proper place.
216
Elementary Calculus.
ART.
finite.
24.
The
'value of
li-i
\ I
i
[
Suppose
get
/i
in the expression
--
n
00
we put n
i
oo.,
we
I
;
-\
(i
+ 0)=
now
is
indeter-
minate, for infinity has no definite value; symbol oo as referring to a magnitude which
we regard
is
the
greater than
We
subsequent
In the
mean time we
in another
when n
V
oo
.
By
the Binomial
Theorem, we have
n (n-i)
fa
i
(n
1.2 - 2) /A
~ A
+ V^-^ + V
1.2.3 n ~ A /^ (
n
1.2
If
1.2.3
n
n
,
GO
etc.,
vanish;
1.2
We
will
1.2.
put
= e =
2.71828
2.71828.
....
Elementary Calculus.
217
The evaluation of e to any required degree of accuracy can be conveniently performed as follows
:
.000000
4
5
6
7
218
Elementary Calculus.
+
+ +
v
+
nxj
\
nx,
Z3
Now
if
oo
>
>
etc.,
vanish.
Hence we have
xv.2
-
I I
*-v
^
A/
^4 ^
Z2
Z3
/^
Now
put
jc
then
Elementary Calculus.
219
its
This
is known as the Logarithmic Series, and by we could calculate many logarithms, but since it = verges slowly and only between the values x
means
i
also con-
and
x=
tation.
i,
it is
From
(Z
not suitable for general logarithmic computhis latter series we can, however, obtain the
following:
LO&
I)
10& Z
|_2Z
- -- --- -+ +
1
(2Z
I)3
5(2Z+I)
7(2Z+i) 7
This
stance
series is
if
most convenient
then
i
\oge 2
= =
i,
loge
.'.
2
l_3
1
3
^
5
3 (3)
5 (5)
And
in a similar
0.6931.
could be calculated.
ART. 26. The logarithmic modulus. Logarithms calculated to the base e are known as Napierian logarithms,
because of their introduction by Napier; they are also called Natural Logarithms. This latter term was applied because
they appeared
first
in the investigation
purpose of discovering a
method
The base
this
e is
is
system
student will be aware that for the latter purpose the base 10 is chosen.
We will now show how logarithms to the base transformed to the base 10 and vice versaLet
then
.'.
can be
y
ey
= = =
log,
z
.
220
I.
Elementary Calculus.
To
/.
transform Iog10
ey
x
.
y
z
log,
= e =
to log, x,
we had
io
z log, io.
But
and
log, e
= =
and
/.
log, io
= 2.30258,
and
since
= log, #
Iog 10 #,
\og e
x=
is is
2.30258 Iog 10 #.
The
ierian
quantity 2.30258
called the
Modulus
of the
Napthis
logarithms and
often
denoted by
x.
M.
In
notation
we have
log,
= =
M Iog
.
10
II.
To
we had
y Iog10
z Iog 10 io.
Now
log,
x and
Iog 10
Iog 10 e
x.
0.43429 log, x.
The
quantity 0.43429
is
is
called the
Modulus
of the Briggs
System and
ART.
denoted by m.
Iog 10
We
therefore have,
= m log, x.
27.
The
Iog 10
relation between
and m.
We
have
Now
loge
x = m log, x B x= m
and
log,
M Iog
we
10
x.
get
2&*2 =
Iog10 x.
.*.
M=
.
and
i.
m=
from the base a
log, a
or
M
Hence
m=
to transform logarithms
to the
base b multiply by
Note
=
loga e
loga b
Elementary Calculus.
221
Inx
ART.
28.
The
d. c. of
= log
x.
for log, x.
We
have
.-.
= + Ay =
y
ln(x
Inx.
ln(x
Ay
Ax)
Inx
In
Multiplying by
we
get,
if)**
Hence
-
te
+
o,
~
while - /y,
A
If
/y
LX becomes dx then
-?-= n
then
oo
&x
Putting
=
x
hx
- and n
,
I
[
AJC\-^ -- A* =
/
I
*i
n
+
.
-\ *)
n
,
which
for
oo is
Hence we
but
get
-*<fo
=
#
/we,
Ine
<ty
i,
__ i_
dx
ART.
29.
The
d.
c.
222
Elementary Calculus.
But by
Art. 27,
Jog,
.-.
=
a
loga
e.
and
Note loga ond term
= -*- =
y
Inx
\oga
e.
e,
ax
e is
x
.*.
log a
a constant,
dx
2_ = o,
product
_
zero.
ART. 30.
Thed.c.o}y=a*
.-.
= ax = x Ina, Iny
y
i.
.
...
&
dx
c
"
Ina.
y
.
&- = anna,
dx
'
ART.
The d
31.
= = y
y
2
e*
ex
1.2
1.2.3
1.2.3.4
Differentiating each term
we
get,
1.2
1.2
Hence
This
is
1.2.3
*+* 1.2.3
coefficient
is
^- = ^.
a function of great importance, and
differential
is the only equal to the
The appearance
of
ex
and
ax
in
many
Elementary Calculus.
physical
223
of
formulae
makes
these
will
quantities
particular
who
have no
difficulty in
show-
ing that
when y
ax
then -2-
= ae ax
uv
dx
by a process similar
to the above.
Let y
u v when both
i -
y
If
dy -fdx
= =
v Inu. v
.
i - du u dx
h Inu
dv
dx
we now
v multiply by u we
get,
n
dy
-f-
dx
Hence,
first,
m
a
- du dx
uv lnu
7
dv
dx
the
v
\
to
differentiate
differentiate
(as
when y
xn
-*L
,
nx n ~
(tx
variable
and u constant
(as
when y
ax
-2,
dx
a x lnx)
and
take the
sum
of the results.
The
found
:
y=
y
logex
log;
224
Elementary Calculus.
EXERCISE
i.
IV.
y=
y
In
ex
3.
5.
7.
(2x xa
i).
2.
4. 6.
9.
= y =
y
y=e x sin x.
a lnx
.
8.
= y = y =
y
y=
xx
aln (\/x
x x
(e )
.
_
+
a)
cos (Inx).
In (Inx).
10. 12.
y=
=
II.
?=
y
**)*.
e ax sin nx.
+
1
ex
13.
In I \i
+ -
*
)
*/
15-
17.
y y
= =
x log cot e .
19.
Inx
T I
In (a
ao.
y=ln
y y y y
~ +
\/a
.
x 2 ).
cos
COS
* X
21.
= =
+
.
+ V* +bx
2
22. 24.
25.
a s * nx
wvw
at
23.
(u,
ex
=x = e
v and
(cos w#)*.
III.
Functions.
ART. 33. When we wish to express in symbols that is an angle whose sine is x, we write y = sin- x, and y = cos- 1 x, y = tan- 1 x, we mean that similarly if we write y
1
is
an angle whose cosine or tangent is x. Now sin- 1 J 30, from which we at once obtain the inverse expressin
sion
30
J; clearly,
if
sin-
x then x
sin y.
Elementary Calculus.
225
The German mathematicians write y = arc sin x instead of y sin- x. The former expression may be read y is
1
is
x.
similar interpretation
is
given
y =
arc tan
x and y
arc sec x,
and so
on.
sin- 1 x, functions y trigonometrical cos- x, etc., are of great importance in the Integral y Calculus.
inverse
1
The
ART.
If
34.
The
d.
c.
of
1
sin~ l x and y
cos~ l x.
y=
x
dx
sin- x,
sin y,
then
and
= =
cos y
dy
= \/i
sin
y dy.
Hence
dx
vi
x2
The
expression dx
sign of the root depends upon that of cos y in the For angles in the first quadrant cos y dy.
By
if
y
then
COS" X,
, vi
1
=dx
x
/aw- 1
ART. 35.
If
The
d. c.
= of y
=
1 awe? a?/- #.
then
and
.
(foe
y = #= =
tan- x,
tan y,
sec y
i i
2
dy
(i
tan 2 y) dy.
dy dx
dv
+
i
tan 2 y
Hence
Similarly,
if
cot- 1 x,
-j2
226
Elementary Calculus.
ART. 36.
If
The
d.c.
of
sec~ l
xandy =
cosec* 1 x.
y=
= doc =
x
dy_
sec~X
sec y,
then
sec
y tan y dy
*
= sec y
i
\/sec y
dy,
=
sec y
i
dx
\/sec y
Hence
In like manner,
if
cosec -t x,
i
'
then
dy
x\/x2 -i
The
y
d.c.
ART. 37.
If
of
1
vers~l
x and
covers- 1 x.
then
= vers" x, x = vers y = i cos y, cos y dy, dx = sin y dy = \/i dx = \A vers cty = \/2 vers y vers y dy = \/2 x x dy.
2
C1 2
;y)
2
"
Similarly,
=
S"
if
y = covers
-1
-*x, then
dx
\/2 x
x2
functions have a negative sign, and that in each case where a root occurs any ambiguity of sign may be disposed of by
referring to
of y.
Elementary Calculus.
227
in concise
The
form:
=
y
sin
-i
dy_
= =
dx
\A - &
= =
= =
cos -.* ;
|^
dy
_-^==.
i
i
' .
tan -i *'
^
dy d
~~
+
i
x2
i
-y
cot- 1 vV, *;
x2
sec- *;
y=
y
cosec- 1 *;
r*-
=
*
^*
/-^ v^
T
1 vers- ! *;
^
.
^
dy_
"
:
\/ X
2
X'
covers
-i
_
V.
(^
\/2X~X*
EXERCISE
i.
sin-
(2 *).
2.
y y
= =
tan- 1 3
.
a2
.
3.
y
y
*
=
cos- 1
4-
5.
cos~ 1 \/a^.
tan
6.
=
==
sin-1
\A
-'a*3
.
tan
"'
g.
arc sin 2
10.
arc tan
228
Elementary Calculus.
ii.
=
=
b arc cot
# V^
12.
sin- 1
x
(
V*
*/
13-
sin- 1
^
cos
#
>
;y=
y y y
CQt
1 6.
sec- 1
n e' *.
17.
19.
= = = =
e taQ -^.
18.
= =
=
y
e x sin- 1 2 #.
20.
covers- 1
21.
vers- 1
-. x
22.
cot-
23.
arc cos
\cos
24.
=
=
arc cos
2 5-
1 i cot"
2 3T
CHAPTER
III.
INTEGRATION.
ART. 38. In Chapter I we found that if y f(x) be the equation to a curye, then the Differential Coefficient
dy -*-
dx
expresses:
(1)
The
rate of
The gradient
suppose
any
point.
Now
the
differential
coefficient
of
a certain
function y f(x) be given; would it be possible to obtain a law which would enable us to find the original function
from which
derived?
of
the
given
differential
if
coefficient
has
3
been
.
For example,
is
2
dx
2 ==3 ax or dy
ax 2
dx,
what function
ax the
differential coefficient?
=
=
ax,
ax 2
= =
ax3
= =
ax 4
then
dy
If
a dx, dy
2
,
ax
3
,
dx, dy
ax 2 dx, dy
3 4 ax dx.
y=-x 2
dy
(I)
y=-x
3
y=-x* 4
dy
ax
dx, dy
ax 2 dx,
=
if
ax3 dx
we
ential coefficient
by
x, or,
what
229
is
power
of
by
unity,
we
obtain the
230
Elementary Calculus.
(In differentiating
we
case.
(III)
The
(IV)
The
Take
=
x n+l
ax n or dy= ax
11
dx.
Apply-
we
Note
have
if
we
we would
-2-
=
n
dx
+
.
(n
i
i )
x "+ 1
1
,
and hence,
dy
ax n
dx.
The
in the
process of
finding a function
is called
when
its
differential
coefficient is
Integration, and we would say given, above case we had integrated the expression ax n dx.
.
We
To
power
n form ax dx,
first
raise the
x by
Example:
Integrating,
Suppose dy
=
3
x 15
dx.
we
find
=
10 16
x 1Q
was made up
was supposed by Leibnitz, that a function an infinite number of infinitely small differences (differentials), and that their sum made up the funcART.
39.
It
of
Elementary Calculus.
tion.
letter
231
to
Hence,
to
show
that the
sum was
y
S was used.
We
and, therefore,
x3
was employed.
This symbol,
It
is
it
will
be noticed,
sign,
is
simply
process
the
an elongated S. which
called
the
Integral
it
represents,
Integration.
The
''Integrate" means
sum
total of."
In modern mathematics
we would
write:
Given
dy
dx.
read,
(The
integral of dy)
= =
(the integral of 3
x2
dx).
x3
is
can be looked upon as meaning that we are to find the function whose derivative with respect to x is a certain
given quantity.
Thus 13 x 2 dx
x?,
function whose derivative with respect to x is 3 x dx, We see from the above discussion that Integration
is
x3
may
problems of Integral
be looked upon as the inverse of Differentiation. In fact, Calculus are dependent upon an
inverse operation to those of Differential Calculus. Let us ART. 40. The constant of integration.
now
If we plot the corresponding x2 take the equation y graph we shall obtain a curve, known as a parabola, which
.
232
Elementary Calculus.
=
3,
o;
y = = y
x2 x2
2, 2,
y = y =
x2 x2
3, etc.,
we
y =
A
y =
at points
2,
= i, y = 2, - 3, etc. y =
3, etc.,
and
also at
general
x2
expression for all such curves would be When the value of C, where C is a constant.
is
is
indicated.
dy
dx
2
x, or
dx.
By
integration
we have from
2
dy
dx,
y=
But
(IX
X\
differentiating
2
=
is
x would be obtained by
of expressions of the
an
infinite
number
2
There
function the
form y = x + C. from which special x has been obtained, hence we see that we
must write:
Given
or
-2-
dx
dy
I
2 x,
= =
=
x
I
dx,
2
then
dy
y
x
C.
dx,
and
x2
C is called a constant of Integration, and must always be added when integrating an expression about which nothing more is known than that it is the differential coefficient of
a certain junction.
An expression such as
x dx
x2
+C
Elementary Calculus.
is
233
called
data,
the
an Indefinite Integral, because, from the given function cannot be definitely determined. In
practical problems we can generally obtain one or conditions which will indicate the required functions.
more
= 2 x dx and the Suppose, for instance, we had given dy the curve pass through the point x = 2, condition that
y=
and
5-
We
have by integration,
.'.
substituting,
+ C. 5=4 + C,
x2
I.
i.
Cthe function
is
is
Take
Here
dv
dt.
/*-/.
/.
idv=
v
Cadi.
at
+C
where a
is
the constant of
the original acceleration, due to gravity, and Now if the condition is integration.
imposed that the body starts from rest, when t = o, v = o, and .'. C = o, and we get the definite integral v = at, where C stands for the initial velocity, which is
zero in this case.
From
the above
we
ax n dx
= =
4-
C,
and
therefore,
J
We
x 4 dx
$-
x5
C.
is
often
234
Elementary Calculus.
ART. 41.
constant factor
may
be
placed outside
is
the
integration sign.
The
I
differential of
ax
I
a dx,
hence,
Rule.
factor,
sign.
dx
ax
dx.
If
an expression
this factor
may
ART. 42.
The
integration of a
sum
or difference.
In the
Differential Calculus,
we found
jb
d (u
j:
w)
__
dx
or
du dx
dv
dw
dx
dw,
I
'
dx
dv
I
d
/
(u
w)
du
hence
Rule.
algebraic
(du
dv
dw)
du
dv
is
dw.
The
integral of
an
algebraic
sum
equal to the
sum
ART. 42 a.
considered.
relation
:
Mechanics
where v
Chapter
=
I
velocity,
= a =
v
at
acceleration,
and
we
realized that v
t.
=
-^-
where
Hence
and
.'.
~=
at
at,
ds
at dt.
ids
.'.
= i at dt. =
at\
Elementary Calculus.
235
ds
dt
at
2
.
of the function
\ at
We
now
investigate this
Calculus has a
indicated.
much wider
The graph of v = at is a straight line, and since we will assume that there is no initial velocity, and, therefore, no added constant, this straight line passes through the origin.
In Fig.
as shown.
let
OA
and
represent the graph of v at, while are referred to the co-ordinates velocity
is
the
abscissa of any point A, to be divided into a number of equal parts, and the construction of the figure completed In the case of uniform velocity s as shown. vt.
Take any
small
time
interval
CD
moving body constant jor this The velocity of the body at the beginning interval would be represented by CE and
velocity of the
time
the
end
bvDH.
236
Since s
Elementary Calculus.
that throughout this short time interval a constant velocity is maintained, or the area of the equal to
CE
CE X CD
rectangle
traversed.
CDFE
Again, since
DH
CDHG
be
under the
traversed
CD
The
actual
space
first
result
would
indicate,
and
than the
latter.
Now the complete space traversed would be clearly mere than that represented by the shaded rectangles and less than that indicated by the larger rectangles, of which
CDHG
is
is
be given by the
a representative. The difference or error would sum of the small rectangles, one of which
of these latter
of
is
D'BAK'.
D'BAK' can
interval small,
latter is
D'BAK/
evanescent.
In
OB
is
represented by the
Now
But
.
Hence
or area of
BA.
/ .
of
OAB
represents
s,
.-.$=* at\
Elementary Calculus.
237
Hence we
at
.
find
that
when we
2 J a/ ,
integrate thus,
ds
dt,
and
find 5
we have
sum
or at
the
of
.
an
dt,
infinite
number
at
body
the total of which gives the space traversed by during the time /, and moving in accordance with
the law v
at.
The summation
of
a view of a marked
ART. 43.
The
definite integral.
Should
the law v
at
during a
finite
/2
time interval
OD =
.
and
ds
I at
dt,
we
if
is
zero
we
The
is
represented by the
238
Elementary Calculus.
ODH =
\ at
at
2
2 \ at2 2
.
to
OCE =
we have \
^ at
area
CDHE,
:
which
In the language of the gives the required space traversed. Calculus we express the above as follows Integral
2 I
atdt
I at2
dt
a^
dt
2 J at2
\ at
2
,
or thus,
The
/!
integral I atdt is called a Definite Integral; /2-and Jt, are referred to as the superior or upper, and inferior or
limit, respectively.
/
t
lower
We
.
integral from
It will
is
to
/2
of at
dt.
the solution of
obtained by sub-
and taking
the difference.
The
constant
difference
is clearly made to disappear by taking the between the integrals formed by giving two
successive values to the independent variable. To find the value of a definite integral solve
integral, then substitute
the general
and
by
take the difference. This process will be the following simple example:
made
clear
Required the space traversed between 5th and ;th seconds, given the acceleration equal to 4 feet per second per second.
5= C
Js
.'
at.dt=[^
2
at
].
*= i-4-
(7)
-i-4.(5)
=48sq.ft.
Elementary Calculus.
239
aoc
dx
+
i
.....
quantity
(without
(A)
x stands for any expression whatever. Hence, whenever we have a quantity, monomial or polynomial, raised to any
power and the
differential
of
this
its
Example.
(2
x3
x2
5)*
(x
x) dx
it
what?
does not
are always at liberty to introduce a constant factor behind the integral, if at the same
we
time
we
same
factor, in order
ing the variable can be removed from behind the integral or introduced in any way.
In the example above,
d(2
x3
x2
5)
(6
x2
2
6 x)
dx
6 (x 2
x) dx.
f (2 X
x2
2
5)
(x
x) dx
= =
5].
-6*)<fc;
2=2^-3^ +
x) dx
^(2X
3
x 2 +5)3
2
(*
$Y*
- ix +
f
= (2^-3^ +
15
5)',
240
f*
Elementary Calculus.
xdx
Agaln
xdx
\/r
2
- x2
since
2
x 2 )-* (2
xdx)
= -
(r
<fo
d(r
x 2 ).
we
Since integration is the reverse of differeneasily derive the following, by reversing the
cos
x dx
=
=
sin
+
x
c.
I sin
x dx
cos
+ c.
c.
sec 2
x dx
= =
tan
+
x
esc 2
x dx
cot
-f
c.
sec
x tan x dx
sec
+
x
c.
esc
x cot #
dx
cfo
=
s 111
csc
-{-
c.
/~ I
"1 *
+C
or
cos- 1
4-
c.
Elementary Calculus.
241
dx = f J i +*
2
tan- 1 x
+
*
c.
\/a
2
sin- 1
or
- cor** +
cot- 1
c.
^
+
I t/
= x2
log
tan- 1
- + cor - a
- +
c.
-^c
c, etc.
Put these
all
into rules.
EXERCISE
Integrate:
i.
I
VI.
x%dx.
2.
I (x
2)
dx.
4.
2 f(2 ^
5)* (x
i) <&.
5.
2 (jc
i )2 A;
dx.
6.
/ (jc
3 #)
^-
7-
(5^ *
3^cJ
i)^.
8.
I-
1-dx.
/f +
(^
2
~
:
10.
i)
* ^2
2
dbe.
(i
*)
\/^ ^*)* (2
12.
J (\/n -\/x)
dx.
13-
2 f(3 *
- * ^2 )
Elementary Calculus.
14.
C dx i J 3/x2
I
/ I
r
I
1
?-
(i
3/ V
jc)
dx.
16.
cos3
sin
dx.
17.
(i
cos
18.
tan*
sec
# <fo.
19.
cot
esc
dx.
20.
sec 2
rv
tan xdx.
21.
esc
jc
cot
jc c?^.
22.
sin*
^ cos
ac
dx.
23.
e^
A;
dx.
24.
tan
5f
dx.
J
I
25.
J/
1
sin
cos
26.
cos
#2
rv
dx.
27
28
^2 + /JC<foI
30-
J^*?dxI +
JC
32
2^ +
p J
we
sec
tan
x dx # 3
ry
34.
t/
r-^fc.. + COS X
I
ART. 46.
77ze
is
curve;
harmonic motion.
Suppose
a body moving in a circle with uniform P! (Fig. 18) the centre of the circle being O let P2 be a second velocity,
;
body moving
ner that
P2
diameter AB, but in such a manmaintains a position at the foot of the always
in the fixed
Elementary Calculus.
243
perpendicular from Pj upon AB. Now the body P2 travels backwards and forwards upon the diameter and its velocity
Fig.
18.
will
be at a
or
we
fix
upon any
point in
the
pass this fixed point, thus occupied by such a cycle of motion is called a Period. P2 in completing The motion of a tuning fork, an oscillating pendulum and
revolution of
15
body P2
will
travelling in the
same
direction.
The time
an
alternating
current,
are
motion.
The change
of position or
P2
is
and further
since each
cycle of
244
Elementary Calculus.
of
Harmonic Motion
time.
a point
is
a periodic function of
the
In general a
Periodic Function
is
one,
value of
which recurs
OP
is
sin
a.
= P Pi,
2
= =
sin a.
sin (a
2 TT).
sin a. is a periodic function, and Evidently, then, y the period is the time taken to complete one revolution.
This
is
equal to
call 6.
271
we will
We
T=
6
The
Frequency, or the
number
of periods in a second, is
Note
that
. ,
and
/.
2 nf.
is
In electrical work the number of alternations per minute often used instead of the frequency. From the annexed
it
diagram
will
P3
is
is
P2
excepting that
when P2
at
its
P3
path, where the instantaneous velocity is passing through the with its maxi-
mum velocity
and
so on.
we
have,
Elementary Calculus.
245
but
cos (90
a)
a).
. *.
or
= y=
a sin a,
a sin (a
TT).
Hence we see that y = a sin a represents the Simple Harmonic Motion of the point P 3 where a is the Amplitude and a the angle described from a fixed starting point, and is the product of the angular velocity and time,
;
a.
dtj
Note
less
a sin dt. generally write y that since the sine can never be greater than
i,
we
or
than
hence the
i
values
of sin 6t are
and
a:
i,
We
will
now draw
Function y
If
=
a
sin
=
=
0.707
a=
4
0.707
TT
= =
a=-y=i
2
a=5JE
<y
.707
=
o.
.707
246
Referring a,
Elementary Calculus.
expressed in radians to
the
#-axis,
and
using the same scale as the ordinate, we obtain a sinuous or wavy curve, known as the Curve of Sines or the Har-
monic Curve.
this
If
graph be made quicker or slower, the undulations of the curve will be more widely spread or brought nearer
together.
and
vice versa.
Fig.
(i8a)
Fig. i8a.
method; the student should have no difficulty in understandIt will ing the principle after an inspection of the figure.
be noticed that the curve does not begin upon the *-axis, but that the periodic time is counted from the instant that
the point
e.
This angle
negative
e is called
it is
by
when
to
that has elapsed since the point P passed through its initial the Phase Conposition at A, and hence e is often called
stant.
Elementary Calculus.
247
ART. 47.
Plane areas.
AB
a fixed ordinate.
Now
ordinate corresponding to
Let y
f(x) be a curve,
and
y be a second
(Fig.
19).
then
ABDC, call this area u, let CF Aw = CFHD, and Ay = GH. Now CDGF < Aw < CEHF but CDGF = y
Consider the area
;
and
CEHF = FH
y
.'.
.
A*.
Hence
Ax < Aw <
y
<
AM
FH. < T. TT
.
Now
and
the smaller
A#
UkX
will
FH
approach
when A# becomes
dx, then
FH =
if
=
(too
and du
is
dor.
Hence
any area
/(#)), a
differen-
248
tial
Elementary Calculus.
of such area (du)
is equal to the product of the termiordinate (y) and dx. nating Adopting the notation of the last paragraph we have, for the Definite Integral which expresses the area bounded
abscissa,
and two
ordinates, a
Xb y .dx.
.
Xb
(I)
f(x)dx.
expression,
or as
we say
Substitute the given limits, first the higher, then (II) the lower; subtract the latter resulting expression from the former.
CHAPTER
IV.
was found
that the
form
y-y=m(x-oc'}
(C)
expressed the equation of a straight line in terms of its slope (m) and a fixed point (V, y'). As any curve may be regarded as generated by a point moving according to a definite law, expressed by its equation, the direction of a
is
the direction in
moving But the generating point if not constrained to move in the curve, would at any instant move off in a straight line (by the first law of motion) and this straight line would be tangent to the curve at the point of departure;
at the instant.
which
hence
The
slope of a curve at
any point
slope
meaning
on a given curve,
and
is
is
/).
But
if
y=
f (x)
(where
(x)
is
known
shown
quantities)
that
--21
it
has been
dx
and
f
,
if
y'\
250
Elementary Calculus.
it
dx
\dx
-j-
\=
I x
f
slope of the
f
,i/
tangent at (x
f
,
y').
x', y'
which
is
/).
expression for
ART. 49.
From
is
these considerations an
the subtangent
same way
as described in Analytic
Geometry
is
yf
= -
(N)
by the
relation
developed
in Analytic
if
we understand
-^
dy
dx
the case of the subtangent the subnormal is found by determining its ^-intercept from its equareadily
in tion (N).
As
Elementary Calculus,
Let
then
o in (N),
whence
X*
OC
(Fig. 20)
Fig. 20.
But subnormal,
BC = OC - OB
[P
(V, /)]
-^ -/(?)
J
Corollary
:
\dxlx>,y>
The
lengths
of
tangent ajid
normal are
APB
2
and BPC.
2 2
= AB +PB =/
^y i dyJx',y>]
and
2 2 PC =PB 2 + BC = / 2
i fi L
+ I^-Y
\<bj
MfJ
and
Example
subnormal
Find
equation
of
tangent, subtangent
25 y
2
to the ellipse 16
x2
400 at
(3,
3J).
252
Elementary Calculus.
16
From
x2
=
25 y*
400
dy
_ 16 x
dx
At the point
(3,
2$y
becomes,
.
m
y
aJ)
this
V**
/*>. y'
25
is
16X3 = -3X V 5
(3,3t)l
or
25
=
=
i
also
^ /^ \
\dy
jx',y>
=
=
Hence subtangent
/(f)^,
( \
etc.,
(f)(
and subnormal
ART. 50.
nates.
l)
S/
- - A.
25
Subtangent, subnormal,
in polar co-ordi-
are Using the Polar System, subtangent and subnormal denned as follows: The subtangent and subnormal are respectively the distances cut off by tangent and normal from the pole on a
line
drawn through
it
the tan-
gency point, as
OT
and
ON
(Fig. 21).
Elementary Calculus.
Calling the angle
gent,
</>,
253
TPO
we have
OPT
and OPN,
Fig. 21.
subtangent,
ON = OP
The
Let
OT = OP tan OPN =
(p
tan
TPO =
(b
p tan
p cot
(since
OPN =90 -
(p.
Subnormal,
TPO).
angle
is
determined thus:
ACE
A/7
Fig. 22.
being
(p,
0),
and
of
being
AB= ApandAOC
AB
254
is
Elementary Calculus.
BC
from a tangent
Whence
tan
BAG =
pA#, since an arc = its angle multiplied by the As the point A approaches C, the secant AC radius). approaches the position of a tangent at C (FG) and BAG
(arc
BC =
(p
(OCG),
hence, finally,
,
tan
c-= pdd
dp
= =
p tan
<p
TO
2
dp p cot
<b
= -~
do
EXERCISE
1.
VII.
bola y 2
2.
16
at
4.
to the
Find
16
the
equations
of
tangent
and
normal
to
=
4.
x3
at (i, 4).
to
x 2 (x
+ y) =
a3
4 (#
y)
at (o, o).
5.
to
yax
x3
is
parallel
to the #-axis.
6.
is
JL to the rv-axis
on the curve,
f= ^
7.
a;).
Find
the
36
-
angle
at
which
x2
intersects
4^
+ 9f=
Elementary Calculus.
8.
255
1 2 y = 16. The hyperbola x area of the triangle formed by a tangent and the coProve it. ordinate axes is constant and equal to 16.
In
the
equilateral
9.
At what angle do y 2
x and x 2
is
that the subtangent to twice the abscissa of the point of tangency. 11. Show that in a circle the length of the
10.
Show
normal
is
constant.
12.
The
show
is
constant.
CHAPTER
V.
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATIONS.
ART.
Since -*
in general, purely a function of
51.
dx
is,
may
It is
dx^
For example,
if
y =
5 x*,
dx
JL=Q X + 4X -s x-l,
i
dx 2
Likewise the differential of
this
second differential
may
be
is
dx*
-^
the
n th
as
dx n
it
sometimes happens that the successive differential coeffimay be written by analogy after three or four have been found. For example
cient
:
y=
dx
xm
256
Elementary Calculus.
257
d n/2 v
dx n
=m
(m (m
i)
(m
2)
i)
x m~n
function be an implicit function of x and y, it is not necessary to put it in explicit form, as the previously found derivatives may be used to find successively each
If the
higher one.
For example:
x*
=r*
(i)
(2
Take
^-derivative
dy
y -f~
=
=
ax
....
...
y
solving for
-%-
-2,
ax
ax
(3)
ax
dx 2
_
da?
3,2
2.
y
5
For example, in algebra, the binomial theorem series. enables us to develop a binomial raised to any power into a
series of
(a
as,
b)
4 a b
6 a b
4 a b
b\
etc.
258
Elementary Calculus.
computed from series. Hence a general method for the expression of any function of x, say, in series, would prove exceedingly useful. But such a series has utility only when its sum is a finite In general, series have an unlimited number of quantity. and clearly, unless the sum of these terms is a finite terms, A series whose sum is finite quantity, it is utterly useless.
functions are
is
we
Let
it
be required to develop f(x) into a series of powers of (x m) say. Supposing such a development possible, let
/(*)
etc
= A +B
(x
- m) + C
(x
- m) + D
2
(x
m)
3
,
(a)
B +
(x
m)
etc.
m)
Since
is
assumed
to
let
m.
Then f(m)
f'(m)
= A = B,
or
/"()
^ C,
Elementary Calculus.
Substituting in (a)
(x)
259
= l(m)+t'(m)(x-m)
in
powers of (x
/
2).
(*)=
log*,
(2)
log
2.
fiv(x)
(2)
= i (x
4
I, etc.
Hence log x
= log 2 + i (x + i (x - 2) - |
3
2)
(x
2)*
. .
2)
ART.
53.
If
in
formula
(b),
be
made
o,
which
is
no
restrictions
were placed on
its
value,
the formula
for f(x) in
terms of x:
+
where /(o),
/'(o), etc.,
(b)
mean
x
etc.,
when #
in terms of x.
I (o)
/'
x)
(o)
/"(o)
i.
260
Elementary Calculus.
/"'(#)
Iv
(x)
= =
sin x,
/"'(o)
IV
cos x,
= () =
= cos o =
sin o
o.
i, etc.
Substituting in (b):
which
is
the expression
is
computed.
,
For example,
to find cos
cos
[
rad.
J
cos.
30= _ IS/. +
f-T
(-V
JfiZ.
_ &L +
720
f-V
etc.
(W
3.1416.)
24
.00313
24
24
1.00313
( 1
=
is
.0000'
.13711
cos 30
=
series
.86602 approx.
720
.13711
as
The
ART.
tion of
(b)
(and
its its
special form b t )
known
discoverer.
powers of
of x.
in
is
x) in
powers
The
process
is
Assuming
that )(h
x and
t
regarding h as constant:
}(h
Let
x)
= A + Bx + Cx + Dx + Ex +
2
3 4
(c)
Elementary Calculus.
261
Taking
j'(x
-f
all
when x = o; hence setting x = o in this equations we are enabled to determine the conis
values of x, being an
true
stants, thus:
(2
X i=
Z2)
(6-3X2 Xi=
Zs).
Substituting in (c)
f(x
+h) =
j(h}
f'(h)
x
Z2
etc.,
etc.,
mean
the values of
f(x+h), /'(x+h),
It will
binomial theorem as encountered in algebra is a special form of Taylor's formula. The utility of these develop-
ments of Maclaurin and Taylor, depends upon the rapidity with which they converge.
262
Elementary Calculus.
the series developed
As
is
usually
always a residual error in taking the sum of a limited number of terms as the value of the function
infinite,
there
is
A discussion of this error is unnecessary thus expanded. here; it will be sufficient for us now to observe that a
convergence, if the successive terms decrease rapidly in value, and after a limited number of
series has satisfactory
usually
an
when
the
n th term
ratio
of a series
to
find the
ratio
between the (n
th iY h and n
terms.
If this
con-
purposes.
:
Example
To
test
convergency of
sine-series.
sin
#=#-+/5
T3 V5
T7
Z3
/7
..
Inspection of the relation between the coefficients of x, the denominators, and the corresponding term number,
gives
the
is,
n th term
as above.
The
(n
tk
i)
term
like-
wise
Z_2
If
n
~
X 2n /_% n
is
as
i
n approaches
..
infinity,
Elementary Calculus.
263
(2
i) 2
oifn-oo.
Z_2
Hence the
It is to
sine-series is convergent.
be observed that
it is
the terms that are considered, as the sign does not affect
the
for
this
There are numerous more complicated tests convergency, but they do not come within the scope of
ratio.
book.
EXERCISE
1.
VIII.
i,
x3
,
x2
2-
find
2.
x3
find
dxr
4.
y
y
log x, find
x
~
(LOO
5.
log
(e
+
,
er*\ find
4x
-^ dxr
6.
= &
(x
,.
8), find
^
dx3
7-
y
7
=
=
dV
4
8.
10.
log sin
ap,
find
264
Elementary Calculus.
11.
y
y
^
^y
sin 2 x, find
12.
=
i
find
2.
efar
# (V
13.
= = =
2 e *
14.
e ax , find
id.
-y
e^sin #.
show
-^ dx
^~
dx
in terms of y.
16
= =
ex
_
,
i
^-x
express
^ ^2
17.
-y
^2 e z show
that
/
n \^
^=
6 e x (x
-{-
i)
y.
18.
=! + *,
*?
find
g.
find
19.
a*y
a y
2
+
2
/,
j-2.
20.
&
2
^c
a2 b
2
,
21.
#, find
-^
d3 y -*
^2.
22.
jcy
tr,
nnd
23.
e* 4*
^y,
find
dx
JH, find
in terms of y
and
a.
25.
y =
5
a 2 #, find
r vers1
26.
rv
=
r.
^ /
\A ^ - /,
find
ax
in terms
of
and
Elementary Calculus.
265
EXERCISE
IX.
sin
(in
powers of
x\
2.
3. 4-
log*
" i
(in
i))
(in
5. 6.
ex
-
(in (in
powers of (x
powers of (x
in
2)).
h)).
powers of x:
log sin (h
sec (a
(a
sin (n
+
^
2
x).
-
10. ii.
12.
+
x).
x)
8. 9.
\A
e a+x .
+
x)
n.
CHAPTER
VI.
forms as
o
o, oo
etc.,
oo
we
The
may make
the
idea clearer
oc
wen x =
i.
and and
2
o<?
8
2
i
o o
when x
,
x x
2
2,
oc
- = o when x = i
i.
3 ar
o
the
Evidently
cases,
cited.
does not
mean
same thing
in all these
nor in the multitude of similar cases that might be Having practically an infinite number of possible
-
is
indeterminate.
It
will
it
o
266
Elementary Calculus.
267
was remarked
too
that although
small
(or
too
large)
for
comprehension,
if
finite,
same order of smallness (or largeness). they belonged To use a somewhat inadequate illustration, two typhoid
though each hopelessly beyond the reach of our ordinary senses, could be readily compared with one another
bacilli,
by a very simple a bacillus is not infinitely small, the Although same illustration may be extended indefinitely. As the
number.
chemist has to approach the problem of his inconceivably small atom and the astronomer of his inconceivably vast
distances, indirectly, so
and
we
will
and
infinities.
To
x5 i = x4 -}- x3 -}- x2 -{- x4- i. x i If in this expression we give x a constantly decreasing value >i, the integral function will clearly approach more and more nearly the value 5, while the fraction approaches
by the denominator, then
-
the value
It is
when x is
actually
i,
the value of
--
becomes exactly
5.
x x2
x2 i 2 x -i
if
may we
.
be
shown
to
first
divide both
x2
268
Elementary Calculus.
57.
ART.
To
an
indeterminate.
Let o
when x
a.
By
Maclaurin's formula,
/
(
X\ )
if
f(a)
+
i
it f
j'(a) (x
a)
\a + -L-L
i
(x
o 2
a)
'(a) (*
a)
But /(a)
o and
<j>
(a)
.
o by hypothesis.
/(*)
(dividing numerator
(since (x
a),
and denominator by x
2
a)
(x
a)
etc.
o when x
a).
If
'
' ,
still
equals
for
a,
it
is
-*
'-
if
Elementary Calculus.
<f>'(x)
269
are replaced
by
their values, o,
Hence when
1& = <*
<j>(
f or
a,
etc
X)
:
</>'(*)
#'(*)'
rule
may
(as
(x),
be stated thus
Take
inator n
of
say
which
a.
Then,
is the
X
Example
Ll
T-.
,
value sought.
Evaluate
tan
sin
x cos x
o
,
x3
x cos x
2
when x
o.
tan
sin
-?tan
j(x}
=^)'
_
sec
sin
x cos x
cos
sin
"^^
3^
(taking derivatives).
to
'
still
equals
_
o
<p
(x)
derivative,
sin
cos
x
2
2 _ sec
a;
cos
+
jc
sin
x
2 sec
3^
x tan #
tan
cos
sin
2 sin
cos
Jg
6x
sec
5P
2 sin
cos
x
and dividing by
(collecting
2).
270
This
Elementary Calculus.
is
still
sec
ifrr /
\*
Taking
third derivative
2 cos
2
'
fff
sec
x
o.
tan
x
3
2 sin
3_
= i, when x =
.-.
whfin
ART.
t;8.
If
-"2 =
0(x)
co
when x
a,
a simple trans-
for
=
<j)(x)
i
for
If
j(x)
=
.
o and
(f>(x)
<j)(x)
cc
for
a,
then
/(#)
fix)
=
=
oo.
an indeterminate,
o
O
but
<j>(x)
By
diate
using the logarithms of the functions as an intermestep, expressions like i, o, 00, etc., may be
.
reduced likewise to
o
<p(x)
For example,
let
f(x)
a.
and
oo,
when x
Then
Let
}(x)]^
= ix y = [/(*)]*<*>.
. :
Taking the
Log y=(f)(x)
=
i
o o
w hen
a.
Elementary Calculus.
In these cases
function,
271
we
readily found.
Example : Evaluate
- x -
\ tan -^2-
2
,
when x = a,
T \tan
^r =
1
when x
a.
5)Then
= log y
tan
^
2
log &
2
(
- )=
/
log (2
*
o_
. cot
WP
2
/.
log
=
2
i
a
i
a
esc
2
je
=
a
ft
a
-
2
,
when x =
,
a.
JL
2
2
I
2a
\ tan
)
That
is,
log y
log (2 \
ff ^ 2 a
a /
a)
-,
TT
when ^
2
a.
tan
E*_
2 a
(a
-IT
Example : Evaluate
x
(a
i )
x,
when #
oo
i
(a*
-
i)
GO
.
x=
a.
00
(a
i) oo
(a
i) oo
o.oo,
when x
272
Elementary Calculus.
But
-i* =
llLl..
1
X
when x
**
I_
oo
EXERCISE
Evaluate
x
.
X.
J2Z |W heny=i. yi
e*
2.
tan
g-*
x
jg
when x
2_7r
o.
4
2.
sin
cos
42
x
i
wnen ^_-_,
2
cos
-^ --#
1
,
sin
6
i.
5.
tf*"
when
tan
#=
,
6.
'sin
y)
g 2
gZ 7.
_
2
)
,
when
3;
-.
2
when z=o.
8.
(i
+ ^)"-i
+
-
i
[
when x
oo
*/
Elementary Calculus.
273
10.
-- x
sin
:
tan-
x
y
when x
y
=
i
o.
"
12.
e y sin
y
*:
when
log -
sin 2
log sin
* x
when
oc
o.
13-
(m*
p O
-
i)*,
when# =
T X
,
oo.
14.
>X O
when x
=
i.
i.
/Y* vV
15.
r
log*
when *
log*
16.
(cos 26)
when when *
6=0.
17.
(log *)
a;
-1
,
=
o.
i.
18.
^ ^
esc
when *
19
20.
21.
(i
tan *) sec 2 x,
when *
oo
.
c~ x log *,
[log (e
2
when *
z)]*,
+
]
when 2=0.
22
(*\ n)
^* tan -
2n
when x
n.
sec
24.
log (i
when *
x)
274
Elementary Calculus.
25.
00
cot x,
*
when x
when ^
jc
,
,
=
=
o.
26.
-cos
sin-
27.
x
2 X sin
when x
=
oo
.
o.
28.
when
x=
=
sin
29.
(sin
#)
*,
when ^
^c
o.
i
30.
rv
e*,
2
when
2
=
-
o.
5C
31.
COS
3f
2
,
when# =
,
o.
sin
5f
cos
32.
sin
cos
#1 when
,
jf
TT
33-
34-
-,
(e
y-
when 3^=0.
sec ^,
2
i)
35.
rv
tan
when x
oo
.
= 2
when
CHAPTER
VII.
When
a function has a
until
it
maximum
value
it is
an increasing function
decreasing function just afterward, otherwise this value Since the derivative of a func-
between
if
its
increase
of
its
independent variable,
as
the function
decreasing
its
Hence when a function passes through a maximum value derivative changes from positive to negative, and in
it
order to do this
continuous.
zero,
if it is
a function passes through a minimum value the derivative also passes through zero from negative to positive.
when
It is to
its
variable for
be remembered that since a function depends upon its value, it can be made to take any number
together as
of
values, as near
we
please,
is
by giving the
provided always
continuous.
graphic illustration may make this plainer. Since in general any function may be represented graphically by a curve, let the curve AB, Fig. 23, represent
derivative
of
a function, represented by a
curve,
is the slope of its tangent at any given point, the change of the derivative and the tangent slope are synony-
275
276
Elementary Calculus.
mous.
= OD. A
Suppose
is
maximum
point
for
the
value
show
that starting,
MN at A,
T
moves from
to
will
an acute angle, as
constantly decreasing; at
is
an obtuse angle
it
as]
PQ#,
and hence
its
tangent
is
negative, but
will
still
decrease
Fig. 23.
in general.
function which
will
pass
from
But a function
may
sign, so
pass through zero or infinity without changing its even when the derivative is zero there may not be a
or
maximum
mine
exists.
minimum.
Hence
it
is
in a given case
whether a
maximum
zero before a
it is
Recall the fact cited above, that the slope decreases to maximum and continues to decrease (because
negative) after a
maximum, hence
the derivative
is
Elementary Calculus.
277
decreasing function at a maximum, hence its derivative, that is, the second derivative of the original function, will
be negative from our definition of a derivative. An examination of the figure around the point F (a minimum) will show that at a minimum the slope, and
hence the derivative, passing from negative to positive through zero, is an increasing function, hence its derivative,
that
is,
the
second
is
This suggests a general method for determining positive. maxima and minima, as follows
:
Since the
first
derivative
if
is
minimum
point,
the
first
equal to zero, the value of the variable found from this equation will, in general, be one of the co-ordinates (usually
the abscissa) of the maximum or minimum point on the curve representing the function. To determine whether it is a maximum or minimum, the second derivative is
found, and
if
it
is is
ART. 60.
minate as to
It
may happen
and hence
indeter-
In this case
in the
it
is
clearly desirable to
the function,
and x
f(x)
then f(a h) and f(a h) will represent the value of the function immediately before and immediately
o,
after,
respectively,
its
value for
a,
h being a quantity
By
Taylor's formula
278
Elementary Calculus.
j(x
h)
j(x}
f(x)h
^)
Z2
h2
^U
Z3
/(a),
a,
and transposing
f(a+h)-f(a) =
f( a _/,)
f(a)h
j (a )
-/
is
Z2
its
Now
cube,
since
to
square,
developments will be insignificant, and hence the values of the above expressions will practically That is, equal the first terms of their development. f(a + h) j(a) will have the same sign as /'(#)/, and
etc.,
in the
j (a
h} there is a
- /O)
will
f(a)h.
But
if
maximum
or
minimum
at a, f(a -f h)
and
}(ah)
must have the same value, because if it increases to a maximum it must decrease beyond the maximum, and hence have the same value just before and just after, as the sun has the same altitude at the same time before noon
and after, noon being its maximum elevation. But the only way }'(a)h and f(a)h could both have the same value would be, that both equal zero, that is, that
j'(a'}= o [/'(a) being value of j'(x) verifies our former conclusion.
If /'( a )
when
x=
a],
which
o, then,
and
Z2
Since h
is
Zs
so small,
is
much
f(a)
h)
and }(a
h)
f(a)
Elementary Calculus.
^
279
are determined
is positive,
by
'
a'
h2
if
positive
if
I" (a]
and negative
f'(a)
negative
But, when f(a + h) h) f(a) and }(a both negative, f(a) is a maximum, since it
f(a)
are
is
greater
h} and f(a h)]; when they are both positive, f(a) is a minimum. likewise, But these conditions prevail, respectively, when f" (a) is
it
\j(a
-f-
negative and
when /"(#)
is
positive,
which
verifies
our
f"(a)
is
and
show
that
^M
that
is,
iv
h3 and
f"( a )
h 3 must equal
o,
is
zero,
/'"O)
f
and when
is
(a)
is
positive there
minimum; when
iv
(a)
maximum,
etc.
A
if
function has a
maximum
x
or
minimum
value at
x =a,
any number
first,
the
is zero for
a,
provided the
first
maximum
and
280
Elementary Calculus.
values of the variable which cause the
first
The
deriva-
tives of a function to
critical values.
3 2
i) (x
2)
3(*
2
l) (*
2)
2(X
o,
l)
(*-2)
whence
(x
i) (x
i,
i,
2)
2,
(5^
8)=
8) -f (*
x=
/"(*)
f.
2 (x
i) (x
2)
2
(5
i)
(5
- 8)
-f
5(*-
l)
(*~2).
When
Hence
and
for
Since
third
= o. i, /"(*) = 2, /"(#) = 2 (positive). # *= ,/"(*) = -M (negative). x = 2, there is a minimum, for x = f there is a maximum. = o for x i, is necessary /"(#)
x=
it
to find the
and fourth
j'"(x)
derivatives.
=
:
2 (30
is
x2
84 x
57)
when x
at
i.
Hence
there
neither
maximum
that
nor
minimum
i.
Example
vessel
What
cylindrical
of
largest
contents
tin plate,
can be
squire inches of
when completed,
nrh
xr2
3234
nr*h
......
=
2l1
7
(i)
(2)
Volume
which
is
to
be a
maximum.
From
(i)
=
2
nr
2r
Elementary Calculus.
Substituting in (2)
281
maximum
Say then,
Since a constant does not change value it cannot affect or minimum, hence any constant factor may
1029
r*,
l'(r)= 1029
3 r
o,
whence
f'(r)
343, r
7 v 7.
6 r
which
is
negative, hence r
= 7 V/
gives a
h=
X/7
for r
x/y.
its
Hence
the cylinder
have
greatest
contents
when
radius
equals
its
altitude.
EXERCISE
Find maxima or minima:
XI.
y- 8 ~~~
O 3
.
(z
9) (z
2)
^2
/+
7.
+x i + 2M+ w + i
2
x
3
Divide a
will
line
i'
product
8.
be a
maximum.
6".
a circle of radius
9.
a sphere of 8" radius. 10. Find the greatest cone in the same sphere.
n. Show that it takes the least amount make a cylindrical tank closed at both
diameter equals
its
of sheet iron to
ends,
when
its
height.
282
Elementary Calculus,
12.
in
E; internal resistance
r,
external resistance, R,
and
current, C,
jr
r -f
and the
a maxi-
power,
= RC
2
.
What
value of
will
make P
mum?
14.
line
that can be
drawn
CHAPTER
VIII.
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES.
ART.
variable
61.
Up
one independent
may
only have been considered, but an expression be a function of two or more independent variables.
x and y
F(x, y),
say, is symbolized
etc.
thus:
/ (x, y),
<f>
(x, y),
Continuous functions only give important general results, and a function of two variables is continuous about any
specific values of these variables, say
h,
k,
when
unbroken
its
near together as
we
please) as
corresponding
of
h and
ART.
k.
62.
The
variables found by considering all the variables except one, as constants, is called its partial derivative with respect to
is For example, 4 xy 3 y changes. the partial derivative with respect to x of the function 2 2 3 2 x y -f 3 xy y (regarding y as a constant) and is
the
variable
that
represented thus:
(2
x 2y
+
2
3 xy*
/)
4 xy
Ifs= 2X 2 y
+ 3xy + y>,then=4*y+3y
differential,
(i)
is
with respect to x,
repre-
283
284
'dyZ
Elementary Calculus.
4 xy dx
2 y dx
(2)
Evidently
Similarly,
9 xz = dyz
(2
x2
xy
+
2
dy
(3)
By
dz
known,
4 xy dx
x 2 dy +
y dx
xy dy
show
OZ
,
+ 3y
dy.
(4)
comparison
of (2), (3)
-^
.
and
OZ
(4) will
i
that
--N
That
is,
sum
In Art. 4, and succeeding articles, it was explained that a differential quotient (or derivative) was the ratio of the increase of a function to the increase of its variable when
these
This
expressed thus:
y=
may be
f(x),
dy dx
Ax
hesa
if
as
[(
is
a symbol meaning
"
approaches. "]
Also
=
oy
*.yy-. yasA
A;y
^^
changes to y
A^.
Elementary Calculus.
285
Now
function
let
same
and we have,
3+
But the
result
Az
= f(x+
A*, y
Ay)
if
.(a)
instead of
changing simultaneously, x should change while y remained constant and then y would change while x + A# remained
constant.
From
(a),
Az
/ (x
A*, y
+ Ay) -
} (x, y),
or changing successively,
Az
/ (x
+ +
A*, y)
/ (x
j (x, y)
+
A#
A*, y
Ay)
/ (x
A*,
y).
Az
A#
= /(*+ A*,y)-/(*,y)
.
(x
kx, y
Ay)
Ay
/ (x
AJC, y)
'
A^ A*
last
By
definition of derivative,
/(*+ A *- ?) -/<*'?) A#
and
[as
A* =o]-|L. o#
, ,
^
~dz
-,
= Jz
3y
.
Ay
That
T.I
A
dz
is,
'dz = ---
'dz
dy
\-
dx
ox
oy dx
-f-oidz= ox dx+ oy
3z
dy.
'
Hence the result found in the specific example above is shown to be general for all continuous functions, namely: The total differential equals the sum of the partial differentials,
oj
its
inde-
pendent variable.
286
Elementary Calculus.
enunciated for the differentiation of specific forms as, for example, the product of two or more variables, wherein
is found by regarding all the variables but one successively as constant, and taking the sum of the
the differential
results.
ART.
63.
In
implicit
functions,
partial
y)
o.
An implicit function, it will be remembered, is one in which the variables are thrown together in the various terms, and the function is not solved explicitly for any one, like
3
x2 y
xy
xy
etc.
From our
rule,
or
shortly,^dx
-?. 3
of variables,
The same
for example,
number
w=
dw
ART.
64.
If
<f>(x, y, z),
= ^dx+ ^-dy + ox
'
-~dz,
oz
etc.
oy
is
itself
a function of x, say y
(f>(x),
3z
'dy
dy
dx
'dx
dx
Elementary Calculus.
287
is
most
effective, for
d> (x).
Example
4y
i.
By
formula,
dz
'dx
.....
(a)
From
2 88
Elementary Calculus.
It is readily
shown
.
that
that
is,
the order
is
immaterial.
'dx'dy
EXERCISE
Find
i.
XII.
SL by
dx
2
partial derivatives:
a 2y
+
2
x2
=
x
a*b\
x3
a
4.
a/ = x
5
(x
3 a)
s.,-^
6.
*.- 5
).
a*.
**
+ /=
1.
x=
r vers-
-r
\/2 ry
that
8.z=
9
.
tan-
y~
;
show
o.
log (tan
+ +
tan ^
sin 2
+
y
sn
+
find
sin 2
M - ou
2.
10.
^ + /
z
-f
^^ =
;
"^
11.
^2 y
^Y
show
that
Elementary Calculus.
289
12.
z=z=
z
=J=
^
w
show
that
+/+
13.
14.
Vr^*
/,
/=
^2
find
CHAPTER
IX.
do with curves whose equations are known. the principle of minute increments the characteristics By
have
of a curve of irregular curvature are discovered.
In dealing with curves it will be helpful to regard them as described by a fixed law, point moving according to a and at any given instant having the direction of a tangent
line to the
Length of an Arc.
P and
ART. 67. Let AB be an arc of any curve (Fig. 24), Q two positions of the describing point, 6 and (j) the
Fig. 24.
angles
MN,
made respectively by PQ, and the tangent at P, with the #-axis, to find the length of the arc PQ.
the co-ordinates of
Draw
Then
(OS, QS).
TS = PR = A*
QR =
Av.
290
Elementary Calculus.
In the right triangle
291
PQR,
,
chord
that
is,
or
2 2 2 PQ = PR + QR 2 PQ = A? + Ay PQ V^+ ^V
2
,
2
-
Dividing by Ax,
-.
But as
zero,
Ax
is
the chord
PQ
PQ
(Q moving
ax
(where
s
down toward
P),
and eventually
-^ Ax
becomes
dx
The same
result
may
-^-
^= Ax PQ
whence But
Ax
PQ]
Ax
PQ
i,
.(from(b))
^-eventually equals
A _ds_ ~ dx Ax
The
tangent
MN gives the
ultimate direction
PQ, and Ax
29 2
at the
Elementary Calculus.
same
time.
n,
ds
from
or
(c)
j^
= V, i +
tan
2
<
sec
Likewise,
=
Volume
sn
of Solid of Revolution.
ART. 68.
LN
revolve
generated by
Fig. 25.
MN =
As, a portion of
LN.
will
lies
TNRQ
AV, we
these
MNRQ
(MN,
2
the chord),
(y
NP].
Elementary Calculus.
Dividing by A#,
TT
293
(y
Ay)
> AY >
^y
As
the arc
is
approaching
M, R
that
is,
approaches Q, and
NR
MQ;
+ Ay
lies
approaches
y.
2 Ay) and 2
But
it
always
2
between n(y
if
Try
hence
cannot pass
2
Try
but
Tr(y
Ay)
of
Try
it
must
also
reach
it,
becoming
dx
by the
arc).
To Find
chord
MN
will
be
AS
(Fig. 25),
AS=
As
the
Tr(2y
Ay)
MN.
the arc
is
N
ds,
approaches the arc, as Atf approaches dS, the surface generated by hence finally (dividing through by Ax), approaches dx,
chord
MN
arc
M, AS
^S dx
ds_
gince
^ =
Q ag
dx
But
-^
CHAPTER
X.
at a given
it
when immediately
lies
downward when
lies
If the curvature
is
Fig. 26.
It is upward at B, and has a point of inflection at C. evident that at a point of inflection the tangent line crosses the curve.
the
conditions for
downward
for
con-
same
as for a
upward
negative for a
maximum
where
and
positive for a
minimum,
at a point of inflexion
294
Elementary Calculus.
295
the curve changes from one to the other, the second derivative must change from positive to negative or vice versa,
that
is, it
if
such
exist.
If
f(x)
there
=
is
Example
Examine y
3 8 a -r2
for inflexion.
/'(*)=-
Substitute in /"(*),
x=
-^=
h and x
\/3
-^L
successively,
where h
is
as small as
we
please.
l6o'/4 a 2
+4^+^-4
,_
Then ?(*)
r
-h
^3
296
Elementary Calculus.
V 3
++
3
and
/"(*)
Since &
is
is
2
,
positive in both
same reason
^-= >
value of j"(x)
is
first positive,
and hence
is
= ~^
\y
3_a\
=
2
a point of inflection, as
also
3 L
t
J
t
--20 V3
ART.
CURVATURE.
71.
If
at
order: that
f(x)
and y
then
for a
t(P)=F(p)
Also their tangents being the same,
/'(/>)
x
......
.
.
.
(i)
Y'(p).
(2)
[The values of f(x) and F (x) when x = p] So these are the conditions for contact of the
If
first
order.
addition
/"(/>)
F"(/>),
they are said to have contact of the second order, and so on.
Elementary Calculus.
297
In general, a straight line has only contact of the first order with a curve, because the two equations above (i) and (2) (one function representing the straight line, the
other the curve), are just sufficient to determine the two arbitrary constants for the equation of a straight line, since
to
two simultaneous equations furnish only enough conditions determine two unknowns. Likewise a circle requiring three conditions may have
be required, namely:
Total Curvature.
ART.
72.
The
total
is
in the
same
direction, is
measured by
Fig. ay.
tangency moves from one end of the arc to the other; or what is the same thing it is the difference between the slopes
at these
two
f
points.
(j)
arc
MN
is
(f>
A<,
298
that
Elementary Calculus.
</>'
= AED.
That
is,
is
the
angle between the two tangents, measured from the first to the second, hence it may be either positive or negative,
The
average curvature
is
the
total
&,
where As
Measure of Curvature.
ART 73. Following the principle of minute increments, the value of the average curvature, as the arc becomes indefinitely small, is taken as the measure of curvature,
But as As becomes indefinitely usually designated as *. small, A^> likewise becomes indefinitely small, and eventually
^
As
becomes
-^
as
is,
K=
Since
tan
d$_ ds
'
6=
dx
-%-,
But uc
_
ds
dx
Elementary Calculus.
299
RADIUS OF CURVATURE.
The circle tangent to a curve (or having consecond order) at a given point and having the same curvature as the curve at that point is called the
ART.
74.
tact of the
In a circular
arc, the angle made with each other by the tangents at the extremity of the arc is the same as the angle between the radii to these extremities, since a radius is JL to a tangent at
the point of tangency, and a central angle equals (in radians) arc divided by the radius. But the angle between the
tangents
.'.
is
A0.
(calling r the radius),
A<
=
radius
=
r
dividing by As,
As
And
since r
is
a constant,
+
ds
r K
o?y
dx2
Since a circle can always be found of such radius that it have the exact curvature of any curve at a given point, the r as found above is called the radius of curvature of a
will
and
dx
dx2
L are deter-
mined.
The
radius of curvature
is
understood to be positive or
is
positive
or negative; that
is,
according as
dx
300
Elementary Calculus.
As every
is
point on a curve in general has a is, the centre of its curvathese centres describe a locus as
ture circle
different,
the point on which the curve called the evolute of the curve.
this
moves
It will
along.
This locus
is
name
is
peculiarly appropriate.
itself is
The
curve
its
evolute.
Involute
arcs
are
is
modern
gears,
ART. 76. To find the equation of the evolute, curve equation be y = f(x) The equation to a circle is,
(x
If
let
........
2
the
(i)
h)
(y
k)
2
.
(2)
this
be the curvature
t
circle
at the point
(x,
y) on
y=
f(x)
then the
x and y
in (2)
by definition
Taking
(*
h)
(y
t)
g=o
(3)
<+()'
&V1
dy
dx 2
<>-*>-&=
dyV
<Py dx*
>
dx2
dx 2
Elementary Calculus.
r
301
(Jy
^
As we know
'
no particular point on the curve be taken fe), (5 2 ) and y = j(x) will, by combination, give the equation of
If
the
e volute
of
f(x), -?-
and
ax
-^ax
/(*):
Example
Here
2
.
y
dy -fdx
x
<?
2
(i)
\y
/(*)!
whence
= =
2 c
3
j x
r
^c
and
^ 2 <fo
d*y
Substituting in (5^
and fe),
From
From
(2),
h=
k
f-+x=
-^
^JLE.
...
from
.4
(4)
(3),
h y (or since
y=
(i))
(s)
302
fl
~T K
Elementary Calculus.
(4)
and
2
(5),
3 g
+
2
3 c x* -
-(c
2 C X?
Subtract;
The equation
(h+k)*- (h-kf =
in the usual form.
like
x and ^
An
the following: The difference between any two radii of curvature equals the length o) the arc of the evolute
drawn.
Let
(off,
This important fact is proved thus: /) be any point on the curve y = /(#); R, the
radius of curvature for this point; (h, k}, the corresponding centre of curvature, and a the angle R makes with the
Elementary Calculus.
#-axis.
303
Then
/)
(i)
sat-
tan
(x
yf)
.....
must
x'),
But
isfy (i).
.-.
(k
whence
Squaring and adding
(h
h
i
- /) = k-y' = *,
x'
to
tan
a (h-
tan a.
both
sides,
*)*
(h
+
-x')
/)2
f
,
But
since
extends from
as,
2
.
(h,
k) to (x
/)
its
length
is
given by Analytics
(h.- x')
(-/) 2== R
2
-
and extracting
square root,
whence and
= R cos a, or h = x' + R cos a = R sin a, or & = y' + R sin a y' Differentiating (3), [V, ^ R and a are all functions of yf\. R sin a da ) dh = dx + cos a dR. dk = dy' + sin a dR + R cos a da )
h
x'
)
)
, ,
_,^
By Art.
and
67,
=
ds
cos
<p
or
dx
cos
d
i
=
ds
sin
or dy
sin
(f>
ds
90
= f(x) is also tangent to the curR is _L to this tangent, hence cos a. + 0, whence cos = sin a and sin =
<j> <j>
304
Also
Elementary Calculus.
Substituting in (4),
ByArt
or since
74
d(j>
=
=
da,
da
ds
that
is,
ds
Rda.
and
(4) finally
becomes,
doc?
r
dy
dh
= dk =
RTsirra^
4-
cos
a dR
sin
cos
a dR.
Ra35-^/a:
Rcd&.a da
sin
a dR
~dh
+~dk*=
(cos
a+
sin 2
2 a)dR = dR
2 2
[since cos
sin
i].
But
(h,
dk 2
or J5
=
s.
dR,
follows
from
this,
that the
end
of a stretched string
unwinding from the evolute will describe its involute, or a straight line rolling on the evolute as a tangent, any point on it describes an involute. This latter method is used
by draftsmen
to
draw gear
teeth.
Elementary Calculus.
305
ENVELOPES.
contain equations of curves, in general, and when these constants vary the one or more constants,
ART.
78.
The
result is
ties,
For example,
in the
y
If
= mx +
b.
through the same point, (o, &), and making different angles with the x-axis. Again in the ellipse equation,
*+-!,
a2
b
2
if
[c
being a constant],
the result
is
same
foci
but
different axes.
The
that
is,
when
tesmial increments,
the constant (or constants) changes by infiniis called the envelope of this family.
Let
/ (x,
y,
m)
o,
be the equation of a
Then
o
adjacent
to
m + Aw) =
immediately
will
represent
the
curve
/ (x, y,
m)
o,
Aw
when
is
allowed to vary.
306
Elementary Calculus.
I (x, y,
/ (x,
From
and
m)
......
o
(i)
(2)
y,m + Aw) =
....
we
get
m + Aw) -
/ (x, y,
w)
Aw
But by
Art. 62 (3)
may
be represented by
<*'? "I as
hence
AM A
o.
or
more simply,
|^=o 3w
By
definition of envelope
(4)
......
of
(4)
since
it
is
the intersection
}(x, y,
two consecutive
o, as
m)
o and
for
m + Aw) =
these
they
approach coincidence, (3) equations were combined. If now m be eliminated between (4) and (i),
in
we
get
an equation
free
The
varying constant
:
is
= mx +
Example
where
Find the envelope of the straight line system b is determined by the relation
(p being a constant).
Hence
= mx +
--', y
mx
^-
m
*
o;
whence
om
= -
om
L
m*
o,
Elementary Calculus.
307
combining,
y= mx + -* m
x
(i)
and
-%
o
(2),
(2)
To
eliminate w,
we
get
from
2
W =
squaring
(i),
^
2
2
(3)
V= w* +
m
2
+ -m
(4)
substituting value of
from
2
(3)
and
(4),
px
-\-
px
+ px =
4 px,
which shows that the envelope is a parabola. ART. 80. It follows readily from the
evolute of a curve
is
fact
that
the
the locus of
its
centres of curvature,
to the tangents of
to
any curve
each point), that the envelope of the noris its evolute, since these normals (the
on the evolute.
EXERCISE
i.
XIII.
x2
2.
16
of the line
2
y (x
4)
Find the radius of curvature of the parabola x 2 Find the radius of curvature of
8 y
at the origin.
4.
- at
a.
308
5.
2 4x
Elementary Calculus.
Find the
radius
of
curvature
of
the
i6y
yl
hyperbola
64.
6.
of
curvature of
X%
+
7.
the hypocycloid
al.
px.
c
2
.
8.
9.
hyperbola xy =
4*2
+
9
36 at (VS, j).
10.
/=
11.
*at
(3,3).
ellipse
a 2y 2
a
maximum and
+ b 2x 2 minimum
a 26 2
respec-
12.
r vers
\/2 ry
at the
is 2 r.
13. 14.
of the circle, of
x2
+
3<^>
2
.
cos
-f
sin
3^
a (cos 2$)*,
15.
quad-
makes a
ellipse
with constant
area,
17.
ab.
m(x
m) where
is
CHAPTER
XI.
INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION.
ART.
merely
consider
81.
as
its
Integration has been considered, heretofore, will now the reverse of differentiation.
We
real
Let
<f>
that
its
is,
first
deriva-
tive will
first
denoting the
tt
f(x)
it/
<j>'(x)
=
+
<f>(x
-^
--yv
=
as
A# =o,
.
.
.
whence
</>(x
Ax)
<j>(x)
j(x)
A#
(m)
we may
write,
.
dx
<f>(x).
Suppose in <f>(x\ x to start with a value h and change to a value k, <j>(x) would change from (j)(h) to (f>(k), the difference would be expressed by,
to k,
x changes by minute
changes of
<j>(h
(j>(h
&x
increments, say making n successive each, then the successive steps would be,
<f>(h
+ + +
A#)
[by (m)]
309
3io
adding
<f>(h
Elementary Calculus.
or since
<f>(k)
<f>(h)
The
left
may
evidently be difference
this integral
when x
k and
when
h, for
by hypothesis
f(x)dx
<j>(x).
This
is
usually written
Jh 'h
and
cific
is
f
was shown
in a speis
known
right
as a definite integral as
The
hand member
hence as n
plainly a
,
sum
of
terms, as
A# = o and
nitely small
oo
an
infi-
an
infinite
number
of
terms.
^h
f(x)
A#
(
V being
summation
I
j
When Ax =
o, this is
modified to
f(x)dx,
which brings us back to our integral symbol, for we have found that this sum is actually equal to the definite integral
of j(x)dx (namely, </>(k) tion is a
summation.
82.
ART.
this series
Let us see what is the further whose sum we have been finding.
Elementary Calculus.
Let uv
(Fig. 28)
is
f(x).
A D G
Fig. 28.
calling
OA,
&,
and OP,
k,
DG,
etc.,
each A*.
Then
AB = DE =
f(h)
f(h
GH =/(/* +
RP =/(& +
Form
B, E, H,
rectangles
etc.
A*) A*)
A*).
by drawing
from
The sum
ABRP,
but can be
of these rectangles will be less than the area, made to approach it as nearly as we
please by taking
nitely large.
A#
indefinitely small,
and hence n
indefi-
The
f(h)
A*
A*) A*
2
)(h + f(h +
RTQP = f(h + = f(h) A^ + f(h + Adding; Sum of the rectangles 2 A^) Ax + f(k) Ax [since h + n Ax = k]. + f(h + As Ax = o this sum approaches ABRP, hence finally, But dx + f(h + dx) dx + + + ABRP = f(k) dx.
"
"
/(//-)
312
the right
Elementary Calculus.
Hand
side
is
the
same
to
Ck /
Jh
}(x)dx, hence
areaABRP =
The
for
f*/(#)<&.
x, say
x=F
(y)
and integrating
integral
limits,
f(x) is the equation of the curve, is the area bounded by the curve, the x-axis, and the two ordinates corresponding respectively to these limits, which are the
abscissas in this case.
y=
Example
Find
the
area
of
the
parabola
8 x,
between the origin and the point (2, 4). Here the limits are o and 4, the two bounding ordinates, and we have,
2 )a
-c/U-.
we
is,
Corollary
Clearly
result,
/>*
if
we
get the
same absolute
Jh
It is also
}(x)dx=
ph
Jk
f(x)dx.
h take the area from y then the area from to y j (being between h and k) and the sum k, and if the curve be continuous, y j to if we went directly from of these results will be the same as
evident that
we can
y=
to k.
That
is,
C*f(x)dx=
h
Jh
P/(*)dfc+
J)
f */(*)<**
Elementary Calculus.
313
expressed as the
if
Thus a definite integral may be readily sum of any number of definite integrals,
the difference
between their limits taken together equals the difference between the original limits.
It must be carefully observed that j'(x}dx does not become infinite between the limits. When that occurs the integral must be broken up into parts leading up to the gap
on either ART.
side.
definite
if
which represents any infinitesimal arc whatever of the curve, y = f(x), be integrated between the limits representing the co-ordinates of its extremities, the result will be the sum of all the infinitesimal arcs making up the
total arc
is,
/v
s
k.
Example
circle,
Taking
derivative;
~= i
V r*-x
\ *
J
whence
r +r
I
i
f
x2
dx
r
2 r I
314
It is to
Elementary Calculus.
and
r,
which are
the extreme values of x, give the length of the semi-circumference only, and hence the factor 2 above.
SURFACE OF REVOLUTION.
ART. 84.
It
on an
arc, is given
by the formula,
where the revolving arc is indefinitely small. By the same reasoning as before, the surface generated by an arc of any length will be then,
respectively, of the
SOLID OF REVOLUTION.
ART.
85.
dv
ny dx,
which represents an
v=
gives us the
Tt
y dx,
limits
h and
k.
ART. 86.
we
area into strips as we please and to apply the same reasoning to their summation, so that any one of the above for-
Elementary Calculus.
mulae
315
if
may
be expressed in terms of
y.
y,
the limits
write,
be
determined according to
if
EXERCISE
i.
XIV.
=
2
from x
2.
=
=
a.
Find the
x
3.
r vers
Find the length of the hypocycloid x* Find the length of the catenary y
to the point
y*
-
=
e
r*.
4.
/ (e a
is b.
--\ a
whose abscissa
(o,
of
ay =x? from
of
o) to
circle,
(3 a,
^V^a).
6.
the
(*7.
2)
to
4.
8.
9.
of the ellipse.
Ex.
6.
2
10.
the
parabola y
8 x,
between
to
the origin
11.
12.
and the double ordinate corresponding Find the area of the hypocycloid.
circle
2.
x2
+
=
rx
o.
13.
8 as
-, the ordi-
nate
and the
axes.
316
14.
Elementary Calculus.
line
2
a
15.
+ Z--I. b
of
sin x.
17.
tf-axis.
px from x
2
=
2
o to x
p.
a)
(y
4)
25
above
the
18.
ellipse
line
x2
b
+
=
16
i
/=
144.
19.
20.
catenary from
a.
21.
y-axis in
Find the surfaces generated by revolving about the Examples 16, 18, and 20.
Find the volumes generated by revolving the following curves about the X-axis
:
22.
The
ellipse^a
circle
+ ---!. b
-f-
23.
24. 25.
The
The
x2
2
.
hypocycloid.
The The
witch y=
line
* 8 a
x2
+
i
2 4 a
26.
a
27.
ellipse.
h b
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATION.
ART.
on our
Since our determination of volume depends ability to divide our solid into sections, whose areas
87.
Elementary Calculus.
317
can be generally expressed, and then summed, any solid for which this is possible may be estimated.
be required to find the volume described by a rectangle moving from a fixed point, its plane remaining parallel to its first position, one side varying as
For example,
let it
its
distance from this point, the other side, as the square of becoming a square 5' on the
Take
its
distance from
the point
4,
whence v
whence
= *, w=
2 ^X
.
w
Hence
x2
16,
16
(being any
VW = 25^
64
This area representing any section of the solid, if multiplied by dx, thus forming an infinitesimal slice, and
4,
I
will
=f|
Xs
dx=
JQ
ffcty*}*
25 cubic
Again
To
oil
remaining in it, after the oil has been poured out, until half the bottom is exposed (see Figure 29). Let be any section of the remaining contents,
bucket of
EGH
taken parallel to the axes. Take the origin at the centre of the base and the co-ordinate axes as the axis of the
cylinder
and a diameter
of the base.
318
Elementary Calculus.
since
Then
EGH
and
DOC
:
:
are similar,
and
or
GH = VBG X GA = vV EH CD GH
:
x 2 [where
:
OG is #],
OC,
EH =
[where h
altitude
and
radius of base].
H
Fig.
29.
Hence area
EGH = J EH X GH =
dx=
,,
-- = contents remaining.
2hr2
EXERCISE XV.
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.
1.
isosceles triangle of
altitude, h,
moving with
its
volume generated when the circle in Ex. 3, is replaced by an ellipse whose axes are 2 a, and 2 b? 3. Through the diameter of the upper base of a right
2.
What
is
the
Elementary Calculus.
cylinder,
319
whose altitude is h and radius, r, two planes are passed, touching the base at the two extremities of a diamFind the portion of the cylinder between the planes. eter.
4. Two right cylinders each of radius 3 in., intersect each Find comother at right angles, their axes intersecting.
mon
volume.
is h 5. Find the volume of a pyramid whose altitude and area of base B. 6. Find volume of a cone whose height is h and radius r.
7.
notch makes an angle of 45 with the horizontal face. log is 3 ft. in diameter; how much wood is cut out?
8.
The
radius 6
right circular cone has a small circle of a sphere of If the in. as base, and its vertex is at the surface.
is
30, what
is
the
volume
of the
sphere outside the cone? a grindstone 9. A square hole is cut through the axis of for a bearing. The grindstone is 18 in. in diameter, 2 in.
thick at the circumference,
and 4
3 in.
in. at
the centre,
and has
conical faces.
is
If the
hole
is
square,
removed?
CHAPTER
XII.
INTEGRATION BY PARTS.
ART. 88. It is frequently a great aid in integration to separate the parts of an expression containing two factors, thus producing either a re-arrangement or a change in
form
of the integral.
is
This
two
factors,
Transposing,
d(uv} = udv =
udv
vdu.
d(uv)
vdu.
Taking the
udv
uv
vdu
....
(B)
Example
Let
then
x2 cos x dx
what
x2
du
=u
=2
and cos x dx
dv
x.
x dx and v
= sin
udv
Ix 2
x2
cos
cos
x dx
=x
sin
sin
dx.
Where
less
the
integration of
sin
than in the
x dx is now made to depend upon the x dx, in which the exponent of x is one If we treat this inteoriginal expression.
again, letting
gral the
x=
u,
du
will
320
Elementary Calculus.
equal d(x) gral; then
321
final inte-
dx,
x sin x dx
=
=
x cos x x cos #
sin
cos
# d#
2 sin x,
by putting
whence
.'.
= dx =
# x dx
u and
du,
2
I
x dx
=
v.
dv,
cos x =
x2 x
cos
x2
sin
x
2
sin
x dx
x 2 sin x
2 sin #.
cos
2 sin
2 x]= x sin # +
x cosx
can be given for choosing the value for u and for dv, except that they should be so chosen that one factor may be made
to disappear eventually or to take such a value that in combination with the other, it may form an integrable
part
of
the
original
expression.
expression
I
x 2 tan" 1
:*:
dx,
dv can only equal x 2 dx since x dx is the only integrable 1 then part; tan" x dx having no known simple integral,
= =
tan" 1 x,
dv
-v
x 2dx,
3
du
dx
i zf
=x
3
x
I
' ,
and
fudv
= udv =
fx
=
x
tan" 1
xdx=
3
,
^-
[dividing
x3 by
jc
322
i
.'.
Elementary Calculus.
f*
/
x3 dx 2
3J i+x
=
=
Cxdx j
(i
3
f*2
J
+
x dx + x2
-1 log
6
*):
-
Hence
(*
I
#2
tan
x dx
5C
tan" 1 #
366
+
.
jc
-
i -
EXERCISE XVI.
i.
/r /r
I
Integrate by parts:
sin 2
x dx.
9.
cot" 1
dx.
Ce x cosxdx.
x sin
10.
lxn logxdx.
I
dx.
n.
I2
ze dz.
J
^
y tarr y
log (x
dy.
)
,
sin
dx.
3-
Vx +
+ 2 ^
2
-
<**
Cx
ten- l x dx.
.-i l
14-
/
8.
/
ar cot
j xdx.
r(ioff)dv
^-j^
l
.
15.
log sin
esc
cot
^ dx.
16.
lx*cos
xdx.
ART.
be integrated. No general rule can be given, largely a matter for the exercise of originality.
to
being
Elementary Calculus.
323
An example
or two
may
dx
2
aid:
xVx
Let
^hat?
a2
_ "
I_
y' then
dx= -
Substituting,
_dy_
/dx-a xVx
2
~
2
Ji\/i
C dy J Vi-a<
ady
yy
-= 1
a
_i l
= _L C
a
i
J
_1
t
cos- 1 (ay)
A/I
a,
a 2 y2
i
cos
sec
x
.
a
Again;
/ J
dx
x2 ~ *2
=
+
_
what
/dx = J -2*+f
3
r
gx
2
dx
5
3].
-6x+
dx and
Let
(3
i )
y,
then dy
The
9
i ) y comes from the fact that suggestion (3 x 6 # + 5 can be put in the form,
^2
-6^+i + 4
324
Elementary Calculus.
=
a
x2
tan"1
a
is
immediately suggested.
ART. 90. Expressions containing the form \/, can usually be integrated by making the substitution,
\/x 2
Example
Let
:
+
I
ax
=
x.
=
2
J Vx + X\x +x 2 = y 2 = y x + x
2
x.
2 2
yx
x2
'
whence
=
_
+
2
y
2 (y
2
doc
+
2
4y
(i
y
2
+
y
4a
2 ;y)
(i
+ +
2)
2;y)
V^
/
=
_
=
y
2
y
i
2
i
2
'
+ 2y
+ 2y 2 _ y + y i + 2y
2
= r
23;
=
ART. 91.
log (i
ff
2\/X 2
X
2
2).
where
factors,
x2
\/x
-\-ax+b,
first
x2
ax
+ b=
\/ (m
x} (n
x)
(m
x}y
Elementary Calculus.
or
(n
325
x)
x)y, where
(m
-f
and
(n
x2
ax
?
Example :
V2 +
whence
i
C J \/2 + 3 # 2 # = \/(i +
2
xdx
2
2
=
#2
(2
#)
j
#)
(2
x)y,
x=
2V
i
,
dx=
XVII.
10 y dy
22'
EXERCISE
Integrate
1.
I
by
substitution:
3 [substitute z for x].
J
2.
x*
J
3-
x*
^^ +
ar
4^
/f~^~i' ^ ^
I
5.
J
*/
[substitute
\/y
2
+
x2
=
3
z].
\/yl
2
_j_
C__xdx_
(a
^c
2
[substitute a
=z
].
)*
/^^
v^
2
~(~
s.
r
t/
^^
I
Xr
9.
JZ f--==r J Z \/Z 2
I
2
10
C^4y-y
tJ
326
Elementary Calculus.
ii.
/x
-7=
dx r # + 4X #V5
2
dx
a*
V2 + 5*- 3*
dx
13
^ J x\/4
/
x2
4
[substitute
x= x
z
x dx
[substitute
i)
14
z].
J (x/
,-
J
J
2*
?
2 *"
[substitute e
x].
j(V^4
+
vVy
I i
^2
/<~x?'
^i
l8
'
/\/^ + / ~~T / Vx
J
2CX
ax
x2 x 2 dx.
/ VJIP
REDUCTION FORMULA.
ART.
92.
form
xm
(a
bx n ^ p dx
are exceedingly
common,
as
J
Take
for example,
J
r
(a
x 2 )*
J
^
\/2 ax
x2
Xs dx
2
(a
x 2 }*
Elementary Calculus.
327
A careful
r
inspection will
x* x?
2
dx
5
show
that
if
J
-,
(a
x2 y
can
is
/x
2
dx
(a
the
x2 Y
expression
integrable, for the latter integral is in the can be readily reduced to it by inserting
form x n dx or
the factor
2.
/dx
2
- can be found
if
it
can be made
to
(a
depend upon
C
I
x 2 )* dx
sin
_! l
x
-
x when
is
the expres-
in the
form
xm
(a
bx n
Ydx
to
be decreased,
is
and
If
/
to
be
decreased.
xm
or
bx n Y dx in
terms
of
other
integrals
where
may
require,
many
of these forms
can be integrated.
process in one case will suffice to show how these formulae, four in number, known as reduction formula,
The
are found.
as
it is
The formula
for integration
by parts
is
used,
necessary to
I
In
let
x m (a+ bx n Y dx,
then,
x m ~ n+l and dv
(a
bx n Y x n
~l
dx [x m dx
Substituting in
udv
uv
vdu
(B)
(a -f
bx n Y dx
x m-n+l
nb (p
i)
328
Elementary Calculus.
nb (p p
Since du
+ I Cx m-n (a + i) J = (m n + i m ~ n dx
n
) jc I
dx
and
z;
(a 4-
nb (p
(a
i)
But
x m ~ M (a + bx n Y +1 dx =
x m~n
bx n
(a
fo n
/</;
p+1 [since z
z.z p ]
ix m - n
(a
bx n y dx
xm
(a
bx n }p dx
[multiplying out].
Substituting in (i) above,
f*
(a
+
I
)
bxnydx
xm '~ +1
(a+^r
+
i)
nb (p
(a
+ i) J b(mn+i) nb (p +
nb (p
Transposing the
---*I
/V-
last
term
(a
of (2 )
and
collecting,
nb (p
/
xm
I
I
i)
J
j
+
/
bx n
Y dx
t/.A'
=
J
nb (p
/7ir W-vV.
i)
'^
nb
~\-
I )
f*
m_n vV
1C*-
(p+i) J
b (np
|^
Tj^nV
+m+
i)
?
Dividing by
rttf+x)
TC
^+W+
plainly
i)
. .
(a
+ m+ + Zww / ^
/
(A)
is
made
to
depend upon
is
the integral
it
~ xm n
(a
bx n
dx,
which
is
exactly like
n.
reduced by
Elementary Calculus.
329
The
x
//v*W2-
(rt ( -
A +
bx
/i-vW^
'
np
-
+ m+
np
+m
Cx m
(a
bx n )P- 1 dx
(B)
C J
_ CX J
b
a(m+
(np
i)
+
a
(
+ m+i) C + i) J
m+n
ft
(a
aw
(^
"+* Cxm
i
i)
(a
(A) decreases
m m
by
w.
(B ) decreases p by unity.
(C) increases
by
w.
is
which
to
be reduced,
is
is applied. Clearly these formulae may all be applied to one example successively, or any one of them may be used any number
of times until
is
reached.
These
for-
mulae
fail
when
zero.
For ex-
+m+
I o
i)
to o, etc.
Example:
330
Elementary Calculus.
is
plainly
Va 2
x2
To
by
this,
2
(a
i
and p by
(why can
Va 2
To
,
accomplish
x2
Comparing
with
x2
VV
x 2 dx
xi
(Q?
x 2 )* dx
Cx m
(a
+
2,
bx n ) p dx
/x
m=
n
2,
1,
a2 b
,
x 2 (a 2
2
x 2 )% dx=
2
(a
>
-x -4
)$ '
f*
(a
x 2 )* dx
(i)
[since
xm ~ n
2
x2 ~ 2 = X Q
dx,
i].
Applying (B) to
I (a
x 2 )*
where
m=
o,
2,
f\a 2
i*-^
*
2
(a
*2
'
Elementary Calculus.
2
331
Substituting
this value
of
(a
x 2 )* dx
in (i),
pV* =
8
a
completely integrated.
where
of
x \/a
x dx is
The
value
form that
the
these formulae lies in the ability to see the integrable lies within the original expression, and to select
It
is
a matter for
Again
\/2 ax
x 2 dx
what?
/dx V2
##
dx
x vers-1 ,
x2
I
To
put
\/2 ax
x 2 dx
in the
form
x m (a
bx n ) p dx,
take out
x from under
the radical,
and we have
/ xfc (2
x)^dx.
to
r J 2
ax
-x
w
x
i,
Since
=
[i
here
^m ~ n
is
- x* = jc^- =
1
for x, hence
(A)
i
needed.
J]
Also p
is
to
be reduced to
p
tice
i.
hence (B)
also needed.
Apply-
we
Only prac-
formulae,
is
and experience can give facility in the use of these and familiarity with the simpler integral forms
that the inspection of the expression to be
desirable,
332
Elementary Calculus.
EXERCISE
Integrate:
1.
XVIII.
C(x
'
+
2
6 2 )i dx.
A/2
n
ry
y dy.
2.
vV
x2
dx.
xdx
2 x;
j- *-**
5
/>
9-
^
r r
2
l~7= J V2 ax
dx
J ^ v!-::
'
r dz J (a - z
2
dx
'
''
)*
J Va -
'
f (*-?*+&
substitute
first
-*
-X
2
rJ
\/I
ryZ
J
r ^
I <.
J
16.
Vl
2
2 Z
ffz.
^^
2
/Vy +
^-^
6 Jy.
RATIONAL FRACTIONS.
ART. 93.
together,
If the fractions
i
and
+
2
be added
33;
we
get,
+ 3^
(i
x) (2
$x)
Elementary Calculus.
333
It will be observed that the numerator of the sum gives no indication of the numerators of the component fractions, but that the denominator does indicate directly the denomi-
form indicated
factor
it.
nators of the components. If the denominator is in the in the final fraction above, it is easy to
So that we
may
denominator
is
factorable as
made up
of simpler fractions
If it is
+ ** - 3X
dx,
sum
(algebraic
sum
of course is
when we
discover that,
5
j
+ ^x
X
3
=
#2
I
we
C-^- = $\ Qg
2
-f-
(2
+ 3*).
we know that this decomposition is possible, for denominator factor we set a fraction with a letter, or every letters, for numerator, which we determine by the principle
of identities.
It is
where the factors are linear only, and not repeated. linear and repeated.
(d)
where the factors are quadratic and not repeated. where the factors are quadratic and repeated.
334
Elementary Calculus.
Case
(a).
For every
denominator there
is
component
fraction of the
form
A
x
a
'
;
is
/v
where
F (x) =
(x
a)
(xb) (xc)
Then
/(*)
JF(#)
(xn).
B
C
'
=
(a;
^
,
N
c)
a)
(xb)
(x
The original fraction should be a proper fraction, that is, the degree of the numerator should be less than that of the denominator, to avoid complications. If this is not the
case in the given fraction,
condition.
integral
it
can be made
until
numerator by denominator
fulfills
this
The remainder
quotient added
then
decom-
to the result.
An
example
will
make
(x
i)
dx
X2
(X*
X2
2 4 ) (4 *
I)
(X
B
2) (X
+
C
2) (2
I) (2
I)
~
It is to
A
X
X+22X I2X+I
this is an identity, not a mere must be exactly the same, when cleared of fractions by our hypothesis, A, B, C and D being used because we do not immediately know what their
be remembered that
values are.
Elementary Calculus.
Clearing;
335
i)
(2
x2
=A
(x
2)
(2
i)
2) (20C
+B i) +
x Since this is an identity it is i). true for any value of x whatever; hence we can give x such values that the terms will all disappear but one, and thereby For example, if we find the unknown constant it contains.
(#
2)(#
2) (2
let
=
2
2
2,
all
2) will reduce to o,
hence
= A
and
60 A,
whence
Let x
to
A = ^V
2,
all
i
hence (- 2) 2 + 0= - 60 B,
terms containing x + = 3 = o + B (- 4)
2 will
reduce
(-
5)
(-
3)
whence
Let x
2
B=
^j.
then
(i)
-ii
1=
then
whence
Let x
+ C (= + TV C
o
f) (f) (2)
V-C,
(i)
= -1 =
r
=o +
2
whence
Then
_ J
2
+ o + D (D = TV
o
f ) (|)
(- 2)= V- D,
(x
1)
dx
2
=
i)
_i_
r
X
dx
(X
4) (4X
20 J
j_
2
r_ dx
20JX +2
+ =
A"
j_
10
<**
_
I
JL
IO
(2
^g (*-).-
A log O + 2) + A ^g
(2
I)
A log
2) (2
J)
""
"
j
(jc
(^ +
2) (2
x *
i)
i)
336
Elementary Calculus.
Case
(b).
sort,
it
is
cardinal principle that every possible case that must be provided for in the supposition used.
may
arise
Suppose
i
-2
x
2
,
x
5
and
(i
x)
_
-^
(i
x)
12
^ are
3
added,
3
i
x
2
3
(i
x2
+
x)
i
3
7
(i
+
3
x2
(i (i
2
x)
s
x)
Here the
factor (i
x)
,
x)
If (i
(i
x}
is
would
all
be alike
x),
at all,
2
x), (i
3
x),
neither
would the
x)
x)
provided necessary then to provide a fraction for each n a of these, hence for every factor of the form (x a)
(i
and
be
omitted
it is
series of fractions is
assumed, thus:
/(*)
A
,
(**r
?
the powers.
Example:
Cx5
S^-^ =
As
this
is
an improper fraction,
divide
numerator by
denominator,
r5_ 5 3.2_ 3
Elementary Calculus.
337
x.
[Thus accounting
Clearing;
powers of
and
of (x
i).]
Let x
(-
= 3 (i)
=
o
then
2
i)
- = -3=
i
+C
(-
i)
+ o=
C,
C=-3Let x
o
o; then
i=
A- disappear,
A(i)
i.
o=A
we
will
give
x will cause the other terms to x any small values to get two
B and D.
Let x
i
3
i
2
then
i
- (i) + D(i)
2
=A
(2 )
+B
(i)
(2 )
+C
(i)
( 2 ),
or since
whence
Let x
(i)
whence
3
B+2D= 4
(2)
2
.......
i.
(2)
Combining
Hence,
(i)
and
B=
x3
and
D=
^^TW dx
J X+
I
-x 2
'
dx
Cdx
dx
r_dx_ =L+
X
+ _JL_ _
X+
og (x
338
Elementary Calculus.
[collecting].
Case
If for
the form
x2
form
x2
^
a
(c).
we
set
a fraction of
the
x+
,
we
b
is
ax
since this
if both are combined in one thus getting the most general So for factors of form, all contingencies are provided for. the form x 2 + ax + b, we have fractions of the form
x2
Ax + B + ax+ b
Hence
-*
where
<
Example:
Elementary Calculus.
lowed; a method that
in every case
if
339
is
entirely general
preferred.
x2
+ i = Ax + A + Ex + Cx +
2
"Bx
+
(A
C.
Collecting;
2
x2
+ i=
is
(A
2 B) x
(C
+
is,
B) x
C).
Since this
an
powers of x
on the two
A+B= C+B= A+ C=
coefficients of
x2
o
i
since there
is
no x on the
left.
absolute terms.
(2
x2
C=-
j.
34
Elementary Calculus.
EXERCISE XIX.
Separate into rational fractions and integrate:
2
<<
2^-
J
6
.
* - 3 r (^-6)^ J x? 6x2 +
^
.
/3
9-
vs
\
(^^V
s
^2
^,
+
<ty.
l8.
/
/*
_|_
20.
^-^
2
21 '
J C
(^
3
+4^ +3
)
_I_
^^
J+ *-,**
I)
3
2
22 .
23 .
Elementary Calculus,
341
r J (x +
2
*
i
N2
^A
'
CHAPTER
XIII.
TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS.
ART. 94.
The
integration of
the
more complex
trig-
onometric functions can often be accomplished by substitution, sometimes by breaking up the expression taking advantage of the relations known to exist between the
different functions.
There are very few general rules and originality and a knowledge of the
forms.
A
the
few cases
may
be noted,
ART.
95.
Integrals
of
form
sm m xcos n xdx
where either
or
is
Say
is
=
2
cos 2 x,
m-l
I
sin m x cos n x dx =
cos x)
cos n
x sin x dx
m-l
/~~2
(i
cos 2 #)
cos n
xd
(cos x).
m-l
[For sin
m x = sin
A
"
sin
(i
cos 2 x)
sin x.]
Since
is
odd,
is
can be
expanded by the binomial theorem; then each term muln tiplied by cos x d (cos x) becomes an integral of the form
342
Elementary Calculus.
343
x njx
^L
+
I
or
f d = -2. J X
is
log *,
and the
result is
_
easily found.
If
is
process followed.
Example:
C J
cos3 * -
dx
->
sin*
[**.&= Jf i^sini* * *
sin
cosxdx =
x
fjfisin*)
sin
sin
_
If
sin
xd
(sin
*)
log sin
2 4 sin x.
w+
n
I
is
sin w
x cos n
^ may be put
J
cot n
in the
form
cosUoc
.
sin n
sin
x
C05
+"xdx= C
m + n x(ix==
is
x csc-< w + ^ x dx,
or
sm m x m cos x
Since
will
JI
integer,
m+
an even negative
(
~>
(m+n
+
6
tan 2 x.
2 be a positive even integer, hence leaving sec #d# as - m + n - 2 x can be sec the d (tan*), expressed entirely in
x
n
Example:
Cc -^-^dx=? J sin 6 *
fc
2
Here
m+
=-
= -4.
Hence
C ?2* J sm *
The
I
= f
y
sin
2^ sin-. xdx = JC *
2
cot*
* csc< *
dx.
cot
x
2
esc x, hence,
cot
* esc 4 * dx
cot
(i
cot *)
csc*xdx
344
Elementary Calculus.
J
ART.
96.
~T~ ~7~
If the integral is in the
form,
/ sec 2m
* dx
or
csc 2n
the
=
and
(tan
* *
+ +
i)
m~l d
2 n 2 2
(tzn x)
(cot
i )
esc 2
* dx
which are both readily integrable, since m i and n are both integers and the parentheses may be expanded.
Example:
^
cos 6
=
*
J
r
/dx x
cos6
J
+
i)
2
J
d (tan *)
= i
=
/
(tan
tan 4
5
*d
,
(tan *)
tan 2
*d
(tan *)
sec
tan
tan3
3
*
-
h
5
tan *.
ART.
97.
I
form,
sec m * tan n * dx
or
csc
cot n
* dx,
Elementary Calculus.
345
it
where
m is
anything, and
f*
is
may
be reduced to
sec w-i
=
or
sec- xt&n - xd
1
71
(sec#),
csc^-^cot-1
^
and
(csc#),
since n is odd, w i is even and tan x and cot x can be expressed in terms of sec x and esc x respectively by
and
sec
cot
csc
i.
ART.
98.
forms,
dx,
tan m xdx
or
cot m x
they
I
may
tan m
~ 2 x.
tan 2
xdx
2
tan m
~2 x
(sec
x
2
dx,
and
cot w
~ 2 x.
cot
xdx
cot m
~2 x
(esc
i)
dx.
If these are
first
term
is
tan# or cotx
is
always intereduced by 2
is
Example:
tan 4
(t&n
x)dx=
tan 2
xdx
(sec
i)
dx
346
Elementary Calculus.
tan 2 tan 3
3
xd
x
(tan x)
tan 2
x dx
I
3
(sec
i)
dx
tan
CsK*xdx+ C dx
tan
x.
ART.
99.
When
may
Example
I
sin
x cos2 x dx
I (sin
=?
sin
x cos 2 x dx =
x cos #) 2 sin 2 x dx
sin
x dx
cos
I sin si
# cos
sin
2
iV
x ~~
4x) dx
I
TV
je
cos
(/
(2 rv
= TV
dx
^
sin 4
cos 4
jc
J
3
(4
x)
TV
sm2
xd
(s*
= TV*- &
# -
& sin
5f.
Elementary Calculus.
347
be useful, but
ART. TOO.
The
is
their derivation
dx
where
m>
The
the
integration of
m + nsmx
;
Js
made
z
to
depend upon
same form by
sin
first
substituting
90.
g^Csin^ w^
n cos
e a * cos
^ = gffjfcsjn
na;
a2
+ g cos +w
2
EXERCISE XX.
Icsc 4 xdx.
It
/'
Aan3
-
jc
</*
cos 4
10.
A;
v / (
348
6
Elementary Calculus.
11.
dx.
16.
/cot
12.
J
4 x sm A x
sm x COS 4 X
COS3
dx.
/*
/"sin
3 I
cos*
dx.
17.
I-
/^sin
J
I
x dx X *
13.
COS^
x X
dx.
18.
C dx
J
*
= dx.
cos
COS 4
4
/"
^
sm 2 *
x V /sin
cos
15.
I
19.
J
I
cos .*
4
r
20. sin
* cos 4 *
y
[set sec
21. [.
sec3
* d*
*=
y].
r
22.
dx
5 cos
/</*
sin
*
5
cos 2
*
2g>
rco_s
23-
_*^
*
dx
J J
sin
J 3 r J 10 +
6 cos
5P
24. ^
C^cmx
cot
3
w*
/
/
elsi 2 sin
dx.
255.
r J 3
.
^
5 sin
e 2x sin
* *
cos
dx.
dx.
26.
/; 4-5
I
sin 2
cos
dx.
32.
e mx (sin
w*
*
dx.
33.
I e x cos 3
34.
3 / e ^ (cos 2
* 4-
sin 2 *) dx.
Elementary Calculus.
Integrate the following by multiple angle formulae:
35.
/ sin
2
349
cos 4
dx.
37.
sin
cos 2
x
.
dx.
36.
sm x cos Jr./* #
4 4 .
38.
f^dx x
cos 4
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS.
ART. 101. As we learned that a given function
a
may have
number
of successive derivatives,
it
immediately follows
that a multiple derivative admits of successive integration, thus recovering the lower derivatives and eventually the
original function.
This process
is
indicated by repeating
JJ J
Suppose we
have, for example,
This
three
is
what
is
known
the
as a differential equation.
To
find
and x
third
it
is
necessary to integrate
is
since
derivative
involved.
It
2= dx 2
or
x 2 dx x 2 dx
x dx
d (^2\ 2 \dx ]
x dx.
Integrating,
2 dx2
= =
Jfate
Cxdx= J
^ + a*L+c 32
i;
dy\
\dxj
350
Integrating,
Elementary Calculus.
d2
dx~*J*
Cy*dx
*J
6
Integrating,
C2 dx.
2
Q, C 2 and C 3
,
which may
be determined in
the problem.
tions of curves,
specific cases by the given conditions of This process is useful in finding the equa-
when
their derivatives are given, for example, their radii of curvature, although a general application to this end requires a general knowledge of differential equations.
Where
several variables
are involved
it
is
z=
in of
it
the form
P dx
If the
+ Q dy,
function
it
x and
y.
may
be made to assume
by grouping.
Elementary Calculus.
351
The
which
ential?
will
x and
y,
+ Q
*"\
its differ-
x->.
Comparing
ent that
if
it is
appar-
there
such a function,
and x
respectively,
But
.
3P = 3Q
And when
Example
/ (^, y).
x 2 dx
3 y
dy
a# <y
^^
^>
to
Put
this in the
(3
form
2
P dx +
<&
Q dy,
+
s
3 <*?)
(3
*)
<*?
-
Here
P =
~ 3 ^ Q = 3 f ~ 3 ax 3 ^
/B
=
P
.S^and
3
z exists.
Since
x2
3 ay.
352
Elementary Calculus.
x3
axy
\_z
means
partial value of
z].
Since the terms in Q, which contain x, have already been integrated in P, as will be evident if we remember how
partial differentiation
is
effected,
it
Since
Q=
Q containing y alone,
y.
term
2
,
containing only
y, gives
Adding
integral already
found in
zp ,
2=^
Hence
to integrate
axy
P dx +
Q dy,
Q
integrate
with respect to x, then integrate the terms in not containing x, and add the results.
may
/
means
for y
f* \/r 2
I
x2
(x
)dxdy
0^/0
vV
We
that the definite integral of this expression is taken (x remaining constant) between the limits o and x 2 then the integral of this result with respect to x,
,
between o and
integrate
r.
first
Thus,
/V /VV
I
I
a; 2
(x
JQ JQ
y )dxdy
/r
I
*3\
vV'
x2
Jo
!x 2 y+
\
2-) 3 /o
dx
Elementary Calculus.
353
1 sin- ix~] 12 r \
.
Tir*
The
under the process of double integration. Take the circle Divide the circle up into minute (Fig. 30) for example.
Fig. 30.
squares, by lines drawn parallel respectively to the #-axis and the j-axis, and let those parallel to the y-axis be at a distance A# apart; those parallel to the y-axis, Ay apart.
Then
is
AJC
Ay.
The sum
of all
these squares will be less than the area of the circle by the minute spaces bounded by the sides of the extreme squares
But
as Arc
and Ay approach
o,
these spaces also approach o, and eventually the sum of the squares represents the actual area of the circle, that is,
354
.
Elementary Calculus.
doc
when A# A^ becomes
definite integration is a
dy.
We
summation, hence
we
integrate
along a line parallel to the ^-axis, that is for y, we get a strip parallel to the #-axis, and then integrating parallel to
the
;y-axis,
that
is
for x,
Since
we sum these strips and hence we we must take limits for y, that
apply to any strip, these limits or rather one of them be variable, and should be a function of x.
origin at the centre, the circle equation
is
Taking the
X
2
2
,
whence
\/r
x2
Since the value of y represents any point on the circle, it on any strip from the #-axis,
hence starting with the x-axis and integrating upwards ;y-axis, the lower limit o is the same
for all strips (the starting point always being at the jg-axis) 2 and the upper limit for any one will then be x 2 (the
VV
outer end of the strip). Then these strips are integrated parallel to the #-axis, from the y-axis, to the extreme distance of the last one
from the
;y-axis,
that
is, r.
We
express
r
all this,
/w/r2
I
a*
f*rT
~|
x*
dxdy=
t/o
/o
\y\ L Jo
= C
Jo
the area of a quadrant.
x
4
Tir
2
,
Elementary Calculus.
355
MOMENTS OF INERTIA.
ART. 105.
The moment
sum
each infinitesimal portion distance from the point. by Taking the point as origin and laying out the strips parallel to the axes, taking the axes in a position most
of the products of the area of
its
the square of
strips,
we have by
(x,
any point
Also by the
is
dx
dy.
Since an infinitesimal square is practically a point, we have then the moment of inertia of any square is
2
(x
dx
dy.
determined as in the
;y-axis
Integrating this parallel to the #-axis with proper limits, last article, and then parallel to the
we have
the required sum. Calling the moment of inertia, I; the limits for ^-integration, (o, a) [where a is a function of x];
(o, Z>),
the result
is
expressed,
na
stead of rectangular ones.
(x
This was illustrated in Art. 100. The same process may be used in polar co-ordinates by taking radial strips, in-
356
Elementary Calculus.
EXERCISE XXI.
By double
1.
= x and x = y. = 8 x and x 8 y. area between y = 6 x and y = 10 x x2 3. Find the segment of the circle x + y = 16 cut off 4. x = 4. by the line y Find the area between y = 2 px and the line y = 2 x. 5.
2.
6.
inertia
circle (x
7.
i)
(y
z)
9.
and 8
in.
respectively forming
of inertia of the
segment
in Ex. 4.
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