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GIFT

OF

Gertrude E. Allen

Mathematics Dept

The

D.

Van Nostrand Company


this

intend
at the

book to be sold to the Public


price,

advertised

and supply
will

it

to

the Trade
of

on terms which

not allow

discount.

Carnegie ZTecbntcal Scbools Ueit JBoofes

MATHEMATICS
FOR

ENGINEERING STUDENTS
BY
S. S.

KELLER

AND W<

F.

KNQX

CARNEGIE TECHNICAL S

ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY AND CALCULUS


SECOND EDITION, REVISED

NEW YORK:
D.

VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY


23

MURRAY AND

27

WARREN

STS.

1908

K4

COPYRIGHT, 1907, 1908, BY


D.

VAN KOSTRAND COMPANY

Stanhope
P. H.

tf>re

G1LSON COMPANY BOSTON. USA.

PREFACE.
tics
is ordinarily included in treatises on Analyand Calculus, has been omitted from this book, not because it was regarded as worthless, but because it

MUCH that

was considered quite unnecessary


engineering.

for

the

student of

In Analytics the attention is called, at the beginning, to the fact that the commonest experiences of life lie at the
basis of the subject,

the

and at all stages of its development encouraged to consider the matters presented in the most informal and untechnical way. In the Calculus a somewhat radical departure has been
student
is

attempted, in order to avoid the difficult and somewhat mystifying subject of limits, or rather to approach similar ends by less technical paths.

The average engineer will assert that he never uses the Calculus in his practical experience, and it is the authors' ambition to make it effective as a tool, believing, as they
do, that
it is

not used because

it

has never been presented


S. S.

in sufficiently

simple and familiar terms.

K.

Carnegie Technical Schools, Pittsbnr?, Pa.

731577

ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY.
CHAPTER
ARTICLE
i.
I.

Analytical

Geometry may be

called

the

science of relative position.


results of Analytical

The

the principle.} updrj jvliieh


directly

Geometry are basec^ are drawn


it is

from daily experience. When we measure or estimate distance,

always from

some

definite starting point previously fixed.

Figl
Fig.
i.

For instance, most of our cities are laid out with reference to two streets intersecting each other at right angles.

Analytical Geometry.
desired to indicate the position of a certain building " it is customary to it is located so say, many

If it is

in such city,

Let

squares north or south and so many squares east or west." the double lines in Fig. i represent the reference
streets,

in the

rately

and the lines parallel to them, the streets running same direction, then the point A would be acculocated, by saying it lies two squares east and three

squares north.

The government lays out the public lands upon the same sysj:m locating two lines intersecting at right angles '.(callecf\the iPyiiirfpal Meridian and the Base Line, respec1

; %

Then lines run parallel to these ^tivelyjuaejreference'ljnes. 'at" intervals* of six miles, divide the territory into squares
l 1

In this region any piece of located by indicating its distances by squares easily from these two reference lines. In short, since our knowl-

each containing 36 square miles.


is

land

edge

is

practically
lie

all

relative, the principles of Analytical


all

Geometry
ART.
2.

at the

foundation of

our accurate thinking.

The two

intersecting lines are called Co-ordinate

Axes, and their point of intersection is called the Origin. In the system most frequently used, the axes meet at
right

angles,

and hence

it

is

known

as

the rectangular

In comparatively rare instances it is desirable to system. have the lines oblique to each other, when the system is

known
ART.

as oblique.
3.

The

vertical axis is called the axis of ordinates


axis, the axis of abscissas.

and the horizontal


ART.
4.

Distances are always measured from either axis, to the other; hence when the system is rectangular, parallel
the distances

mean always

perpendicular distances.

The

distance of any point from the axis of ordinates (right or left), measured parallel to the axis of abscissas, is called
the abscissa of the point, usually represented

by

x.

The

Analytical Geometry.

distance from the axis of abscissas (up or down), measured the ordinate of the parallel to the axis of ordinates, is called
point, usually represented

by

y.

Clearly if we would be accurate we must disto the left, and tinguish between distance to the right and

ART.

5.

upward and downward. For


to locate a point
it

instance, suppose
5

it is

required

whose

= abscissa, x

and ordinate, y

plain that the point might be located in any one of four positions: to the right 5 units and up 2 units; to the
is

left 5

and up 2; and down 2.


If,

to the right 5

and down

2;

or to the

left

however,

it

is

right

from the

axis of ordinates shall

agreed that abscissas measured to the be called plus, and

those to the

left,

minus; and that ordinates measured up-

ward from
those

the axis of abscissas shall be called plus,

and
first

downward, minus, there need be no confusion.


5,

= +

= +2

will

then indicate definitely the

position referred to above;

5,

x= +
ART.

5,y
6.

= -2 the third, and x = - 5, y=


The

= +

2, 2,

the second; the fourth.

the surintersecting axes evidently divide

Y'
Fig. 2.

rounding space into four parts called quadrants, numbered called the X-axis) i, 2, 3,4, from the axis of abscissas (usually

4
around
to the left
i;

Analytical Geometry.

back
is

to the

X-axis again.
2;

Thus
is

XOY is

quadrant
(Fig. 2).

X'OY

quadrant

X'OY'

quadrant 3

ART.

7.

To

locate a point let

it

be required to locate the

= point 5, y 3% [written for brevity (-5, 34)]. Let the axes be XOX' and YO#' as in Fig. 3.

x=

By what
left

has been said the point

is

located 5 units to the

of the Y-axis
it

and 3^

units above the X-axis.

Since,

is

venient unit

may

a matter of relative position only, any conbe used, if it is maintained to the end of
5 units or f" to the left

the problem; say in this case J".

Then measuring
and from there 3!
'

on the X-axis,

JP(-6,8

Analytical Geometry.
2.

The

points

(o,

2^),

3,

-2) and

(ij,

2})

are the vertices of a triangle. Construct it. 3. Construct the quadrilateral whose vertices are

(4.

i,

2), (3, 5), (2,

3)

and (its

2,

2).

An

equilateral

(o, 4) and its ordinates of its other vertices and the length of its sides. 5. The two extremities of a line are at the points (3, 4) and (5, 4). What is its position relative to the axes?

vertex at the point base coincides with the X-axis. Find the cotriangle

has

6.
7.
(

How
The
2, i),

far is the point ( 3, 4) from the origin? extremities of a line are at the points (3, 5)

and

respectively.

Construct

it.

8.

The

and
9.

(3, 5).

extremities of a line are at the points ( Show that it is bisected at the origin.

3,

5)

By
5)

similar triangles find the point

(-

2,

and
line

(4,

midway between
and

i).

10.
(o, 8).

crosses the axes


is its

What

at the points (15, o) length between the axes.

THE POLAR SYSTEM.


ART.
8.

Since two dimensions are sufficient to locate a

it is readily possible to use an angle and a distance, instead of two distances. By convention the angle is estimated from a fixed line

point in a plane,

around counter-clockwise; the revolving line, called the radius vector, is pivoted at the left end of the fixed line, which is called the initial line, and the pivotal point is

known The

as the pole.

angle is estimated either in degrees, minutes, and seconds or in radians.

ART.
is

9.

radian

is

defined as the central angle which


in length to the radius.

measured by an arc equal

Analytical Geometry.
Since the circumference of a circle
is

equal to

2717-

(where

r is the radius

and TT= 3.1416) and

also contains

360,

27ZT

= =

360

and

^- = ^- =
27T
7T

radian.

Hence

the

number

of radians in

any angle
7

*JL " JL
"

180
7T

180

That

is,

the
TT,

number

of radians in
is

an angle

is

the

same

fraction of

that the angle

of

180.

For example
60

=
180

7i

radians

=
3

TT

radians.

TT

radians

=
8

TT

radians.

180
22 <

=
It
is

5. TI

radians

-5

n radians,

etc.

180

ART.

10.

agreed for the sake of uniformity that

its original position of coincidence with the initial line, counter-clock-

an angle described by the radius vector from


wise, shall
tive.

be positive;
the

in the contrary

direction,

nega-

That when

distance

along the radius

vector

when measured on ward through the pole


the point (3,

to the point is measured forward, it shall be positive; the radius vector produced backit

shall be negative.

For example,
(Fig. 4)
:

would be located thus


J

Draw an
vector)

indefinite

line

OB
3

(representing the
=

radius

making an angle

of

radians

- of 180
3

60

A nalytical
with the fixed
initial line

Geometry,
off 3 units

OA; measure

on the

radius vector from the pole, and the point


Fig. 4).

is

located (see

If

the point

had been (

3,

-J

the 3 units
If

would have
had

been measured back toward B' been


3

to P'.

the angle

the radius vector

would have taken the

positive

direction

OB".

The
is (r,

usual notation for co-ordinates in the polar system


(p,

0) or

6}.

EXERCISE
i.

II.

Locate the points:

(24,75), (-4,

-30).

8
2.

A nalytical

Geometry.

Express the following radians in degrees:


7T
T.7T

71

ZTC

77T

?
3.

r ' S'

7'

8'

2 '4 16'

"
-

Express in radians:

35, 40, 45, 6yi, 75, 150, 120, -225,


4.

195.

Construct the triangle whose vertices are,

5.

Construct the quadrilateral whose vertices are,

What kind
6.

of quadrilateral

is it ?

The
-

extremities of a line are the points (6,

and
]

(6,
7.

j.

How

is

the line situated with reference to

the initial line?

Construct the equilateral triangle whose base coin-

cides with the initial line

and whose vertex

is

the point

8.

The
w ays
r

co-ordinates of a point are (5,


V

).

Give three

47

other

of denoting the

same

point.

AREA OF A TRIANGLE.
ART.
ii.

The system
its

of rectangular co-ordinates affords a

ready method

of expressing the area of


vertices are

the co-ordinates of

any known.

triangle

when

Analytical Geometry.

Let

ABC
AD,

(Fig.

5) be

diculars

BE

and

CF

any triangle. Draw the perpenfrom the vertices to the ^-axis.

Then

the co-ordinates of

A=

(OD, AD);

of

Fig. 5.

B = (OE, BE);
and
(*"',

of

C=

(OF, CF); say,(is

*',

/),

(*",

f)

/").

Now the figure ABCFD ABED, and BCFE; and if


the triangle

made up

of the trapezoids

we take ACFD ABC remains, that is, ABED + BCFE - ACFD = ABC. (a) area ABED = J (AD + BE) DE. By geometry, But AD = /, BE = /', and DE = DO + OE= -x'
from
3*.
.'.

ABCFD

ABED = J (/ + /') (x" - #') Also area BCFE = J (BE + CF) EF. But BE = V', CF=/ and EF = OF-OE =x*'-x*. area BCFE = J (/ + f'} (*?' - **) = J (AD + CF) DF. Again; area ACFD But AD = /, CF=y"andDF=DO + OF = area ACFD = (/ + /") (^ - ^).
area
/r
.'.

.'.

10

Analytical Geometry.
Substituting in (a):

Area

ABC = J (/ + /') (x* - *') + 4 (/ + /') (*"' ~ *") - i (/ + /") (*"' - *0 = - x'f + *"'/' - off + x'f-xnf /]. j [yy
of

The symmetrical arrangement


Expression
is

the

accents

in

this

manifest.
of the triangle

(2,

- 6) be (*", /"). Then = i [(- i X 3) - (2 X 4) + (3 X 4) - (- X -6) area + (2 X - 6) - (3 X 3)]= if- 3 - 8 +12-6-12-9]


(i,

Example: Find the area 3), (- i, 4) and (3,


4) be (*", /'),

whose

vertices are
(*',

6).

Let

(2,

3) be

/);

and

(3,

= -

13-

sign has no significance except to indicate the relation of the trapezoids.

The minus

Fig. 6.

reference to Fig. 6 will show that a similar process will give the area of ABC, when its vertices are given in polar co-ordinates.

Polar System

ABC = ABO + OBC - OAC. ABO = i AO X OB sin AOB. AO - /, OB = r and AOB = (O - 0"}. A similar treatment of OBC and AOC will give
For
area

Area

the areas

of all the triangles.

CHAPTER
LOCI.
ART.
12.

II.

Whenever

the relation between the abscissa

and ordinate

of every point

on a

line is the

same, the expresis

sion of this relation in the form of an equation

said to

give the equation of the line.


is

For example,

if

the ordinate
line,

always 4 times the abscissa for every point on a


4

y=

is

called the equation of the line.

Again, if 3 times the abscissa is equal to 5 times the ordinate plus 2, for every point on a line, then 3 x 2

= 57+

is

the line's equation.

ART.
tion

13.

Clearly since an equation represents the rela-

between the abscissa x and the ordinate y for every point on a line, if either co-ordinate is known for any point on the line, the other one may be found by substituting
the

known one

in

the

equation and solving

it

for

the

unknown. For example,


line,

let
is

x
to

and a point
find
its
(

known
i

i be the equation for a have the abscissa, x = 2.

To
2

ordinate, substitute

14

= = 13; y
x

in

the

equation;

6J.

Therefore the

ordinate corresponding to the abscissa, x 2, is 6 J. Further, if the equation is given, the whole line

=
x

may be

reproduced by locating

its

points.

If

for

example be

given a series of values from o to 10 inclusive, by substituting these values in the equation, the corresponding
values of y are found, and points are thus located on the desired line. If more points are needed the range of
ii

12

Analytical Geometry.

values for
points are

x may be indefinitely extended, and if these For example, let the joined, we have the line.

2 2 the curve 9, to reproduce y equation of a line be x For convenience in calculating solve for y\ represented.

Then

give

xa

series of values to locate points

on

this line.

_~_4
\/9
9

= =

The
is

last

is

not on the curve at

value for y shows that the point whose abscissa all; and since any larger values
to give

of

x would continue

imaginary values for

y,

the

curve does not extend beyond x = 3. Since we have given x only positive values so

far,

all

our points so determined lie to the right of the Y-axis. To make the examination complete, let x take a series of
negative value thus:
If

= If # = If # =
x

Vg "N/9

y= v=

= 4 =

VjF=
\/5

2.83. 2.24.

V^

9=0= V o.
shows that the curve
is,

The

similarity of these results

is

symmetrical with respect to the axes, that on both sides of the axes.
If

it

is

alike

now

these points are located with respect to the axes are joined, the result
it

XX' and YY' and


tion to the curve;

is

an approxima-

is

only an approximation because the


close

points are few

and not

enough together.

The

result is

shown

in Fig. 7, using J inch as a unit for

Analytical Geometry,
scale.

The

points are

(o,

+3),

(o,

(3,
(

3)

[being

A
B'],

and

A' in the
(2,
(

figure], (i, \/8), (i,


(2,

\/8) [being

B and
\/S )

\/7),
i,

(-

\/J) [being
i,

C and C'],

\/8),

\/8) [D and D']


3,

o) [G], _
2,

(-

2,

\/ 5 ) [E and E'J and (-

o) [F].

A'

Fig. 7.

Clearly

if

more points are needed to


is

trace

the curve
it

accurately through them (as sary to take more values of

the case here),


3

is

necesfor

x between

and +3,

example

#=o
x

.2

= = *
x

.6

.8
i

= y = y = ? = y=
;y

\/9 \/9

\/9

\/ 9

= _

3.

.04

V8.90

= =

2.99. 2.97.

.16=
.36 .64

\/8.84=
\/8.64

= =

2.94.
2.89.

^=

^=^9-

i=

\/8^6~= Vs" =

2.83, etc.

Making

values of x, the result

a similar table for the corresponding negative is three times as many points on the

Analytical Geometry.

curve as before, and as they are closer together the curve is much more readily drawn through them, and it will be

much more accurate. Take another example


Solving for v;

x2

16

144.

y =

f V 16

x2

Then

if

= = = = = =

O
.2

y=
y

|Vi6=
fvi6
.16

3.

= =
==

.04=

.4
.6
.8
i

y
y

y=
y

- .36= - .64 |Vi6 - i ==

= = f ^15.84 1^15.64 = =
fVis
same

2.99.

2.98+
2.96.
2.94.
,etc.

=2. 9

The

result is indicated in Fig. 8,

scale as before.

Fig. 8.

ART. 14. Clearly a curve can be traced thus representing almost any form of equation. 2 Suppose the equation of 15 ^ is given. y#

+ 7#+

The location of a number of points by giving x a series of values and calculating corresponding values of y from the equation, will enable us to draw through them the curve
represented by the equation.
certain values of

In most cases, there will be

x which

will

make

the value of

zero;

Analytical Geometry.

15
3
7

such values of x

will

be roots of the equation x


is,

xz

+
if

15

=
is

o,

that

these

values

of

indentically

satisfy this equation.

But
X-axis,

for

zero for a point, the point must be on the by definition the value of y is the distance

from the X-axis

to the point, hence the curve must cross If then none the X-axis at those points where y is zero.

of the values given to

x make y

exactly zero, but do

make

y change from a

positive value for one value of x to a value for the next, or vice versa, it must pass negative through zero to change from one sign to the other, and

hence the curve must cross the X-axis.

As
-\-

an

illustration,

take

ii

y.

As before make

equation x 5 x + x a table of values of x and y,


the
2

and
If

locate the points as follows:

16

Analytical Geometry.
If

the values of

in the

above table had been taken

closer together,

the points of crossing

would have been

more accurately known.

INTERSECTIONS.
ART.
15.

The

point

(or
to

points)

in

which two
its

lines

intersect,

lines, being both equations, that is, the equations of the two lines are simultaneous for this point (or these points) and hence if the equations be solved as simultaneous by

common

both

co-ordinates

must

satisfy

any

of the processes explained in algebra,

the

resulting

values of

x and y

will

be the co-ordinates of the point (or


:

For example points) of intersection. To find the points of intersection of the circle x 2 -f y 2 = 2 10 x. 24 and the parabola y By substitution of the

value of y 2 from the parabola equation in the circle equation,

x2 x

+ +

10
5

24
7

x2 x
or,

+ =

10

+
or

25

49.

2,

-- 12

y=
The second
and

V/ 2o,

120.

pair of values for y being imaginary shows


(2,

there are but two real points of intersection,


(2,

+ V2o)

\/2o).

Verify by

construction.

EXERCISE

III.

Loci with Rectangular Co-ordinates.


1.

Express the equation of the


is

line

for every point of

which the ordinate


2.

f of

its

abscissa.
line

Express the equation of the

for every point of

which f the abscissa equals {

of the ordinate

i.

A nalytical

Geometry.

of the line, for every point of 3. Express the equation which 9 times the square of its abscissa plus 16 times the

square of its ordinate equals 144. 2 = 8 4. Construct the locus of x


5.

y.
2

6.
7.

Construct the locus of (x Construct the locus of xy


Construct the locus of

2)

+ = =

36.

=
-f-

16.

x2

4 y
2

4.
2

8.
9.

Construct the locus of 25 x Construct the locus of 3 x


Construct the locus of % x Construct the locus of x

36 y

=
y.

900.

5.

10.

f
7.

11.
12.

Construct
2

= the locus of y =
2

5.

Find the points


13.
14.

of intersection of:
3.

15.
16.

17. 18.

+ (y - 2) = 16 and zy- x= 2x $y= 7 and i x + y = f x + y = 9 and # = 8 # + y = 16 and 2 x + 3 y = 6. x + y = 25 and 4 y = 3 # + 25.


(x2

i)

;y.

Find the vertices of the triangle whose sides are

i.

2^ +
ART.
1 6.

^=5

and

3^-2*=
is

7.

If the

equation of a locus

expressed in polar
is

co-ordinates,

the

method

of procedure

exactly similar

to the cases already discussed.

The
r

difficulties.

presence of trigonometric functions introduces no For example: To construct the locus of


cos 6).

=
If If If
If

4(1

Give

a series of values, and com-

puting r for each, as follows:

= = 6 =

o,

o
5
?

10, 15,

0=

= = r = r*
r r

o since cos o
4 4
(z

(i

_ -

996 )

.98) -97)

(i-

= = = =

i.
.

OI 6.

.08.

-12.

i8
If if If

Analytical Geometry.

if
if

= e = 6 = e = e =

20,
3 o,

40,
50, 60,

= r= r= r = r =
r

4 4 4 4 4

(i

(i (i

.94)
-87) .77) .64)
-5
)

=
:

.24. .52-

(i (i

= = =

.92.

1.44.
2. ,etc.

Fig. 9.

Completing the table


curve as in Fig.
9.

to

360

and

plotting

we

get a

TRANSCENDENTAL
ART.
17.

LOCI.

Certain curves have what are

known

as trans-

cendental equations, that is, equations which cannot be solved alone by the algebraic processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication,

and

division.

Analytical Geometry.

19

For example,

log x.

The
by

loci of

such equations are found in the usual way,


series of values

giving to

one of the co-ordinates a

and

finding corresponding values for the other from tables.

EXERCISE
1.

IV.
2 0.
0.

Find the locus of Find the locus of Find the locus of

r r
r

2.

3.

= = = =

9 cos

10 cos

cos
.

4.

Find the locus of


Construct y Construct x =

5
5.

3 cos 6

sin x.

6.

log y.

MISCELLANEOUS CURVES.
ART.
1 8.

Curve-plotting
research,

is

very widely applied in


represent
graphically

all

modern
results

scientific

to

the

of observation.

This method of presentation has


at a glance the

the

immense advantage

plete result of

of showing an investigation.

com-

For example,
relative
to its

if a test is made of the speed of an engine steam pressure, the pressures being repre-

sented as abscissas (by x) and the corresponding speeds as ordinates (by y}, a smooth curve drawn through the points

determined by these co-ordinates will reveal at once the behavior of the engine. Especially does this method aid
in comparisons of different series of observations of the

same kind.

20

Analytical Geometry.
for

Suppose,

example,

it

is

desired

to

represent thus

graphically the course of a case of fever.

The

observations are as follows:


7 A.M.

Analytical

Geometry.

21

Again; in the were taken.

test of

an I-beam the following observations

TEST OF CAST-IRON.
Stress Pounds.

Unit Elongation*

O
6,950

O
4.97

12,940
6,110

11.44
6.06
1.12

o
4,640 8,780
12,300
15,420

(permanent

set)

4.16
7.63

10.78
15.2

11,900

12.38
9.42

8,370

4,960
113

6.66
2.41

Plot the curve.

EXERCISE

V.

CHAPTER

III.

THE STRAIGHT

LINE.

ART. 19. Since two points determine a straight line and two points imply two conditions, there will be in the equation to a straight line, two fixed quantities (called
constants), which

must be predetermined

for every straight

Fig. ii.

These constants may be furnished by two or by a point and an angle, evidently.


line.

fixed points,

it is

determine the equation of a given straight line, then, necessary to express the relation between the co-ordinates of any (that is, every) point on the line, in terms of the two given constants.
22

To

Analytical Geometry.

23
y-axis,

Suppose which the


tion
this axis.

first

we

take a point on
pass,

the

through

line

must

by giving

its

and determine its posidistance from the origin measured on and say the
to
line

Call this distance, b;

makes an angle a
trigo-

with

the #-axis; the angle nometry, positively, that is, counter-clockwise,

be estimated as in

from the

tf-axis.*
It is required, then, to determine the relation between the co-ordinates of any point P, selected at random, on the line AB (Fig. IT), using b and any convenient function of a.

OR = abscissa PR = ordinate of P = y, OS = b. Z BTR = a,


Drawing thej_ PR,

of

x,

The

similar triangles

character of the figure would suggest the use of the TSO and TPR, but a simple observation

shows that only the sides b and y are known; on the other to the hand we know the angle a, and a line through S #-axis, from S to PR, will be equal in length to OR and
||

will also

make

the angle

a with

AB

(alternate angles of

parallel lines).

Call this line

SN.
t

Then

= =

a SN
y

= OR = x and PN = PR - NR = PR - SO b. PN and SN being respectively opposite and


a
in the right triangle

in the triangle

SPN,

Z PSN

adjacent to

SPN, we

have,

PN

The conventions
positive

and

as to positive and negative direction for lines, and negative revolution for angles, is maintained in
is

Analytical Geometry, as indeed


consistent results.

necessary in order to accomplish

Analytical Geometry.

Let tan a be represented by m;


k

hen

m
mx =
y

b b

= mx + y
terms of the

(A)
of in b

which expresses the relation between the co-ordinates of any point, P, and hence of every point on the line

known

constants

and

b.

.'.

= mx +

Fig.
is

12.

the equation of

AB.

Had

the line crossed the

first

quad-

rant the construction would have been as in Fig. 12 and

we would have

or tan (180

tanPSN= ^?, SN b a)
tan

=
X X

y = mx +

b as before.

Analytical Geometry.

25

is

called the slope of the line


is

and

b its ^-intercept.

The
takes

equation
If

called the slope equation of a line.


line,
if

m=
||

o in the equation to a straight

then
o,

it

the form y

b,

which

is

plainly (since
If b

m=

o)

a line

to the ac-axis.

o, the equation

becomes

mx, which is the equation of a making an angle whose tangent is


Since
a'

line

through the origin, with the #-axis, etc.

may

whether the

line crosses the

be either acute or obtuse depending upon 2d or 4th, or the ist or 3d

may be either plus or minus depending the position of the point of intersection with ^-axis, upon above or below the origin, the form,

quadrants; and b

= = y = y
y

y=

mx + mx + mx mx c
20.
;

b represents a line crossing quad.


b represents

I,

a line across quad. II, b represents a line across quad. Ill, b represents a line across quad. IV.

ART.

// the line be determined by two points (x',


to

/)

and and

(x", /')

find

its

equation.
line,

Let

AB

(Fig. 13)

be the

P and

the points (V,

/)

(x", y"), respectively.

Take any
it is

QR, P'S and


Then

point P' whose co-ordinates are (x, y). Draw PT _L to the *-axis, also PL J_ to QR, as

clearly here a case for similar triangles.


in the similar triangles

PLQ
or

and PKP',

P'K:KP::QL:LP,
But

P'K

= P'S - KS = P'S - PT = y - / KP = HP - HK = x' - x, QL = QR - LR = QR - PT = f - /,

26

Analytical Geometry.

and

LP = LH + HP
y

=-**+ y y y
_

or symmetrically,

X*

(changing sign of both) which gives an equation between

f
t

y,

oc

y,

x and
f>
',

y as required.
B\ \
'/-v

(x",y"\ >a I

Analytical Geometry.
the line, since the equation

27
relation

must give the


co-ordinates

between
in

the co-ordinates of every point on the line.

Hence,

substituting

these
b,
if

successively

the equation

y = mx +

we know
P, P'

that the three following

equations must be true,

and

are on the line:

/ = mx' + b y = mx + b f=mx" + b
But
points P and Q, neither must be eliminated.

...... ...... ......

(i)
(2) (3)

since the line is to be determined only

nor b

by the two are known, and hence

Subtracting (i) from (2) and (i) from

(3),

we
.

and
divide (4) by (5);

f-y^m

- y= m

(x
(x"

get
.
.

x') *')

(4)

...

(5)

(-

For example: Find the equation of the line through - 6). 2, 3) and (-4, - 6)*. Let (*', /) be (- 2, 3) and (*", /') be (4,
Substituting in (B),

* Since (B) is perfectly symmetrical it is a matter of indifference which point be called (#', y') and which, (x", y"). The results are It is to be observed that x and y with accent marks the same.
usually mean definite points, while general co-ordinates are represented by unaccented x and y. So that substitutions are always made for the accented variables, when definite points are involved.

28

Analytical Geometry.

ART

21.

When

the line is determined by

an angle and a

point situated otherwise than on the y-axis.

Then y
the
line

Let the tangent of the angle be m and the point be (V, y'). = mx + b (i) can represent the slope equation to

This equation satisfies the condition that "the line. should have the slope m, but it must also pass through
if

the point (V, /).


is to completely represent the f b (2) must be true. equation Since b is a third and unnecessary condition, it must be eliminated between (i) and (2).

Hence,

line,

= mx + b y = mx' +

y
Subtract (2) from (i);
f

= mx + b =>*' +
mx
mx*

=m

(Q*
(x
x'}

Fig. 14.

ART.
* It

22.

When

the line is determined by two points, one

on each axis.
is

to

be observed that the slope equation


y') is
(0, 6).

is

special

form of

()

where (V,

Analytical Geometry.

29
(0,

Let the points

P and Q,

respectively

b)

and

(a,

0),
-\-

be the determining points (Fig. 14), and let y be the slope equation of the line AB; then b

= mx = b

and

m=

tan

PQX=

PQO. =tanPQO
a

- tan

Also
.'.

m=-a

Substituting these values of a and b in the slope equation,

m
or

and

b thus expressed,

by

V
[dividing

=
a

b,

2-,

(D)=

by b and transposing]. This form is known as the intercept equation of a straight


a and b are called the intercepts of the line

line, since

AB

on the co-ordinate axes.

ART.

23.

There

is still

another form of equation to the

Fig.

15-

straight line
*

determined by a perpendicular to the


result could
(b, o)

line

The same

be derived from (B) by substituting

(a, o) for

(V, /) and

for (x", y"}.

30

Analytical Geometry.
origin,

from the
Let

and the angle which


line

this

perpendicular

makes with

the #-axis.

OD

be a _L to the

AB

from the
Let

origin,
(x,

and

ft

the angle it makes with the #-axis. point on the line.

y) be any
similar
crosses

Drawing the ordinate (PE)


right triangles

of P,

we have two

ODF
:
:

(F being the point where

AB

the jc-axis)

and PEF.
:

Then PE
Call

OD

EF DF
:

[homologous

sides].

OD,

p,

and OF,
y
:

a,
: :

then above proportion becomes

But

in the right triangle

(a- x) DF. ODF,


:

;COS
*

ft

COS

ft

P= p

-r
ft

x\
I

[extremes and means]

s ft

\cos

or

ysm
cos

ft

=
#

t
cos
/?

ft

x
p

[dividing

bv

p]

ft

that

is,

y
is

sin

/?

cos

(E)

This
normal.

called the normal equation,

p being known as a

The
centre

line

AB
line

is

plainly a tangent to a circle with

as a

and p as a

mining the
Exercise:

AB

radius, hence we are practically deteras a tangent to a given circle, the posi-

tion of the radius being fixed

By

by the angle ft. the values of a and b from the determining


h

intercept equation,

=
b

i,

in terms of

p and

ft,

derive

the normal equation from the intercept equation.

A nalytical

Geometry.

31

ART. 24. Each equation has its characteristic form. For instance, the slope equation y = mx -f b, has the form of a first degree equation solved for y, hence if any
degree equation be solved for y, it may be compared For example, given the directly with this slope equation.
first

equation

= % x + 45 com2 y 8. 3 x Solving for y, y = f and b = 4. paring this with the typical form; Hence the locus of 2^ may be constructed

3^=8

as follows,
First to

remembering the meaning of m and b, (Fig. 16). construct any line making an angle whose tan-

gent

is

f with the ^-axis.


;y-axis

By

trigonometry

if

we

lay off

on the

a distance 3 and on the ^-axis a distance 2

Fig.

16.

(remembering that the angle must be measured from right


to left), the line

DE, drawn through

mined makes an angle whose tangent


for
tan.

is

the points so deterf with the jcline

FLO =
same

=
^

f>

nence an 7

drawn

to
||

ED
the

makes

the

angle.

If this line is

drawn through

Analytical Geometry.
point G, 4 units above the origin required line, as AB in the figure.
(b

4),

it

will

be the

In this case

m=
it is

f being positive shows that the line

crosses either the 2d or 4th quadrants,


positive shows
If

and

4 being

the 2d, hence the construction.


it

is

negative,

crosses either the ist or

3d quadrants,
in every

and the
case
It is

sign of b will determine


to

which one.

Hence

we know where

usually easier to

make make

the construction for m.

use of two points for the coneasily

struction of straight lines,

determined on the axes,

and these points are most where the line crosses them.

Since the equation of a line expresses the relation between


the co-ordinates of every point on the line, it will express the relation for these points on the line where it cuts the

axes;

but at these points either x or y


it is

is o,

depending on

whether

the

y or the

#-axis.

Hence

to find the inter-

K/8/

Fig. 17.

cept on the

#-axis, set

y =

point of crossing
^-intercept.
in the equation.

o);

the value of

o in the equation (for at the x will then be the

Likewise, to find the y-intercept set

Analytical Geometry.

33

In the preceding example, 2 y


Set y

= =

o,

03^=8
x

3x=
=

8.

(x

intercept).

Set

y
the
line

0=8.
y

4 (y

intercept).

Hence measuring f to upward on the ;y-axis, the


points.

on the #-axis and 4 passes through these two


left

ART.

25.
is

The

characteristic

property of the intercept


of the equation
is i,

equation

that the right

hand member

and the other member consists of the sum of two fractions whose numerators are respectively x and y. For example, to put the equation 3 x 4y = 7 into intercept form.

To make
by
7.

the right side

i,

the equation

must be divided

f* -

y=

(O

To change the left hand side to the sum of two fractions having x and y only for numerators, the equation may be
written thus:

x
j

+
,

"'v
b
b

comparing

this

with the type form,

*+-!, a
evidently

and

|.

These values may be


the last article.

verified

by the method indicated


.r

in

Let

= =

o in
o,

(i),

then

o
i,

a.

Let

then o

^=
7

y =
What
is

J.

typical of the

normal equation ?

34

Analytical Geometry.

ART.

26.

Any

equation of the

first

degree in two vari-

ables represents a straight line.

Any equation of the be represented by

first

degree in two variables

may

A*
This equation

-f

Ey

C.

may

be put in the form

which
slope

is

clearly the slope equation of a straight line,

is

A B

and y - intercept,

C B

that

is,

m=

-B

whose A and

-f
Again
:

The
-f
i_x

equation
21
\-s

Ax +

"By

= C may
is

be put in

the form

(DJ which

the

intercept form,

where
Again:

E C _ and C are the two intercepts. A B To put Ax + By = C in the


y
sin
/?

normal

form,
/?,

cos
/?

ft

p,

it

is

necessary

to express cos
(Fig. 18).
It

sin

and p in terms of A, B and C been shown above that the intercepts

has

OM
the

and

ON (MN

being the line) are


Since

C C and B A
/?,

Z OMN = Z PON =
=

MON,
Sin
ft

^>

in

right

triangle

^ ^
2

-,
2

2 A/A + B

VA +

B2

Analytical Geometry.

35

and cos

ft

In the similar triangles

MON

and

VA + B PON, OM OP
2 2
:

MN
that

ON,

is,

Whence

'A 2

+B _

2)

substituting these values in the normal equation,

Ax

Ey

VA + B
2

VA +
2

B2

VA +
2

B2

(E )*
t

The

sign of
4-

\/A 2 + B 2
C, for p
2

is

readily determined from the sign of


,

in

Ax

By =

and since p

is

essentially
this

positive, C and \/A tion may be true.

+ B2

must have the same sign that

equa-

36

Analytical Geometry.
is

which

plainly

obtained
2

from
2
,

Ax + Ey =

C,

by

B that is, the square root dividing through by \/A of the sum of the squares of the coefficients of x and y.
For example,
In this case
to

put

\/A 2

Dividing then by

3^ + 4^= 9 in the normal form: + B = Vf + 4 = ^25 = 5. = 9 becomes 5; 3 x + 4 v


2 2

where

*.

cos

/?,

=
5

sin

/?

and
5

p.

From
line,

= C B)/

it is seen that a general equation Ax + can assume any of the type forms for a straight hence it may always represent a straight line.

the above

ART. 26
to the

(a).

Another method
is

of reducing

Ax +

B_y

=C

normal form,
:

easily derived

from the following

consideration
If

two equations both represent the same straight line, they cannot be independent equations, but one must be obtained from the other, by multiplying it through by

some constant
2

factor, like

$y =

and 8 x

12

y =4.

That
of

is,

all

the coefficients in one are the

same number
as

times

the

corresponding coefficients in the other,

8=4X2, 12=4X3
Now
if

and 4
/?

=
y

i.

Ax + Bv = C and x
same

cos

sin

/?

p are

to represent the

straight line,

then
that
is,

B= n

sin

/?

..........

(2)

Analytical Geometry.

37

To

find n, square (i)

A =
2

B2

-.

and (2) and add; n 2 cos 2 /? n 2 sin 2 /?

38

Analytical Geometry.

EXERCISE

VI.

Straight Line.

What
i.

are the slope

and

intercepts of the following lines?

Construct them.

3-

sy= oc

2y=3x +
x
o.

i.

2.
-

4.47-7* + =
i

3^ + 2^ + 7=0.
o
-

5.
7-

*-iJ?=ii
+ y=
line

6.
8.

\y - 2X + - 3. y =

=y +

i#point

9. (o,

having the slope f cuts the

;y-axis at the

10.

y
11.

What is its equation? 3). What are the vertices of the triangle whose 2 y + i? x + i = o, $y + x = 2, x=
Find the
vertices of the quadrilateral

sides are

whose

sides are

x=y, y+x=2, $y
12.
(

2x=$, 2x +
are

y = -i.
o),
(

The
4).

vertices of a triangle

(2,
its

3,

i),

5,

What

are the equations of


3,
is its

sides?

13.

of 45
14.

line passes through ( with the #-axis. What


is
2

2)

and makes an angle


?

equation

What

the equation of the

common

chord of the

circles (x

is

2 = 2 25? i) (y 3) 50 and x + y What 15. The points (6, 8) and (8, 4) are on a circle. the equation of a chord joining them ? 16. Which of the following points are on the line

= ~ZOC+
What

2;

(2,

I),

(-2,

),

(2,

2),

(5,2)?
(i,

17.

is

the slope of the line through

6)

and

(-3,5)? 1 8. What
have that
19.
it

slope

must a

line

with the ^-intercept


2) ?

may

pass through
(i,

(3,
on

Show
Show

that

5)

lies

the line joining

(o,

2)

and

(2, 8).

20.

that the line joining

i,

f)

and

(2,

3)

passes through the origin.

Analytical Geometry.

39

ART.

28.

To

find the angle between two intersecting lines

jrom Let y = mx + b, and y = m'x + b', be the equations of two intersecting lines, AB and CD, in Fig. 19.

their equations.

\
tan-^m

Fig. 19.

Since the slopes are

and m'

respectively, tan

FHX= m

and tan

FGX=

w'.

In the triangle

GFH, formed by

the intersecting lines and

the x-axis, the external angle

or

FHX = HGF + GFH GFH = FHX- HGF


Call, for convenience,

(i)

GFH,
?

6;

FHX,

a; and

HGF,

/9.

Then by

(i)

0= a-

(ia)

in the tangents of

and w', that is, Since the result must be expressed in a and ft, the trigonometric formula for

4o

Analytical Geometry.
3)

the tangent of the difference of two angles (a be used, that is,

must

tan (a

ON
/?)

But

since

= -m m i + tan a tan p i + ww' =a = tan (a - /?). tan


-

tan a

tan B
'-

fi,

/.tan

= ^^^-. i + mm'
6 from

(F)

Which enables us

to calculate

and
lines

m'.

For

example, to find the angles

between the two


i

f*-f y=
and

i*

+ iy=
S*

ij.

Putting these equations in the slope form, they become,

y= y=
Since

- I* + !.
always form two angles,

two

lines

intersecting

which are supplementary with each other, and since the only difference that can result in the formula
tan e

=
i

+ mm
is

from interchanging m and m' a change from the value of


is

a reversal of sign, that


supplement, unless
difference

is,
it

to its

distinctly specified, that the angle of intersection is the


it

acute or obtuse angle, f or be called

makes no
f and m'

which slope

Say

in above,

m=
f-i) (-1)

Substituting in

formula (F),

tan Q

=
i

=
-

+
=

(f)

i-

1=: if =
I
i
will

s|

4.9167.
this

table of trigonometric functions

show from

value that

Make

12" +. 30' 78 the construction and test with protractor.

Analytical Geometry.

41
or

ART.

29.

To

find

condition

for

perpendicularity

parallelism of lines

from their equations.

In formula (F),

+ mm'
,

When the lines

are_J_,

go

and

.*.

tan $

oo

that

is,

+
=

mm'
is finite

Since a fraction whose numerator

equals

oo

only

when

its

denominator
i

o,

.'.

in this case

+ mm'
lines are

o or m'

=
iff

(a)

That
For

is,

two

perpendicular to each other

when
are

their slopes are negative reciprocals.

example,

3^2^=5
are

and

+
o

= n

perpendiculars. When the lines

parallel,

=
m

and

hence,

tan

0=o.
-

L That
rr-i

is,

m m - mm =o
T

or

o.

Whence
That
line
is,

their slopes are equal.

us to readily

These conditions enable draw a perpendicular or a parallel to a given

through a given point.

For we can find the slope of the J_ from the slope of the given line by (a) and of the parallel by (b\
the use of the formula for a line through a given with a given slope will give the required equation. point

Then

Example:

Find the equation

of

aj_

to

3^ +

2^=5

42

Analytical Geometry.
i,

through the point (is

3).

The

slope

of3# +
is

| \y =

|x

f ],

hence the slope of the J_

The type equation for a line with a given slope through m (x x'} a given point is (C) y' y
Here
Substituting;

y
3

or

= m= f x = = $ (x + 3 2 x = n.*
f
,

and

/=

3.

i)

ART.
triangle

30.

In Art.

it

was shown how the area


its

of a

may

be found when the co-ordinates of

vertices

Fig. 20.

are

known.

By

the equation for a line through two given

points, the equations of the sides


*

may now

be found, and

it

this equation to the JL with the original equation be seen that the coefficients of x and y have simply interchanged, and one of them has changed sign, which suggests

Comparing

will

a method of writing the


chapter.

_L

to

line.

See example at end of

Analytical Geometry.

43

from them the angles by formula


erect J_'s to the sides, at
in

(F).
It will

any

point.

Also we may now be shown

Art. 31

how
To

the

lengths of

the

sides

may

be easily

obtained.

ART. 31.
points.

find the length of a line between two given


f

Let the points be

(#',

and

(V', y'), respectively

and

in Fig. 20.

Draw AF and BCJ_


respectively.
to the #-axis.

to the #-axis.

OF =

x'

and

OC =
ABH,

They
oc".

are

/
2

and /'

Draw
2

also

AH

||

Then
Call

in the right triangle,


2

AB = AH + BIT
L =
2

2-

AB,

(BC

L (length of AB). Then - AF) = - x") + (f - yy


2

(OF

+ OC) +
2
f

(otf

or since (x

-x"Y

L=

(x"

x7 ) 2

(f

- /)

(written symmetrically).
(i,

Example
Call the

Find the distance between

f ) and

(f , J).

first (x', y'}

and the second


2

(x", y").
2

Then

= V(| -

i)

+ (Jf

f)

VTV +

ART. 32. To find the co-ordinates of a point which divides a line between two given points into segments having
a given
ratio.
:

Say the ratio is p q, the points are (x', /) and (A and B in Fig. 21) and the required point P

(#*, /')
(x,
||

y).

Draw BH,
Then AF

PG

and

AF _L
y,

to the #-axis,

and

AK

to the

OG =
To

x,

and

PG = OH = x".
/,

and

BH =
:

/'.
:
:

Also

OF -

x*,

Also

AP PB
of (x
f
,

q.

find PG and OG in terms PG = PN + NG = PN + AF.

/) and

(x", y")

(i)

44

Analytical Geometry.
Since the triangles

APN and ABK are similar, PN BK


:

AP AB,
:

that

is,

PN (BH :

AF)

AP AB,
:

or

PN :/'-/::/>:

q.

pG

=
P

+
q

y>

[from

or

_ pv"

+ qV +q

Fig. 21.

Likewise,

= OH

Analytical Geometry.
If the

45

point

is

to

bisect the line

then p

q,

and the

formulae become

and
ART. 33.

,
To

=
2

find the distance from a given point to a

given line. Since parallel lines are everywhere equally distant, the expedient suggests itself of drawing a line through the
given point parallel to the given line, and determining the distance between these two lines at the most convenient
point.

Again, since perpendicular distance of course is meant, the normal equation is naturally suggested, because it is

determined by a perpendicular from the origin. Clearly, since these two lines are parallel, the angle the equation will be the same for both, and they will
only in the value of p.

/?

in

differ

Also the difference in the values of


is,

for

the two will be their distance apart, that

will

be

the distance from the given point

to the given line.

Then

let

cos

the given line

/? + y and x cos

sin
/?

ft

p, (E), be the equation to


ft

sin

p' be the equation

of a parallel line.
If this line
it

passes through the given point

(x', y')

then

must be

satisfied
.'.

by

(x', y').

cos/?

+ /sin/?=
d

p'

.....

(2)

where

P'-P=
[d being

.......
+

(3)

the required distance].

The

when

the point-line is farther from given line; the minus sign, otherwise.

sign will result the origin than the

46

Analytical Geometry.

From
.'.

(3),

/=
</

p
ocf

d.

(2)

becomes

cos

ft /?

or

x' cos

+ / sin = + / sin /? /?

/>

d.

(G)

Since any equation to a straight line may be put in normal form, the above expression is always applicable. By taking advantage of the general form of normal equation,

"FB 5
the

\/A

+B

x/A

+&
For in

formula (G) becomes easier of application. above equations we know that

^
corresponds to cos
/?.

/.

=
\
2

+B

x/A

A^+ 5/-C
This formula (G')

may

be stated thus:
to

To

find the distance

from a given point form

a given

line,
o.

put the equation of the line into the


Substitute for

Ax + By

C=

x and y

the co-ordinates of the given point


of the equation by the square

and divide
root of the

the

left

hand member

sum

of the squares of the coefficients oj

x and
4y

y.

The

quotient is the required distance.


(

Example: Find distance from

2,

3) to 3

9.

Comparing Ax + ~By = C, A= 3, B = 4, C= -

9,

Analytical Geometry.

47

- C

(-

2)

4 (3)

(~9)

VA
6

+ B2
12

Since

it

is

merely distance wanted, the sign of d

is

not

important.

SYSTEMS OF LINES.
ART. 34.
different

Since parallel lines have the same slope, but intercepts, and since the slope is determined
of

entirely
parallel

by the coefficients lines can differ only

x and

y,

the equations of

in the absolute term.


to
||

Thus Ax

+ By = K
Then two

is

the equation of a line

Ax

+ By =

C.

equations that differ only in their

absolute terms represent parallel lines. Again; since the relation between the slopes of perpendicular lines
is

given by the equation

and

and m' are determined by dividing the coefficient of x by the coefficient of y in the equations of the perpendicular lines, if the coefficients of x and y be interchanged and the
sign of one of

them

reversed, the relation

m'

will

be

satisfied.

The

absolute term of course will be different

in the

two equations. Thus, Ex Ay =

is

the equation of a line perpen-

dicular to

Again;
is

Ax + By = C. (Ax + By - C) +
(2)

(A'*

+
C'

B'y

C')

o (i)

A* + By = C

the equation of a line through the intersection point of

and A'x

B'y

...

(3)

For, transposing

C and

C' in (2) and

(3),

48

Analytical Geometry.

Ax + By - C =
A'x
Let
f

o.

E'y

C'

o.

(x

/)

represent
lines,

their
it

intersection

point.

Since

this point is

on both

satisfies

both equations; hence, o o


(4)
(5)

Ax?

and
multiply (5) by

AV + B'/ (A*'

+ B/ - C = C' =

K and add to (4); + B/ - C) + K (AV + By - CO =


f

(6)

If

(V, y

be substituted in

(i)

we

get (6),

but

we know

(6) is true.
f

.'.

(X, y

satisfies
f
,

(i),

and hence
Since

(i) is the

equation of
of lines

a line through (x
stant,

y).

is

an undetermined con-

we can

get the equations of

any number

through (X,

y) by

Example:
section of

By

= 6 and 2 x 5 y above formula the equation


(3

To 3^
x

giving find equation of a line through the inter-

different arbitrary values.

+
is,

9-

6)

+K

(2

9)

o.

If the
(3,

line

must

also pass through another point,

say
i)

i),

K
y,

may
5
2

be determined.

For substituting

(3,

for

x and

whence
or

+ K=
(9
(3

6)

+K
6)

(6

9)

=
-

o,

and above equation becomes


y

+
3

(2

+
#

9)

o,

y =

24.

Example :
(2,
i).

Find the

line

J- to
is

3;y=5

through

Its

equation by

Art. 34

$x+ y=
Since
(2,

k.
i

i)

must
5

satisfy
is

it,

k, or k

5.

Hence

y=

the required line.

Analytical Geometry.

49

EXERCISE
1.

VII.

Find the equation of a


5.

line

whose

intercepts are

and
2.

Put the following into symmetrical form and detertheir intercepts.

mine

-3,

3.

The

points

(5,

i),

(2,

3)

and

(i,
its

4) are

the

vertices of a triangle.
4.
5.

Find the equations of

medians.

In Ex.

3, find

the equations of the altitude lines.


?

6.

What What
(

are the angles of the triangle in Ex. 3


is
i,

the equation of the line J_ to

2^3^=5

through
7.

2)?
the

What
(

is
i,

equation

of

line
||

to

2^3^=5
2

through
8.

y
9.

What is x = 2? The points


is

2)? the

angle

between

and
whose

(8,

4)

and
is

(6,

8) are on a circle

centre
to the
10.

(i, 3).

What

the equation of the diameter J_

chord joining the two points ?

What

line joining
11.

are the co-ordinates of the point dividing the ( 3, 5) and (6, 9) in the ratio 1:3?

Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect

each other.
12.

Show

that

lines

joining

(3,

o),

(6,

4),

(-

i,

3)

form a right
13.

triangle.
2),

Show
is

of a triangle are (4, 3), (2, that the line joining the mid-points of

The vertices

(3,5).

any two sides

parallel to,

and equal

to J of, the third side.

50
14.

Analytical Geometry.

Show

that

(-

2, 3),

(4,

i),

(5, 3),

and (-1,
2) with
(5,

5) are

the vertices of a parallelogram. 15. Show that the line joining (3,

i) is
2).

perpendicular to the line joining (10, o)


16.
(2,

and

(13,

i),

(4,
of
5,

3),

and

(5

i) are the mid-points


its

of the sides of a triangle.


17.

What

are

vertices?
(2, 3),

Three
i),

(-4,
18.

(-

the vertices of a parallelogram are What is the fourth? 2).

Find the point of intersection of the medians of the 5, 3), (7 6). triangle whose vertices are (i, 2), (
19.
line 5

What is the distance from # = 12 y 7?


in Ex. 14.

the point

2,

3) to the

20.

Find the distance between the sides of the parallelo-

gram
21. 22. line

Change

;y

5 to the

normal form.
trisecting

Find the co-ordinates of the points 3, 2). joining (2, i) and ( Find the distance from
(2,

the

23. 24.
is (3,

5) to 2

6.

Find the
i)

altitude

and base
is

of the triangle

and whose base

the line joining (|,

whose vertex f ). i) and (4,


vertices are

25.

Find the area

of the quadrilateral
(4,

whose

(6,8),
26.

(-4,0), (-2, -6),


Find the angles

-4).
whose
vertices

of the parallelogram

are

(i, 2),

(-

5,

27. One side (2,V3) an d (~

-3), (7, 6) (i, n). of an equilateral triangle joins the points


Ij

3)-

What

are the equations of the

other sides?
28.

What

is

the equation of a line passing through the

intersection of the lines 3

5,

and

and the point


29.

3,

5)?

By
x

Art. 34, find the equations to the

medians

of the

triangle

whose

sides

are

and

y=2x-\-i y-\-x-\-i=Q
t

-f 2.

Analytical Geometry
30.

51

Find the co-ordinates

of the centre of the circle cir(3, 4),

cumscribing the triangle whose vertices are

(i,

2),

(-1,2).
31.

The

base of a triangle

is 2 b

squares of the other two sides


vertex.

is d?.

and the difference Find the locus

of the of the

CHAPTER

IV.

TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.
ART. 35.
It

sometimes simplifies an equation to change

the position of the axes of reference or even to change the inclination of these axes from a right to an oblique angle,

-X'

Fig. 22.

or both.

To

accomplish

this

it is

only necessary to express

the original co-ordinates of


of

any point on the line in terms new co-ordinates determined by the new axes and neces36.

sary constants.

ART.

To change

the position of the origin without

changing the direction of the axes or their inclination. Let P be any point on a given line whose equation

is

to

be transformed.

Let

its

co-ordinates be

x
52

= OC

and

y= PC

(Fig. 22),

Analytical Geometry.
referred to the axes

53

OX

new

axes, such that the origin

and OY. Let O'X' and O'Y' be O' is at the distance O'A = a,

from the axis OY, and Extend PC to D _\_


axes
is

at the distance
to

O'B

b,

from OY.

O'X', since the direction of the


respect to the

not changed.

Then the co-ordinates of P with are x = O'D and / = PD.


f

new axes

Now,

OC = AD = O'D be observed that


(

PC = PD - CD = PD It will

O'A, or x

O'B, or y
0,

= x' -a =y -b
f

b) are the co-ordinates of

the

new

origin referred to the old axes, hence the old co-or-

dinates are equal to the

new

plus the co-ordinates of the


2

new

origin, plus being taken in the algebraic sense.

43; Example: What will the equations become, if the origin is moved to the point

67=3
direction

(2, 3),

being unchanged ? Here,


Substituting,
(yf

xf

and y

=
)

y'

3-

+
2

2)

Expanding
accents;

and

x y may be simplified by transferring the axes. ART. 37. To change the direction of the axes, the angle remaining a right angle.
Let O'X" and O'Y" be the
ing the angle

+ 2) + 6"+ 3 -6 (/+ 3 = 3. = 16 or dropping collecting, x' -{-y = 16, which indicates how an equation
4 (*'
2 ) 2

/2

new

axes, the axis

with the old X-axis, and the

O'X" maknew origin O'


in the figure]

being at the point (a, b). Let the old co-ordinates of

P [OD and PD
||

be

(x,

y)

and

the

new

co-ordinates

[O'A and

PA
and

in the

Draw O'C and BA to figure] be (V, /). to OX, then Zs AO'C and BPA both equal

OX
0.
.

AE J_
.

OD =

= OF + O'C - BA

(i)

54

Analytical Geometry.

In the right triangle,


[by Trig.].

AO'C, O'C,

That

is,

O'C

= =

O'A

cos

AO'C

yf cos 6.

Fig- 23-

Also in

BPA,

BA = PA sin BPA or BA = /

sin 0;

and

OF=

a.

Substituting in (i),

Again:

O'F
and

b;

= a + #' cos y sin 0. PD = y = O'F + AC + PB AC = O'A sin AO'C or AC = yf sin PB = PA cos BPA or PB = / cos 0.
x
. .

(2)

Substituting in (2),

= x=
y
If in

b 4-

xf

sin

-f

f y cos

^-^

cos

sin
^

any equation these values

be substituted for x

and

y, the resulting equation will represent the

same

locus

referred to axes inclined at the angle

to the old X-axis,

Analytical Geometry.

55

As a rule the origin remains with the origin at (a, ). the same, hence a = o, b = o, and (K) becomes,

= = x
y

x' sin

y' cos

x' cos $

y' sin #
3

Example: What does equation

become

when
Here and

the inclination of the axes


sin

is

30

changed
J \/3

30?

J; cos

30

7= iaM- JVSY,

Substituting, 3

or

(I

VT~
A

i) X?

(t

+ V3) / =

5-

ART. 38.

very similar procedure in the case where

the axes are changed from rectangular to oblique, and the origin moved to the point (a, b), gives rise to the formulae,

= x=
y

+
-\-

x' sin 6

x' cos 6

+ y sin + y' cos

)
(f>
<

,^^
J

and being, respectively, the angles Y-axis and Y-axis with the old X-axis.

made by

the

new

When

the origin

is

not changed,
b

= = y x=
a

o and
x' sin

x' cos 6

= o, and + y' sin + y' cos


the

(J)

becomes

ART.
to polar.

39.

To change
is

co-ordinates

from

rectangular

The method
ing
of

entirely similar to the foregoing; the find-

the simplest equational relation

between the old

and the new co-ordinates, using necessary constants. In Fig. 24, let O' be the pole and O'N the initial
the co-ordinates of

line,

ordinates of

O' being (a, b); the rectangular coP being (x, y) and the polar, (r, #), respec-

Analytical Geometry.

tively,

OB, PB, O'P, and


initial line

Z PO'N

in the figure.
is
<j>.

The

angle
in

between the
It
is

and the X-axis

then simply a question of expressing


r,

x and y

terms of

6 and

(f>.

The right triangle usually supplies the simplest relations, so we draw O'AJJo PB, giving us the right triangle PO'A = FB, a part of x. involving r, 6 and O'A

Fig. 24-

OB = x = OF + FB = OF + O'A, x = a + r cos (0 + <>) or = O'P cos PO'A = r cos (0 + 0)]. [since O'A PB = y = AB + PA = O'F + PA, Also, y = b + r sin (0 + (M) or ^-= a -f r cos ((9 + 0) = o and (M) becomes to the X-axis, If the initial line is = b + r sin ^ M = a 4- r cos
Then
</>) ^
$
||

/^

jc:

A nalytical
If the pole is at the origin,

Geometry.
a

57

o and b

o
CM."\

and
ART. 40.
nates.
It
is

=r sin =rcosO

To change from

polar

to

rectangular co-ordi-

here necessary only to solve equations (M"), say, for r and 0, as (M") gives the usual form.

Thus, squaring equations (M"),

= = x*
2

r r

sin

6
6.

cos 2

Add;
[since sin
2

2 2

(sin
i].

cos 2 6)

cos

Dividing the

first

equation in (M") by the second,

cos o
to rectangular

Example: Change

form

Substituting in above equation, remembering that 2 cos 2 6 (i tan 2 6) sin 6 cos 2 6 cos 2

tan 2 6 _ 2 sec 6

i i

tan 2 6

tan 2

or,

58

Analytical Geometry.

EXERCISE

VIII.

Transformation of Co-ordinates.
1.

What
to
(

does y 2
*>

=
J

px become when

the

origin

is

moved
axes?
2.

without changing the direction of the

What
is

does
to

a 2y 2
(

+
,

x2
,

a 2b2

become when
?

the

origin
3.

moved

o
J

axes remaining parallel

8 = o become when What does y 2 + x 2 + 4 y 4:^ 2) ? origin is moved to (2, 2 = Sx become when the axes are turned 4. What does y

through 60, origin remaining the same? 2 = 2 px become when 5. What does y

the

origin

is

moved to the point (/,)? 2 2 become when the 6. What does a 2 y 2 + b 2 x 2 = a b origin is moved to (h,k)? What does 2 \/3 x + 2 y = 9 become when the axes 7.
are turned
8.

30,

origin remaining the


b
2

What
is

does

x2

a y

a 2b2
-1

same ? become when


a

the
to

Y-axis
the

turned to the right, cot


tan -1

and the X-axis

right,

[observe negative angle] ?

9.

Transform the polar equation p

(1+2

cos 6)

to a rectangular equation with the origin at the pole,

and

the initial line coincident with the X-axis.


10.

Change

(x

2 )

a 2 (x 2

to the polar

equa-

tion

under the conditions

of Ex. 9. to

11.

Change p

=
COS 2 6

rectangular co-ordinates,

conditions remaining the same.

Analytical Geometry.
12.

59

Change

to

rectangular

co-ordinates,

under same

conditions,
13. 14.

p
a sin 2 #.

a sec 2
2

p p

= =

cos a
to polar co-ordinates,

15.

Change

under same conditions.

4a 17. #3
16. 18.

je

ay*

jc

+ 3^ = a*. + 9/=
2

^
36.

2
.

CHAPTER

V.

THE CIRCLE.
ART.
41.

To
it

find the equation to the circle.

Remembering
namely, that
is

the definition for the equation of a locus,

must represent every point on that locus, it only necessary as usual to find the relation between the

co-ordinates of any point on the circle in terms of the necessary constants, which are plainly in this case, the co-ordi-

nates of the centre and the radius.

Let P be any point on the circle A, the co-ordinates of whose centre are (h, k). The condition determining the

Fig. 25.

curve

is

centre.

Draw

that every point on it is equally distant the co-ordinates of P [PC, OC]

from its and call

them

(x, y), also

AB

J_ to PC, forming the right triangle


y.

APB,

involving r and parts of x and 60

Analytical Geometry.

61

AB + PB = AP ..... AB = DC = OC - OD = x - h, PB = PC - BC == PC - AD = y - h) + (y - k) = r Substituting in (i): (x


Then
2 2 2
.

(i)

k.

(L)

Performing indicated operations in (L) and collecting, 2 x2 2hx- 2 ky= r 2 - h 2 - k 2

+y

Calling

2 h,

m\

2 k,

and

(h

+
o

k2

.
.

),

for simplicity, (L) becomes,

x2
It is

+ y + mx + ny + R =
2

(L')

evident from (L') that any equation of the second between two variables in which no term containing degree the product of the variable occurs, and where the coefficients
of the

second power terms are either unity or both the


is

same,

the equation of a circle.

Putting (L') in the characteristic form

(L) by adding

m
to

2 -

both sides
4

n2
,

we

have,

x2

+ mx + - ^!
4
2

-4
!

f-

+ nx +
4
)

_L

_ R2 *

4
2

or,

(*+-) + (y+ ^-) 2 2 m -p2 K


2

44
,

-)

Comparing with
~ m " --i,

(L),

we
.

find
2

K i,

n -2

-, r

= w +^
2

-4
2

That
and

is,

the co-ordinates of the centre are


is

),

the radius

\/m

n2

2
.

62

Analytical Geometry.

Example: Find the co-ordinates


radius of

of the centre

and the

x2

+
6,

6 y
2

26
2

Comparing

this

with (L/), x 2
2,

we

find,

m=
-

+ R =
2

= o. + mx +

ny

+R

=o,

26; hence the co-ordi-

nates of the centre,


/

m --

22
,

Wx

-),are(-

-22
-,
4

v )

(i,

-3),

and

the radius

= i V4 + = i \7i44
This equation put
(x
in
i)

36

(- 10 4)

=
2

6.

form (L) would

be, 36.

(y

3)

ART.
circle,

42.

As
if

it

takes three conditions to determine a

and

as the above equations contain three arbitrary

constants,

three conditions are given that will furnish simultaneous independent equations between these constants, their values can be found, and hence the equation

three

to the circle.

The

three conditions

may

be, for instance, three given

points on the circle, or two given points and the radius, etc. Example: Find the equation for the circle passing through
the points
(3, 3), (i, 7), (2, 6).

Taking the general equation, x 2 + f + mx + ny + R 2 = o these three points must each satisfy this equation
.

(I/)
to

if it is

represent the circle passing through them, since they are

on
in

Hence, substituting them successively for x and y 2 (L'), we get three equations between m, n and R as
it.

follows:

Analytical Geometry.

63
2 2

+ 9 +3w + 3W + R i + 49 + m + 7n+R = 4 + 36 + 2 w + 6 w + R = - 18 3/w + $n + R = = - 50 m+7w+R 2 m + 6n + R = - 40


9
2 2

o
o

or

(i)
(2)
. .

(3)

Subtract (2) from (i) and (2) from (3). 2 2 n 4 32 or

m m

= =

16

(4) (5)

10

...

Subtract (5) from (4);

n
4,
2

6.

whence

and
x*

w = R = +
2
;y

12.

Substituting these values of the constants in (L'),

6 y

12=0,

the required equation. ART. 43. When the origin is at the centre of the circle, and k are both zero, and the equation becomes, h

x>+f=r*
which
is

(L")

the form usually encountered.

ART. 44.

The
to

(L) by making
rectangular
initial line

polar equation is readily derived from the substitutions for transformation from
the

and the pole

polar co-ordinates, taking at the origin.

X-axis

as

Then

x
k

= = =

p sin p cos

0,
6,
0',
#',

h=
where
circle
(p,

P sin p' cos

6} are the polar co-ordinates of


f

any point on the


:

and

(p

0'} are the polar co-ordinates of the centre.

Making
(p cos
or, p cos
2
2

these substitutions in (L),

we

P cos 0')*
2 pp'

(p sin

/2
2

get

p' sin O*)

r\

cos

cos 0'
sin d'

2 2 p sin

2 pp' sin

+p +

cos 2 d'
sin
2

/>

0'

+ = r

2
.

64
2 2

Analytical Geometry.
/o

Collecting,

(cos

+
2

sin

0)

p'

(cos
sin

0'

sin

6')

2 pp' (cos
2

cos 6'
f

sin 0')
2

2
.

whence
p
[since

cos

and cos

6' cos

+ p' - 2 pp cos (0 - 00 - r + sin = i = cos (0 - 0')]. 0' + sin sin


2
r

TANGENTS AND NORMALS.


ART. 45.
circle

To
2

find
r
2
.

the

x2

Since a line

equation of a tangent to the may be determined by

two conditions, and a tangent must be perpendicular to a radius and touch the circle at one point, the radius being
in this case the distance

from the origin

to the line furnishes

one condition and the point of tangency another. Knowing the equation to a line determined by two points,
(*"*')

Fig. 26.

and taking these two points on the

circle,

we

are able to

convert this condition in the special case of the tangent into the point of tangency and the distance from the origin.

The
(*",/)

equation of a line through two points (x


is,

f
,

y'}

and

Analytical Geometry.

65
circle

Let these two points


(x',

be

B and C on
satisfy

O, then
to

/) and
hence

(V',

/')

must

the

equation

the

circle;

x'z

-f2 =

......
(V',

If

these conditions be
it

equation (B),

will

imposed on (V, y') and become a secant line to the

y)

in

circle.

Subtracting (2) from (3), 2 x" 2 x' 2 y"

(y"

or,

x" 2
(**

-x' 2 = -

y'
2

o,
2
)',

factoring,

-/
+

*')

whence

y/ '

)=- (/-/) _ y -- + X y* -=
(x

(/'+/),

'

-.
r

xf

x'

y"

Comparing (B) with the equation to a straight line having a given slope and passing through a given point,
.
.

(B)

y
It
is

= m
-

(x
2L x'

x'}

(C)
so that the slope of a

evident that

= m
f
,

x"
line

through two given points (x


y"

y'}

and

(x", y") is repre-

y'
;

sented by

Hence

the value of

? x"

~ -

x
f

*"

x
represents
y'

y"

the slope of a secant line to the circle, and if this value be substituted in (B) the result will be the equation of a

secant line through the point

(x

y')

with the slope

66

Analytical Geometry.

Then if (#", /') is taken nearer and nearer to (V, /) the secant will approach the position of the tangent at (^ /), and when (V', /') coincides with (V, /) it will
be the tangent.
Clearly
it

we

are at liberty to take (of, /')


circle.

where we

please, since

was any point on the

Substituting in

(B), y
x'

-/=

Making
y

x?
y'

and

f=
2

y',

= -

^
xxf
x'
2

(x

- *0 = y'
2

y
2
.

(x

*');

clearing of fractions, yy'

transposing,

But by

(2),
...

= xx' + + yy' = x' + / + y' = r


2

xn

xtf

+yy'=r

...

(T c )

would serve as well to make (V, y') approach Evidently (x", y"}, only the line would then be tangent at (x", /').
it

In (T c ) the accented variables always represent the point


of tangency.

Example: What
circle

is

the equation of the tangent to the


(

x2

=
r
2

10 at

i,

3)?
i

Here

10, yf

and

Substituting in

(T c ),

x
is

+ $y =

/=

3.

10 or 3 y

-x - 10 =o.

(V, /) point of tangency, not (x, y)\ the co-ordinates of point of tangency for never substitute

Observe that

the general co-ordinates x and y. circle Again: find equation of tangent to the outside the circle. from the point (5, 7!)

x2

+
.

9,

The
it

equational form

is,

xxf

yy'

(i)

and

(S>
is

point tangency (V, /). its equation, but it 7i) De i n g on tn i s tangent must satisfy not the point of tangency and must not be substituted for

remains

to find point of

The

Analytical Geometry.
(x',

67

/). Hence substituting in


since
(:*;',

(i),

5 a/
it

+ V / = 9.
5

(2)

Also,

/)

is

on the

circle

must

satisfy circle

equation; that

is,

*"+/
That

=_9
(2)

(3)

Combining the simultaneous equations


there are two tangents, as

and

(3),

we

get,

is,

16 y 195 and 4^ 15. f by substituting these values of (x y') in (T c ).]

namely, 63

we know by Geometry;

3^=

[Gotten

CIRCLE.
ART. 46.
circle

To

express
its slope.

the

equation

of

a tangent

to

in terms of

Evidently the tangent being a simple straight line may be determined by its slope as well as by the point of tangency,
of m.
line
if

the slope be such that the line will touch the circle.
it is

Hence
If

we

a question of determining this n'ecessary value take the general slope equation to a straight
b
it

and

line will

find a relation between m, touch the circle of radius, r,

and
is

such that the

sufficient.

the secant line, as


circle

Again, regarding the tangent as the limiting position of its two points of intersection with the

approach coincidence

(as in Art. 45),

if

we combine

the slope equation of a straight line with the equation to a


circle, we get in general their two points of intersection expressed in the constants they contain; if then we determine (by Algebra) the conditions these constants must
fulfil

among themselves

that the

shall coincide, or
result.

become one

point,

two points of intersection we have the desired

Let y
line,

and x 2

= mx + b, +y =
2

(i)
r
2
,

be the slope equation of a straight


(2) be the equation to a circle.

68

Analytical Geometry.

Regarding (i) and (2) as simultaneous, and substituting the value of y from (i) in (2), we get a quadratic in x, whose two roots are the abscissas respectively of the two
points of intersection.

We

get then,

x2 x2
(i

+ (mx + b) = r + m x + 2 mbx + b = r + m x + 2 mbx + (b 2


2
,

2 )

=o.

(3)

By
into

the

theory of quadratics in algebra


will

we know

that the

two values of x

be the same in

(3

if it

can be separated

two equal

factors, that

is, if it is

By
if

the binomial
is

theorem
terms

it

will

a perfect square. be a perfect square

the middle term


first

twice the
(like

of the

and

last

product of the square roots a 2 + 2 ab + b 2 ).


is,

Hence
roots)
if

(3) will

have two equal values of x (that

equal

= 2 v/(i + m (b x~, m b x = 4 (i + m (b r x = or squaring; 4 - rx +bmx - rmx 4 (b x b m = b r + b m r m dividing by 4 x b = r + r m = r (i + m b = or


2

mbx
2 2 2

2 r'

if

),

),

If this

condition be

fulfilled, clearly

the equation of the


2

secant y

= mx +

b will

become

the equation of the tangent

= mx

r\/i

+m

...

(T c> m )

The
the

sign indicates that there will' be

two tangents with

slope, as should be the case, having ^-intercepts numerically equal, but opposite in sign, or vice versa.

same

Example
line

Find the value

oi b in

&x +
2

b,

that the

may

be tangent to the

circle

x2

+y

25.

Analytical Geometry.

69
2
,

Bv

condition formula, b
have,
b

=
\/i

^/i
64
225

we must
Hence

+w =

225

the equations of the tangents are

i5

i5

3
85.

or

= 15 y
ART. 47.

is

at a specified point defined as the line perpendicular to the tangent at that to

x + 85 and The normal

15^=8 x
any curve

point.

at

evident from geometry that the normal to the circle any point is the radius drawn to that point. Since the normal is perpendicular to the tangent, if the
It is
is

slope of the tangent


readily found

known
)>

the slope of the normal

is

lm'=

and as

it

must pass through

the point of tangency,


to determine
its

we have

all

the conditions necessary

equation.

To
Let

find the equation of the

normal
r

to the circle

the point of tangency be


is

(V, /).

x 2 + y 2 = r2 The equation to
.

the tangent at this point

xx

yy

2
,

or in slope form,
is

= /

+/
is

(i),

and its slope


it,

/
slope is

Since the normal

perpendicular to

its

x
y'

'-

x'

The

equation of a line through (V,

y
But, mf
is

= m y'
,

(x

/) with
.
.
.

slope m'
.

is

[by (C)]

here equal to

'V

70

Analytical Geometry.

hence the normal equation


or

is

y'

oc

-, (#

#0,

xfy

x'y'

xy'

x'y',

whence
This

t.

xf

.........

(N c )

may

be written in slope form, using the slope of the


the slope of the normal,

tangent, m, by substituting for

?!_,

its

value

m
x

or

my + x =
ART. 48.

o.

to the circle

To find the length x2 + y 2 = r 2


.

of a tangent

from any point

By
is,

Art. 31,

if

(x lt y^} be the given point


2 2 2 2

the point of tangency, the length (d) of a line between

and (V, y') them

- K - x'} + &- y') = x + y - 2 (x,x' + ytf) + x' + y' but if (x', y'} is on the circle and (x y^} on the tangent, x' + y' = r and x^xf + ytf = ^ ^ = x + ^2 _ 2 f r = ^2 + y _ r (Dc
d2
2
2
,

lt

.-.

_|_

If the origin is

not at the centre of the circle,

it

is

easy

to

show

in exactly the

same way from equation


h}
2

(L), that

= V( Xl The

(ft

k}

2
.

ART. 49.

may

be drawn to two given circles

locus of points from which equal tangents is called the radical

axis of these circles.

the length of a tangent to

Having the above expression for any circle, it is only necessary to

Analytical Geometry.

71
circles, in

equate the two values of d for the two given


to find the equation to the radical axis.

order

Let the
(
(

circles be,

,_ A). + (y _i )._ fr (Ci) ,_ m)2 + (y _ B)2=R2j( C


2)

j \

<

dl
circles.

be any point on the radical axis to these


If

dl and d 2 are the tangent lengths from (xlt y)


respectively, then,

to

(Q)

and (C 2 )

and

But
...

(^

= \/(x - h) + (y - k) - r ~ R2 = v'K - O + (ft = d or ^ = d d^ _ A) + (^ _ ^)2 _ ^2 = ^ _ m) + (^- W -R


dL
2 2 2
1
l

d.2

(3)

Since (xlt
(x

y^

substituted in the equation


2

h)

+ (yv

k)

-r = (x2

m)

(y-n)

- R

(4)

gives (3)

which we know

to

be true, then (xlt yt )

satisfies (4).

But (jCj, y ) is any point on the radical axis, hence every point on that axis satisfies (4), and /. (4) is the equation of the radical axis to (Q) and (C 2 ).

SUBTANGENT AND SUBNORMAL.


The Subtangent for any point on a curve is 50. the distance along the rv-axis from the foot of the ordinate of the point of tangency to the intersection of the tangent
ART.
with that
axis.

for any point on a curve is the distance measured on the #-axis from the foot of the ordinate of

The Subnormal

the point of tangency to the intersection of the normal

with that

axis.

Let

[Fig. 27]

be a

circle,

OP

a normal at the same point,

Then

AT =

subtangent and

OA =

PT a tangent at P (X, /), PA the ordinate (/) of P.


subnormal
for P.

72

Analytical Geometry.

To find their values,

it is

to

be observed that the subtangent


line

AT = OT which
is

OA.

OT =

the ^-intercept of the tangent,

found as in any other straight

by

setting

Fig. 27-

y=

o in

its

equation

= (y

o being the ordinate of the

point T). xx'

Then

in equation

(T c )
r

setting

o,

we

get

+o=r\
x

or
Also,

= OT
xf.

=:

OA =
/y*t

yy'

/\rf

The subnormal, OA = xf evidently. Example: The subtangent for the


circle
is

point

(3,

4)

on a

What

is

the equation of the circle?

Here

xf

3,

/=

4 and

From
v/hence

this last

equation
r
2
-

=
3 3
^
is
5-

25;

Then

the equation to the circle

x2

25.

Analytical Geometry.

73

The origin is taken at the centre of the circle in these discussions because that is the usual form encountered,
and the processes are exactly the same wherever the
origin

may
this

be;

the

greater

simplicity of results

recommending

form

of equation for explanation.

INTERSECTIONS.
ART.
51.

By what
it

has been said in general about the


follows that
if

intersections of lines,

two

circles intersect,

the points of intersection will be readily found by combining the two equations as simultaneous. If the circles are tangent, the unknowns x and y will have each one value, or rather each will have its values coincident.

Example: Find where


(

x2
2

{x
or

+y 4 #+ 2 y = ,/. - 2 +y y=4
2 2

o (i)
(2)

intersect.

Subtracting (i) from


Substituting value of

(2),

x 4 y x - y=
(3) [x
i

=
i

4,
. .
.

x from

(3)

y
2

-f-

+ 2y +
=
i

i]in (2),
4,

whence from

(3),

\/|.

The
(i

(3)

points of intersection are then (i

VI
Is
it,

+ \/f ViT
,

VI).
and
verify results.

Plot the figure

satisfy

evidently the common chord, for both and it is the equation of a straight line.

points

ART.
circles.
(

52.

circle

through the intersections of two given


)

Xz

\x*
then

+ y* + A* + B y + C = o (i) two circles, + f + A lX +1^ + ^=0(2) (are any (x + y + Ax + Ey + C) + n(x +y* + A x + B y + C = o ... (3)
2 2 2
l
l 1

74
is

Analytical Geometry.
the equation of a circle through the intersections of (i)

and (2). For since (3) is a combination of (i) and (2) it must contain the conditions that are common to both, and
the only conditions

common
(3)
is

to both, in general, are their

points of intersection.
it

the equation to a circle, for

can be put in the form,


(i

+ n) x* + (i + y + (A + Aj) x + (B+BX>:X+ (C + C )=o,


)
1

or

S.+/+A + VS+ B+B,n n +w


i
-\-

0,* i-f-w

which

is

clearly the equation to a circle of the general form.


is

Further, (3)
(i)
If

satisfied

by any point that

satisfies

both
(2).

and

(2). for (3) is

made up

exclusively of (i)

and

a third condition be supplied, n can be determined and

a definite circle through (i) and (2) results.

EXERCISE.
The
Circle.

What

are the co-ordinates of the centre

and the

radii of

following circles?
1.

2.

3. 4.
5.

6.
7.

8.

2 x + 4 y = n. x2 + y 2 6 y = o. x2 + y 2 x 2 + y 2 + x - 3 y = \f. 2 2 2 y = 102 J. 8 x 3 x + 3 y 2 2 x + y + 8 x = 33. x 2 + y 2 + 6 x + 8 y = - 9. 2 2 2 # + y = - TV 4x + 4 y 2 2 16 x - 16 y = 564. 8 x + 8 y

Analytical Geometry,

75

Write the equations for the following

circles,

(h,

k)

being the co-ordinates of the centre, and r the radius. = - 2 k = 3 r 9. h 4!


10.

&

J I

=
k

2j
i

11.
12.

h=
h

*--*
=

= = 4 r= V r = 5
r

Find the equations for tangent and normal


circles:
13. 14.
15.
1 6.

to following

*2

17.

18.
19.

20.

(-_ij, + f = 6 at (v/2, 2). + / = 34 at (- 3, - 5). + y = 25 at point whose abscissa is 3. + ^ = 6 at point whose ordinate is + - i) = 100 at (6, 7). (* + 2 x + (y- 3 )2= 25 at (3, ?). # + y = 20 at (?, 2).

+/=
2

9 at

3).

*2 *2 x2 x2
2 2

x/T-

Find the intersection points of the following: 2 2 2 21. # + y = 25 and x + y + 14 x + 13 =


2

o.

22. 23.

and

24.
25.

* + y = 6 and # 2 + / = 8 x x 2 +y 2 -2x i = o, 4y # 2 -f 2 ;y 2 8 # 12 y + 10 = o. x 2 + y 2 = 4, and ^c 2 + y 2 + 2 #


2 2

8.

3
2

o.

Find the equation


.r
2 2

6 x + 8 y = i, which also passes through the point (4, 5). 26. Find the equation of the circle passing through the intersections of x 2 + y 2 = 16 and x 2 + ^ 2 + 2 rv = 8, which also passes through the point ( i, 2).
intersections of
-f

of the circle passing through the

and

x2

+3y

Find the equation of the circle through the three What are the co-ordinates points (o, o), (2, 3), and (3, 4). of its centre and its radius ?
27. 28.
(2,

Find the equation of the circle through the points - 4), and (- 2, - i). 3), (3,

76
29.

Analytical Geometry.

Find the equation

(-

4,

4);

(-

4,

of the circle through the points

2);

(-

2,

2).

Find the equation of the circle passing through the and having x and ^-intercepts respectively 6 and 8. origin 31. Find the equation of a circle circumscribing the tri30.

angle whose sides

are

o,

6,

and

5-

32.

and

(4,

Find the equation of a circle passing through (i, 5) x -\- 4 = o. 6) and having its centre on the line y

33.
(2,

Find the equation

of a circle

through

(3,

o)

and

7)

34.

whose radius is 5. Find the equation

of a circle having the line joining

(f

f)

to the origin as its diameter.

35.

Plot by points the circular curve whose chord


sagitta,
9'.

is

30'

and

CHAPTER
ART.

VI.

CONIC SECTIONS.
53.

The

sections of a right circular cone


it

made by
are

a plane intersecting
called conic sections.
If

at

varying angles with

its axis,

the plane
is

is

parallel to

an element

of the cone the

intersection
If the

called a parabola.
all

plane cuts
is

the elements of one nappe of the

cone, the section

called an ellipse.
is

When

the plane

parallel to the base of the right

cone

the ellipse becomes a circle. If the plane cuts both nappes of the cone, the section
called a hyperbola.

is

The hyperbola
intersects the
collectively conies.

evidently

has two branches

(where

it

two nappes).

All these sections are called

The equation of a conic. the standpoint of analytical geometry, a conic is defined as a curve, the distances of whose points from a fixed straight line, called the directrix, and from a fixed
ART.
54.

From

point, called the focus, bear a constant ratio to each other.

This ratio
readily

is

called the eccentricity of the conic.

It

can be
follows

proved geometrically from the definitions of Art. 53.


In Fig. 28
directrix,
let

that

this

definition

be any point on a conic, the


focus.

;y-axis

the

and F the

Draw AP

perpendicular to

the directrix,

PB

perpendicular to #-axis,
e,

and
e,

join

P and

F.

Call

the constant ratio

then

PF = x A.

77

Analytical Geometry.
or

PF =
The
co-ordinates of

e.

PA
PB.

(i

are

Represent the constant


2 2

= OB - AP, y = distance OF by p, then


x

PF 2 = FB + PB (2) [in the right triangle FB = OB - OF = x - p. PB = y.


Substituting in (2);

FPB].

PF 2 =

(oc

p)
-\-

Hence
squaring;
collecting;

(i)

becomes, \/(x

p)*
2 2

+y = ex. y*
2 2
.

(xp) 2jry =e x e )x +y 2 px+j,'--=o (i


2 2

(a)

which

is

the equation for any conic in rectangular co-or-

The polar equation is much simpler. It may be derived by transforming (a) to polar co-ordinates, or thus;
dinates.

Fig. 28.

in Fig. 28, let the co-ordinates of

the pole being at

F and

P be p PFB, PF, 6 the #-axis being the initial line.


,

= Z

Then
But
that
is,

cos

PFB =

or

FB = FP cos PFB - p cos

0.

FB=OB-OF=AP= AP - p, p cos = p cos 6 + AP


p.

OF = AP-&

whence

Analytical Geometry.
Substituting in (i); p

79

=
(i

e (p

cos 6

+
=

p)

ep cos 6

Transposing and

collecting;

e cos 6}

ep.

e cos

THE PARABOLA.
ART.
55.

The parabola

is

defined in analytical geomis

etry as a curve, every point of

which

equally distant jrom

a fxed point and a fixed straight in entire accord with Art. 53.
e

line.

This definition

Clearly from this definition i in the parabola, hence (a)


-2
2

is

becomes y 2
or y
is

px
2

-f

=
As

o,
it

px

(i).

usually convenient to have

the origin at the vertex (in Fig. 29) of the parabola, and as the vertex is midway between

and the focus by definition, the above equatransformed to new axes having their origin at the * vertex by substituting (xf + for x and leaving y unthe directrix
is

tion

changed.

The

co-ordinates

of

the

new

origin

are

f*-i

oi with

8o
In Fig. 29,
directrix,
let

Analytical Geometry.

be any point on the parabola; AC, the

the vertex

and the
#-axis,
p,

origin.

PB

perpendicular
if

to the

and

let

Draw AP F be the
equal
-

||

and

focus.
defi-

Then
nition.

DF

be represented by

OF

will

by

PF = PA
But

.....

(a) [JDV definition of parabola]


(

PF = xPB* +

FB= -vPB* +

B ~ OF )

and

PA = OB + DO = x +
2
i

Substituting in (a);

V/y*
I

_^_

/ x __ \

PY
2 /

#-}-, 2
^? L

squaring;

-b

\
}

-f

(x
\

f-

lx
\

\
\

2 /

2 I

px, as before.

its equation, the characteristic property of a parathat the ratio of the square of the ordinate of any is, point on it to the abscissa of that point is a constant, for

From

bola

J =
OC

2 p.

This relation
is

is

used

in physics to

show
the

that the

path of a projectile
symmetrical
the form,

a parabola.

When

curve

is

x2

to the ;y-axis as in Fig. 30, the equation takes


2 py.

As an
ART.
abscissa

exercise prove this last equation.


56.
If in

the equation to the parabola

(Ap ), the

of

the

focus

(F),

be substituted, the

Analytical Geometry.
resulting values
of

81

the parabola immediately over

y are the ordinates of the points on and under the focus;


;

thus

= =

whence

p.

These two ordinates

together, extending

from the point

Fig. 30.

above the focus to the point below on the curve, form what
is

called the latus rectum.

(GH,

Fig. 29.)
2 p,

The
ART.

latus

rectum evidently equals

and

is

often called

the double ordinate through the focus.


57.

To

construct the parabola.

First Method.
ical

The

definition suggests a simple

mechan-

Let the edge of a T-square (AB, Fig. 31) represent the directrix; adjust a triangle to it, with its other edge on the axis, as DEC.
of constructing the parabola.

means

Attach one end of a string whose length


the other

is

EC,

at

C and

end

at F.

Keeping the

string taut against the

82

Analytical Geometry.
base of the triangle with a pencil

(as at

G)

slide the ruler

along the T-square and the


point of the pencil will describe a parabola, for every-

where
distant
as
at

it

will

be

equally

from

AB

and
=--

F,

G;

for
=
=

EG
E'C'

since
Fig. 3i.
=

GF
--

- GC'
E'G

GF,

EC

GC'
GC'.
it

and

= E'C'

Second Method: For practical purposes

is

more con-

venient to construct by points. Let AB (Fig. 32) be the directrix; F, the focus, and OX, the axis. Lay off as many points as desired on the axis, as C, D, E, G, H, etc.; then with F as a centre and radii
successively equal to

OC, OD, OE, OG, OH,


at C,

etc.,

draw

arcs above

and below OX,

D, E, G, H,

etc.; erect

perpendiculars to
tersecting

OX
arcs

in-

these

at

C' and C", D' and D", E' and E", etc.

These points
the

of

inter-

section will be points

on

parabola,
all

for

they
the

are

equally

distant

from

AB

and

F by

construction.

taking these points sufficiently near together,

By

the parabola

can be constructed as accurately as desired.

58. polar equation to the parabola is easily derived from the general polar equation to a conic, by i. remembering that for a parabola, e

ART.

The

Analytical Geometry.

83

Hence
becomes
ART.
It
2

r
i

ecos
A

p
is

=
i

cos

59.

equation, y

2 px,

evident from the form of the parabola that x cannot be negative without

making y imaginary, hence no point on the parabola 2 = 2 px can lie to the left of the Y-axis; that is, the curve y
In has but one branch lying to the right of the Y-axis. order to represent a parabola lying to the left of the origin,
the equation

would have

to take the
2

form

/= so that negative values of

px,
-

In this latter case

x would make y 2 positive. no positive value of x would satisfy.

EXERCISE.
are the equations of the parabolas passing through the following points, and what is the latus rectum in each

What

case?
I. 5.

(1,4);

2.

(2,

3);

3.

(i

J);
is
2

4-

The equation

of

parabola

(3,-4). 4 x. What

abscissa corresponds to the ordinate 7 ? 6. What is the equation of the chord of the parabola
y-

=
7.

tiv-e

end

8 x, which passess through the vertex of the latus rectum?

and the nega-

2 In the parabola y 9 x, what ordinate corresponds Construct the following parabolas. to the abscissa 4?

8.

y
y''

10.

= =

6 x.

9.

4cc.

ii.

x2 x2

= =
y

9
2

y.

Sy.

12.

For what

points

on

the

parabola
of

will

ordinate and abscissa be equal ? 13. What are the co-ordinates

the

points

on the

84

Analytical Geometry.
2

parabola y
dinate
?

10 x,

if

the

abscissa equals

f of the or-

Find intersection points of the following: 2 = 14. y 4X and y =


15. 16.

y y

= =

18

2 = 2

17.
1 8.

x and y 4X and # 2 16 ^ and # 2

= + +

2^5. 2^5.
2

y
2

== 12.

#
1

the

2 px become when What does the equation y origin is moved back along the axis to the directrix ?

= =

33.

ART.
bola.

60.

To

find the equation of a tangent to the para-

The

to the circle

process employed to find the equation of a tangent is just as effective for the parabola.
the equation to through two given the points be points,
If in

line

situated on a parabola,

and hence are determined by its equation,

the

equation
If

becomes
to the

that of a secant

parabola. points are then

the two

made

to

approach
the
Fig. 33-

coincidence,

secant

becomes a

tangent.

In the equation to a straight

line,

(B)
let

the points

(x',

y')

and
2

(x",

y"}

be on the parabola

pxi then the two equations of condition


y'

= =

px'

(2)
(3 )

px"

Analytical Geometry.
arise

85
in

from

substituting

these

values

the

parabola

equation.

= 2 py* - 2 px'= 2 p (x" - /) (/' + /) = 2 p (x" (/' Factoring; (/' + /) (x" *'), Dividing through by
x"

Subtracting (2) from (3);

n yn _ y

x'). x').

-xf==

y"

+'/'

Substituting this value of the slope

-^-^7, x x
is

in

(B);

P
f

(x

x'}

(4),

which

now

the equa-

tion of a secant

line to the parabola, say


,

ABC

(Fig. 33),

the point

f being (x", y") and C being (x y'). f If now the point B approach C, (x", y ) approaches f " = = x' and y (x /) and eventually x" /, and the secant
,

ABC

becomes the tangent DCE.

Making x"

=
7

x',

y"

=/
,

in (4),

it

becomes,
(TP)

-y -

c*

-X)
DCE
f

which
(*',/)

is

the equation to the tangent


r

at the point

Simplifying (Tp ), yy
f

y'

px

px

yy
or
yy'

px

p (x

= +
= =

px px' xf ) (Tp ')

[since y'

2 px'];

[transposing, collecting

and

factoring].

Corollary:

The

found by setting y o Whence

tangent intercept on the X-axis, o in (Tp ).

OD,

is

x= -

p (x
x'.

yf\

86

Analytical Geometry.

That

is,

the intercept

is

equal to the abscissa of the point


to the

of tangency, with opposite sign.

ART. 61.

The equation
is

normal.

Since the normal


the

perpendicular to the tangent through

same point, it has the same equation except for its slope, which is given by the relation for perpendicular lines,

m
In the tangent equation

m= ^
is

Hence

the normal equation

In Fig. 33,

CG

is

the normal at C.
of the

ART.
slope.

62.

The equation

tangent in terms of

its

As

in the case of the circle

it

mine the constants


so that
it

in the slope

only necessary to deterequation of a straight line,


is

has but one point in

common

with the parabola.

The

equations to

parabola and

line are,

f=
and
Eliminating

= mx +
2

px

........ .......

(i) (2)

y, to find

the intersection equation for x,

(mx + b) = 2 pXj m 2x 2 + 2 mbx + b 2 = 2 px, m 2 x 2 + (2 mb - 2 p) x + b 2

(3)

The two

values of

in equation (3) will

be the abscissas

These two points will of the two points of intersection. coincide if the two values of x are the same, and this can

Analytical Geometry.

87

only

occur

if

x2

-f (2

mb
is
2

p)

oc

is

perfect

square. By the binomial theorem this

the case,
b
2

if

x 2 (mb
or

m
2

py = m x
2

pmb

whence

Substituting this

value of b in (2),

which

is

the equation of the tangent in terms of


63.

its slope.

ART.

Equation

to

the

normal in terms

of the slope

of the tangent.

Combining (T m?p ) with

the

equation to the

parabola,

we

get the co-ordinates of the point of tangency in terms of and p. Since the normal passes through this point it is

necessary to

know
then,

these co-ordinates.
2

Combining
and

y'

px
f

y = mx +
2
off

we

get

~
2

,y'=
is

IX,

/
=

being point of tangency].


-

The

slope of the normal

m'

[since

it

is

perpen-

dicular to the tangent, whose slope is m]. The equation to a line through a given point with a
f

given slope, m',

is

m' (x

x'}

.....

(C)

Substituting in (C) values of x', y',

and

w',

m + m x = pm +
2

m'
.

88

Analytical Geometry.

This equation being a cubic in w, three values of m will it, hence through any point on the parabola three normals can be drawn, having the three slopes given by
satisfy

the three values of m.

ART.

64.

The

following property of a parabola has led


reflectors,

to its application for


terest in optics.

making

it

of peculiar in-

that the tangent to the parabola makes equal angles with a line from the focus to the point of tangency

To show

-K

FT

Fig. 34-

(a focal line), parallel to the

and a

line

drawn through

the

same point

axis of the parabola. (Fig. 34) is a tangent to the parabola intersecting the axis produced at L.

LM

PON
OX.

at P,

Draw

the focal line

FP and PK
the

to the axis
||

Then
yf

ZLPF= ZMPK.
By
,

Art. 60,

Cor.,

tangent ^-intercept,

OL =

/)

being point of tangency, P].

Analytical Geometry.

89

Also

OF =
2
r

[by structure of the parabola].

/.

LF = x +

2.

[the
length].

sign

of yf is neglected for

we

want only absolute


Let

QS

be the directrix.

Then

PF = PQ = GT = GO + OT =
.;,

+ x'. [OT =*'.]

LF =

PF, and triangle

LPF is isosceles;

hence

But
.-.

Z LPF = Z PLF. Z PLF = Z MPK Z LPF = Z MPK.


the

[since

PK is

to
||

LX].

PR be = [since Z LPF
Let
angles].

normal;

then

FPR =

Z RPK

MPK, and LPR = MPR,

being right

Since the angles of incidence and reflection are always equal for light reflected from any surface, it follows that
light issuing

from a source

at

F would

be reflected from the

surface of a paraboloid mirror in parallel lines, (as PK). ART. 65. The diameter of any conic may be defined as

the locus of the middle points of any series of parallel

chords.

chord

is

two points on the curve.


which

understood to be a straight line joining any In Fig. 35, AB being the locus
a diameter of the parabola PON. find the equation oj a diameter in terms of
is

of the middle points of the system of parallel chords, of

CD
66.

is

one,

ART.

To

the slope of its system of parallel chords.

9o

Analytical Geometry.

Draw
other.

(Fig. 35) a series of

chords

(like

CD)

to
||

each

determine the locus of the middle points of these chords, that is, the diameter corresponding to them.

To

Let the equation of any one of the chords, as CD, be

and
If (i)

= mx + = 2 px

(i),

(2)

be the parabola equation.

and

(2*)

nates of

C and

D, the points

be combined as simultaneous, the co-ordiof intersection, will be found.

First to find the abscissa, eliminating

y by substituting

Fig. 35.

mx
2

+ b) = + 2 mbx + b =
(mx
2
2

2 2

px,

px
o

"*V*
Now
in a quadratic of the

U +4=
z
2

(3)

form

az

+b=

o, the

sum

Analytical Geometry.
of the

91

of the first

two values of the unknown equals the coefficient (a) power of the unknown with its sign changed.* Hence the two values of x in (3), which are the abscissas

respectively of
cient of

C and D, added
with
its

together, equal the coeffi-

in (3)

sign changed.

Call the co-ordinates of

C and

respectively

(x

y')

and

(x? /')
t

Then

x'

+
,

oc"

2 nib

m
(2),

Eliminating x from (i) and

we

get

from

(i)

m
Substituting in (2); y*

py

~ m

f-^L+trL. = m m
by
principle cited above,
y'

(4)

y"

m
/) and
(V', /') are,

In Art. 32

it

was shown

that the co-ordinates of the

middle point of a

line joining (x*,

/*'+;*"

/+/\

and
but

-^ + Va -4^.
2

~ Xa 2

2
its

coefBcient of z with

sign changed.

92

Analytical Geometry.
Calling the co-ordinates of the middle point (E) of

CD,
f
.

(X, Y).

TU Then
and

v X= Y =

*?

_
+
2
b,

xff
.

mb p _____

...

(5)

-^^=-2

......

(6)

Remembering that an equation to a line must express a constant relation between the co-ordinates of every point
on that
tion
is

line, it is clear that b

cannot form a part of the equathe y-intercept, of the chords, is constant, since the

we

are seeking, for

different for every chord, but


all

chords are

would ordinarily be necessary then to eliminate b between (5) and (6), but in this case (6) does not contain b and hence it represents the true
parallel.
It

equation for the diameter.

We

will designate it

thus

It

CD

for evidently represents every point on this diameter, was any chord, and hence the expression for its middle

point will apply equally well to all the chords. Cor. I : The form of this equation shows that the diameter is always parallel to the X-axis, that is, to the axis of
the parabola.

Cor. II

Combining (D p ) with
y
2

the

parabola equation,

we

of intersection, (A). get the co-ordinates of their point

2 px,

y
whence
*-r

=t m = 2 px
2m*
tn

Analytical Geometry.

93

By

Art. 63

it

was found

that the tangent

whose slope
which
is

is

touches the parabola at the point

\2
here.
slope,

m ),] I
A

Hence

in this case the tangent at

has the same


||

m, as the parallel chords, and is, therefore, to them. That is, the tangent at the end of a diameter is parallel to
system of parallel chords.

its

Definition:

The chord

that passes through the focus

is

called the parameter of its diameter.

ART. 67. The two following propositions are interesting as applications of the principles already discussed. To find the equation to the locus of the intersection of
tangents perpendicular to each other.
It is

plainly necessary to find the concordant equations


their

of

any two perpendicular tangents and by combining

equations get their intersection point.

The

slope equation for any tangent

is

then y
If

m'x

-\

m'

(2) will represent

any other tangent.


to

the

two tangents are perpendicular

each other then

m'

m
= m
(

and

(2)

becomes, y
(i),

^
2

(3)

Subtracting (3) from

m)

oo

-\

2 \

m]
is,

];

whence x =
2

This equation being the combination of


represents their intersection, that
the locus of all intersections.
tion of the directrix,
it

(i)

and

(3)

is

the equation of
is

But x =
2
all

the equa-

hence

tangents to the parabola

94
that

Analytical Geometry.
are

perpendicular

to

each

other

intersect

on

the

directrix.

ART.

68.

To

find the locus of the intersection of


it

any

tan-

gent, with the perpendicular upon

from y

the focus.
H
&,

The equation
The equation

of

any tangent

line is

= mx

(i).

to a line

through the focus having the slope


*),

is

by (C), y

in'

lx

(2).

The

focus being the

point [-, o)

Since (2)

is

= perpendicular to (T), m'


-lx
or

hence (2) becomes y

-),

y=
m/
)

;;/

2 /

m
x.

--,
2

(3).

Subtracting (3) from

(i),

=
(

Whence
But x
to the

o,

o is the equation of the Y-axis, .'. every tangent parabola intersects the perpendicular upon it from

the focus on the Y-axis.

ART. 69. It is sometimes desirable to express the equation of a parabola with reference to a point of tangency as origin, and with the tangent and a diameter through
the point of tangency as axes. Knowing the co-ordinates of the point of tangency in

is

terms of the tangent slope and knowing that the diameter to the axis, it is easy to apply the transformation
||

equations in Art. 38.

Remembering
to the old,

that the

new X-axis
is

(a

diameter)

is

parallel

hence
is

6=0,

and that tan


(j)

new Y-axis

a tangent and

m, since the the angle it makes with


cjy

the old X-axis.

Analytical Geometry.

95
origin become,

Also

(a, b)

the co-ordinates of the

new

x
^y

Equations

<
J

= =

a
t

& -f

x/ x

cos 6 -f
sin
/i

y cos
7 sm
/

<k.
i

o'

+
,

9,

become,

=
2

1-

xf

+y
cos o

cos

<^

[since cos 6

= =
2

= =

i].

+y

sin

[since sin

sin

o].

Substituting in the parabola equation,

f=
we
get,

sn (h
or since
cos

xf

+/
r
-

cos

m=
.

tan

sin (h

cos
<j>

(p sin

^T^C^> +

/2
;y

sin

sin

0=2
cot
2

Since

we 2
be written,

=
y
2

c6

+i=
x

-^

this

may

2 px,

= *p(*+>)

x>

96

Analytical Geometry.

where
angle
it

is

the

makes with
70.

tangent's slope, or the tangent of the axis of the parabola.


is

the

ART.
its

The parabola

of practical interest also in

application to trajectories. By the laws of physics a projected

body describes a

path, determined by the resultant of the forces of projection and of gravity acting together upon the moving body
[neglecting air resistance].

In a given time,
space,

t,

with a velocity,

v,

a body will

move

s=
S

vt.

(i).
2

Meanwhile
(2) [g

it

falls

through a space

=
2

gt

acceleration

by

gravity.]

Square

(i)

and divide by
S

(2)

g
s,

It is easy to see that the horizontal distance,

which
like

the body w ould move


r

if

undiverted by gravity,
space,
S,

is

an

abscissa,

and

that

the vertical

that

the

body

would
Also

fall

by action
:

of gravity, is like

an ordinate.

is

clearly a constant, (like 2 p).

g
*>

Hence
That

-=
S
is,

^
g

or s 2

^- S
2

is

2 exactly like y

2 px.

g
is

the path of a projectile


air.

a parabola,

if

we

neglect

the resistance of the

EXERCISE.
Find the equations
ing parabolas
1.
:

of the tangents to

each of the follow-

f = 6x
2

at
at

(,

4).

2.
3.

x2

= 9x = 6y

(4, 6).

at

(6, 6).

Analytical Geometry.
45.

97

/=

y*=

-4*
4 a#

98
22.

Analytical Geometry.

The

base of a triangle

is

10 and the

sum

of the

Show that the locus of tangents of the base angles is 2. the vertex is a parabola and find its equation.
23.
is

The

1 equation to a diameter of the parabola y

=9 x,

3.

Find the equation

of its parameter.
to the

24.

x2

Find the equation of the diameter


2 py.

parabola

CHAPTER
THE
ART.
71.

VII.

ELLIPSE.
defined,
for

The

ellipse

is

the purposes

of
of

analytics, as a curve every point of


its

which has the sum

distances from two fixed points, called foci, always the same; that is, constant. It will be seen later that it is a

conic in which e

<

i.

The

line

AA'

(Fig. 36),

through the

foci,

F and

F', ter-

minated by the curve


axis:

is

called the
to
is

the line

BB' perpendicular

major or transverse AA' at its middle


called the

point and terminated by the curve,


conjugate axis.

minor or

ART.
centre

72.

To

find the equation of the ellipse, taking the

(Fig. 36) as origin and the major and minor Draw PF' and PF, lines from axes as co-ordinates axes.

any

point, P, to the foci (focal lines).

Also

PD

perpendicular to AA'.

Call the co-ordinates of P, (x, y)


99

[(OD, PD)

in Fig. 36]

ioo

Analytical Geometry.

represent J
;;

AA'

PF', by /;

= OA, by a; J BB' = OF = J FF', by c.

OB, by

b,

PF, by

It is required to find the relation between PD and OD, using the constants, a, b, and c. The right triangles PDF and PDF', immediately suggest the means, as they contain

together the co-ordinates (x, y) and part of the constants, and also PF and PF' whose sum is a constant by definition.
r = y + (c - x) or r = Vy~ + (c ~ x) In PDF' PF' = PD + DF' V = y + (c + x) or c + xr r' = V/ + or = a constant; By definition r + /
2
2 2
,

In

PDF,

PF 2 = PD + DF 2
2

......
-

(i)

.....
let

(2)

mine

this constant.

ellipse

Since the points A they must obey this definition; hence

us try to deterand A' are on the

FA + F'A =

this constant.

+ FA = FF' + 2 FA. + FA = F'A' + FA' = 2 F'A' + F'F. That 5^ + 2 FA = 2 F'A' + #, FA = F'A'. whence = F'F' + 2 FA = F'F + FA + F'A' = 2 a. /. FA + F'A /. r + / = 2 a.
But

F'A

Also

F'A

is,

Adding

(i)
(c

and
x)

(2);
2

+
y*

Transposing and squaring;

+ yy +
2

(c

x)

+/= 2

(3)

+ (c + x) = + (c-x)
2

2 4 a

4 a

vY
2

(c

x)

j-r2cx
whence
4 ex
-{

2T=4a

+/
2 4 a

+/=

4 a \x CX

2 4 a \/y

+./ + (c

x)

2
.

Analytical Geometry.

101

Dividing by 4 and squaring again;


c
2

- 2j^x -f a = ay + a c -2^oHoc+a + (a - c * = a (a - c ay
x2
4

x2
(4)

The form

of this equation

may be

readily changed by

expressing c in terms of a and b. The point B being on the ellipse,

BF + BF' =
but

2 a,

BF = BF'

(since

BB'

is

perpendicular to
a.

AA'

at its

middle).

BF=
a2
b
2

In the right triangle

BOF, BF2 = 5^2 + Qf 2

=
*

that

is,

or

= = +

'

c c

2 2
.

J
>

*'
c

+ ^'^
\

,-

'V

^ ^'
;-'
\
-

.'

a2
2

Substituting in (4) a 2? 2

*2

a 262

(A e )
is

The form

of this equation
its

shows that the curve


the ellipse

sym-

metrical with respect to

two axes.
is

Corollary: The polar equation to the conic in general,

that of

=
i

eP
'

cos 6

where p = distance from directrix to focus and e ART. 73. There are, by definition, two latera

<

i.

recta,

one

through each focus. Since they are ordinates, their values are found by substituting in the equation the abscissas of
the foci, that
is,

x
a2

=
x
2

\/a
in

2
.

Substituting this

value of
b
2

whence

/+ y =
2

(a

(A e ),
b
2

=
a

a 2b2

a2

That

is,

latus

rectum

102

Analytical Geometry.
74.

ART.

In Fig. 37,

To find the -value of p in the ellipse. NF' = p in general equation to a conic.

Also

A'F'

e,

since A'

is

a point on the conic A'B AB'


(i)

(the ellipse),

whence A'F'

= e A'N
[Since

Also AF'

= eAN,
(2);

(2).

is

a point on conic.]

Add

(i)

and

+ AF' = e (A'N + AN) = e (A'N + A'N + AA') = e (2 A'N + 2 A'O) = 2.1 (A'N + A'O) = 2 e ON, or AA'
A'F'
that
i

s>

a =r

2 e

ON

-cfr

ON = -

(3)

Subtract (i)ffom (2);" AF' A'F' e (AN

But

- A'N) = e AA' = 2 ae. = AF' - A'F' = AF' - FA = A'F', Art. 82] = FF = 2 c. [since FA 2 ae = 2 c [since FF' = 2 c\ c = ae ...
.

(4)

Again,

NF'

= NO =
/>

OF'

= -- c= - -

ae;

that

is,

NF'

Analytical Geometry.

103

Hence

the polar equation to the ellipse

may

be written,

a
i

ie cos
e

= [taking
Va* a

F' as pole].
b
2

Also from (4)


Since c

<

This
the

is

ratio

less than i, by above equation. the eccentricity of the ellipse is expressed thus; between its semi-focal distance and the semia, e is

always

major axis. ART. 75.

The sum
by the
its

of the focal distances of

any point on

the ellipse equals the major axis.

We know
a constant;

definition of the ellipse that this


will

sum
is

is

now we

show

that this constant

the

major axis from


Let

equation.
ellipse

P Draw

be any point on the


the focal radii
axis.

ABA'B'.
also

(Fig. 38.)

FT
P

and FP,

PD

perpendicular
In

to

AA', the major

The

co-ordinates of

are B

(OD, PD), say

(x, y).

B'
Fig. 38.

the right triangle

F'PD,

=
2

PD + FD"2
2 2

(i)

but

PD = f =
F'D

(a

*2 ) [from
ae

(A,)],

and

F'O

+ OD =

+x

IO4

Analytical Geometry.

Substituting these values in (i).

FF

= a2
2

(a

x2

x2 )

(ae

+ *) =
2

^- + a a
2

aex

tf-

^
a2
a>

+ +

a2

- ^+

aex

x\

[since

? _ 2Ll^] =
^-

a**

("

>

-/>*'

[adding

and x 2 ]

a2

+
2

ae#

^2

[for

^^* =* *
2

2
].

/.

F'P=

ex

(i)

By

similar process in the right triangle

FP=a-*

FPD,
(2)

Adding (i) Since F'P and

and

(2).

FT + FP =
2 a.

2 a.

FP

are any two focal radii, the

sum

of

the focal radii of any point equals

To Construct
ART.
76.

the Ellipse.

The
major
:

definition of the ellipse, as a curve the

sum

of the distances of

equal to the
First

axis, gives

whose points is constant and always us the method of construction.

Method
its

and attach

Take a cord the length of the major axis, extremities at the two foci with a pencil

caught in the loop thus formed, and keeping the cord It will be an ellipse, for the stretched, describe a curve.

sum
of

of the distances of the pencil point


foci) will

from the two points

attachment (the

always equal the length of

is, the major axis. Second Method: Taking one of the foci as centre and any radius less than the major axis, describe two arcs above

the cord, that

and below the major

axis,

then with the other focus as

Analytical Geometry.
centre

105

and a radius equal

to

the difference

between the

major axis and the first radius, describe intersecting arcs. These points of intersection will be points on the ellipse, for the sums of their distances from the foci will equal the

sum
them

of the radii, that

is,

the major axis.

As many points

as desired
will

may
be an

be located in this way, and the curve joining


ellipse.

Fig. 39-

As
foci.

in Fig. 39 let

Taking, say, arcs m and m'


.

A A' be the major axis, F and F' the AB as radius and F' as centre describe
F
as centre describe
will

Then
arcs

taking A'B as radius, and


n'\ their intersections

n and

and S

be points on

the ellipse.

Taking any desired number of points as C, D, etc., perform the same operation, thus determining any desired number of points. A smooth curve through these points
will

be an approximate ellipse. ART. 76#. The two following methods of


are used

ellipse

con-

struction

the relation

by draftsmen. between the ordinates

based upon of points on the ellipse


first

The

and those on

the auxiliary circles as

shown
is

in

Art.

97

give a true ellipse; the second gives what


circular-arc-ellipse

known

as a

and

is

only an approximation.

io6
First

Analytical Geometry.

Method: Let O be the centre of the ellipse- A A' the major axis; BB' the minor axis; BCB' the minor circle and ADA' the major circle. (Fig. 390.) Take any number of points on the major circle as R,

From these points draw the points of intersection of draw lines to the major axis, AA'.
radii
||

S, T, etc. and ordinates, and through the radii with the minor circle,

Where

these parallels

D
Fig. 3Qa.

The intersect the ordinates will be points on the ellipse. be made as close together as desired by drawpoints may A smooth curve joining these of radii. ing a great number will form the ellipse. Take the point S, its radius, OS, points
and
its

intersection with

BCB',
: :

P.

Draw PN.
:

In the triangle

OSN'

OP OS
:

N'N

SN',
is

that

is,

/,

hence

point
three

on

the

ellipse.

Second Method: This

is

known

as

the

centre

method, or three point method, and is approximate only. (Fig. 396). Let AA' and BB' be the axes, intersecting at

Analytical Geometry.

107
the diagonal A'B.

perpendicular to A'B and prowith C as a centre and BC as C; radius describe arc MN; with E (whose cuts AA') as

From

Complete the rectangle D draw the line


it

BOA'D

and draw

DE

duce

to

meet BB'

at

DC

centre

and A'E as radius describe arc A'N'. With O as centre and OB as radius describe

arc

BF,

cutting

AA'

at

F.

On A'F

as

diameter construct

the

semicircumference A'B"F, cutting B'B produced upward at B." Lay off BB" from O toward B' to C'. With C as
centre

and CC'

as radius describe arc


to R'.

RS.

Lay OB" ER'


With
will

from A' on AA'

With

as centre

and
T.

as radius

draw

arc R'S', intersecting arc

RS

at

T
A

as

a centre and suitable radius, an arc described

touch A'N' and

MN,

and complete the

elliptic

quadrant
also

A'B.

similar construction to the right of


will complete the ellipse.

BB' and

below AA'

io8

Analytical Geometry.

EXERCISE.

What
ellipses:
1.

are the axes

and

eccentricities

of

the following

9
2

2.

x2 *2

+ +
is

16 y 2

144.
16.

3. 4.

4/ =

x2 2 i *

+ 9y = +$/=
2

81.
I.

5.

In an

ellipse, half the


4',

sum

of the focal distances of

any point

and

half the distance

between

foci is 3'.

the ellipse equation ? 6. In a given ellipse the sum of the focal radii of any point is 10", and the difference of the squares of half this
is

What

sum and
is
7.

of half the distance


?

between the

foci is 16.

What
of
3.

the equation to the ellipse

The
is

eccentricity of an ellipse

is

-f

and the distance


is

the point

whose abscissa
axis of

is

f from the nearer focus


?

What
8.

the equation to the ellipse

The major

an

ellipse is 34",
is its

and the distance


?

between
9.

foci is 16".

What

equation

axis

is

Find equation of the ellipse, in which the major 14" and the distance between foci = \/3 times the
axis.

minor
10.

In the ellipse

x2

8,

what are the co-ordiis

nates of the point, whose abscissa What are the axes?


11.

twice

its

ordinate?

What

are

the

co-ordinates
64,

of

the
is

point,

on

the ellipse 4 abscissa ?


12.

x2

16 y 2

whose ordinate
of

3 times its

Find the intersection points


y Find

x2
of

16 y 2

25

and

x=

3.

13.

the

intersection

points

the
25.

ellipse

i6 y 2
14. 15.

^2

288,

and the

circle

x2

In Ex. 13, find the equation of the

common

chord.

Find the angle between the tangents

to the ellipse

Analytical Geometry.

109

and
1 6.

circle

of Ex.

13

at

the point of intersection

whose
is

co-ordinates are both positive.

An

arch

is

an arc of the

ellipse

whose major axis

chord, which is parallel to the major axis and is bisected by the minor axis, is 24' long. The greatest height of the arc is 8'. Find the equation of the ellipse and plot
30',
its

and

the arc.
17. A section of the earth through the poles is approximately an ellipse; a section parallel to the equator is a circle. What is the circumference of the Tropic of Cancer,

the angle at the centre of the earth between a line to any point on it and a line to a point on the equator being 2^-2^? 1 8. If two points on a straight line, distant respectively

a and

b,

from

its

extremity, be kept on the Y-axis

and X-

axis, respectively, as the line is

moved around,

the extremity

will describe

an

ellipse,

From
ART.

this,

suggest a

whose axes are 2 a and 2 b. method of construction for the


to the Ellipse.

ellipse.

77.

Tangent

The method

of finding the tangent equation is exactly

similar to that for the circle

and

for the parabola.

Taking

equation (B)

no

A nalytical
(of,

Geometry.

Let the points (V, /),


2 2

/)
2

be on the
2

ellipse,

ABA'B',

say m and n, then they must satisfy the equation = a p X a y + = a b ..... a y' + b x' That .... a /' + b x" = a b and
2
m

is,

(i) (2)

Subtracting (2) from (i); a 2 (y/2 _ ^2)

^/2

Factoring and transposing,

whence
Substituting this value of
-

y/ -

_ y --^

in (B);

which

is

the equation

of

the

secant

mw

(Fig. 40).

If

now the point n when coincidence


and
(4)

(x", y") is

made

takes place,
2

mn
x'

to approach (V, /), becomes the tangent SR,

becomes the equation


y

of the tangent, namely,


,

or

a 2 yy' a yy'+ b 2 xx'


2

Cor. Letting

= y=
'

^7
a 2 y' 2 a 2 y' 2

*~"'
xx'

,.

= -

+
2

b x'
2

2
.

x'
)

a b
get

in

(T

we

(T e ) [by (i)] the ^-intercept,


.

[OM, Fig. 41! The subtangent,


Letting

RM = OM - OR = OM +
b
2

*'.*

a 2 yy'

= xx' =
y

o in (T e )
a2 b2
,

x=
x'
* It
is to

= OM.

the subtangent the sign of oS.

be observed that only length is considered in estimating and subnormal, hence it is unnecessary to regard

Analytical Geometry.

in

Then subtangent

= RM =

x7
a2

x*

x'

b2 x'

ART.

78.

Equation of the normal.


is

Since the normal


is

perpendicular to the tangent

its

slope
rela-

the negative reciprocal of the tangent slope,

by the

Fig. 41.

The

tangent slope

is

x' -

hence the normal slope

is

and

its

equation will be

(N.)

Cor. Letting y of the normal, ON,

in

(N e ) we

get

the

^-intercept

and the subnormal,


scf

RN = OR - ON =

- ON.

ii2

Analytical Geometry.

Letting

o in (Ne ),

(x

2 J xf

a2

a2

xf,

Then
ART.
Let be a secant
79.

RN =

x?

_7,2 - ---/*2

x'

7,2

-/
.

Slope equation of tangent.

= mx
2

-{-

.......
b
2

(i)
(2
)

line to the ellipse

a y

x2

a2 b2

Combining
a
2

(i)

and

(2) to find points of intersection,


2 2 2 (mx + c) + b x 2 2 2 2 a mcx + a c + x2 2 2 2 2 a we* + (a c a b2 )

a2
2

m
b

x
)

+
2

x2

(a

m +
2

= = =

a 2 b2 a 2 b2
o.

Now

if

this secant

becomes a tangent the two points


.given

of

intersection,

whose abscissas are

by

this

equation,

become one point, the point of tangency. As we know the condition that this equation should have equal roots is

or,

or

m + b (a c - a b = ^<c - a m b + a b c c = c =
2

(a

)
4

(a

me}
2

2
,

a2
a2

b*

= ^m ^ m +b ^/a m + b\
2

Substituting this value of c in (i)


tion of the tangent in terms of m, a

it

becomes the equab,

and

that

is,

the slope

equation of the tangent,

= mx

^a m +
2 2

(T e m )
,

ART.

80.

To draw a tangent

to the ellipse.

It will

be observed that the tangent to the

ellipse

has the

Analytical Geometry.

113

same
major
ellipse

^-intercept as

the tangent to a circle

having the
to

axis for a diameter; hence to

draw a tangent

an

on the major axis as a diameter, construct a


of the point of tangency to
circle

circle

and produce the ordinate


the circle.

meet

This point on the

and the point

of tan-

Fig. 42.

gency on the

ellipse will

have the same abscissa, and hence

the ^-intercept of the tangents to the circle at this point and to the ellipse will cut the X-axis in the same point.

Draw a tangent to the circle at this point and join the point of intersection with X-axis with the point of tangency on the ellipse. The last line will be a tangent to the ellipse
at the required point.
(Fig. 42.)

point of tangency; P' ordinate of P cuts the circle;


tangent, RP', with the axis.

= the point in which the R = intersection of circle-

Then

RP

is

the tangent to the ellipse.

Supplemental Chords.

ART. 81.

The chords drawn from any


major

point on an

ellipse to the extremities of the

axis are called sup-

plemental chords.

H4

Analytical Geometry

Let AP and A'P be supplemental chords of the ellipse ABA'B' for the point P. (Fig. 43.) The equation of AP through the point A [whose coordinates are
(a, o)],

and having say the slope m,

is

[by (C)]
(i)

y= m (xB

a)

The

equation of A'P, through the point A' [whose co(o,

ordinates are

a)],

and having slope y = m' (x + a)


.

m',
.

is
.

[by (C)]
. . .

(2)

multiplying (i)

and

(2) together,

y>

= mm

(y*

-a

2 )

....

(3)

which expresses the relation between the co-ordinates of But P (x y) is on the ellipse, hence P, their intersection.
}

a 2 y2 or
2

+ =

x2
(a

a2 b2

4)

ordinates of the
tion;

Since (3) and (4) express the relation between the cosame point, they must be the same equa-

hence comparing;

mm'

which

gives

the

relation

ART. 82.

between the slopes of supplemental chords. The equation to a diameter of the ellipse.
it

The diameter

will

be remembered,

is

the locus of the

middle points of a system of parallel chords.

Analytical Geometry.

Let
ellipse

RS

ABA'B'
2 2

be any one of a system of parallel chords of the (Fig. 44), and T its middle point.
2 2 equation of RS, and a y
2

Let y

= mx + c (i) be the = a b (2) be the ellipse

equation.

Combining

(i)

and
of

(2),

we

get an equation
if

and

S, respectively,

whose roots are the abscissas y be eliminated; an equation


of

whose roots are the ordinates


Eliminating y; a 2 2 x2
a
2

R
2

and
2 2

S, if

x be eliminated.
a2 b2 a2 b2
,

e)

mxc
b
2

+
+
,

a a

2
-\

a2
2

me

m +

..

_ 2

+b c + b ^_^
2

x x2

= =

&2= Q

(3)

Let the two roots of (3) be represented by x' and x?.

Then by

the structure of a quadratic,


2

a2

me
b
2

Calling the ordinates of T, (X, Y), a me x' then 2 b a2 2 2

m +

(4) [by Art. 32]

Eliminating x from (i) and (2)

a 2 y2
a 2 y2
b
2

+
2 b

2
Z>

^ m
yc

= =

a2 b2
a2 b2

1 16

A nalytical
a2

Geometry.
2

2 b

yc

b c

a2 b2

2
,

Calling the two roots of (5), y and

= +
and
Since c
is

2b 2 C
a2
>

Y=

^m- =
2
2 a,

+b +yC M w +6
2 2 . 2
.

--.

(6)

a variable

it

must be eliminated between

(4)

express the relations between the co-ordinates of these mid-points of the chords in terms of
(6),

and

for

we must

constants to get the true equation of their locus.

Divide

(6

by

(4)

Y_ X

a2

m +
2

__

a
2

- a 2 me
a
2

m +
2

is

the equation of the diameter, since

it

expresses a constant

relation

and RS

between the co-ordinates of the mid-point of RS, stands for any one of the parallel chords, m is a
all

constant because the chords being parallel,

have the

same

slope.

The form

of this equation

shows that the

diameters pass through the centre, since the constant or


intercept term
is missing. Since this equation represents any diameter whatever, follows that any chord passing through the centre of the

it

ellipse is

a diameter, and hence bisects a system of parallel

chords.

Analytical Geometry.

117

Conjugate Diameters.

ART. 83.

It will

be observed

in the

equation
;

=
a2

x, the slope is

a2

that

is,

it

is

a2

divided by m, the slope of the chords. If a system of chords be drawn parallel to this
eter, their slope will

first

diam-

be that of
b
2

this diameter,

namely,

a2

m
be
-

The

slope of the diameter corresponding to this system

of chords,

by above
b
2 1

principle, will
b
2

a2

* ~ ~T~ = m a2 m
is
is

Hence

the equation of this second diameter

is

= mx.

The

slope of this diameter


first;

the

same

as that of the

chords of the

hence each

parallel to the chords of

the system determining the other. Such diameters are called conjugate diameters

and

are

determined by the condition that the product of their


slopes
is,

ART.

84.

Tangents at the extremities of conjugate diameters.


is

The
are
its

farther a chord

from the centre the nearer together


Since
lie

intersection points with the ellipse, evidently.

the mid-point must always


points, in

between these intersection

drawn

farther

any system of parallel chords, as the chords are and farther from the centre, their points of

intersection

and their mid-points approach coincidence, and eventually the chord becomes a tangent at the end of
the diameter,

when

the three points coincide.

n8
Hence
This
the

Analytical Geometry.

tangent at the extremity of a diameter

is

parallel to its system of chords.*

combined with the relation between conjugate defined in Art. 83, enables us to readily draw diameters, any pair of conjugate diameters. Thus: at the extremity
fact,

of

any diameter draw a tangent


parallel to this

to the ellipse; the diameter

drawn

tangent will

be the conjugate

to the

given diameter.

ART. 85.

The

co-ordinates of extremities of
its

a diameter
conjugate.

in terms of the co-ordinates oj the extremity of

Fig. 45.

Let the co-ordinates of R, the extremity of the diameter RS, be (V, /), to find the co-ordinates of R'.
* This

may

be shown analytically thus:

The
ellipse

intersection point

of the diameter y

b2
=

x with

the

a 2 y2

+
b
2

b2

x2
y'

a2 b 2

is

(by combining equations) x'

\/a

m +
2

and

Taking the tangent equation (T), and

substituting

these points for points of tangency, we find the slope of the tangent Hence tangent at x', y' t to be m, but this is the slope of the chords.
is

parallel to chords.

Analytical

Geometry.

119

Draw
equation

the tangent
is

(Fig.

a 2 yy

b xx'

45) a2 b2
is

MN
.

at R.

By xx
f

(T.)

its

Then
since

the equation to R'S'


parallel to

a 2 yy
is

(i)

it is

MN,

but

drawn through

the origin,

hence the absolute term

is o.

Let the

ellipse

2 equation be as usual, a

^ +

x2

a2 b2

Since (#',/)

is

on the
a y'
2 2

ellipse;

b x'

a2 b2

.....

(2)

and the ellipse equation be combined, the resulting values of x and y will be the co-ordinates of the points of intersection, R' and S'. Substituting the value of y from (i) in the ellipse equation,
If (i)

a2
b
2

y
x'
2 2

(b

+
2

a 2 y'

2 }
.

a,

/
2

x2
a2

(a

2 }

__ a , b ,

2 [Since b x'
f

a 2 y'

a 2 b2

point (x

/) being on

the ellipse.]

Whence
b
.

*-f>
and hence
y

a/

-F

120

Analytical Geometry.

ART. 86.
co-ordinates

RT

The length of conjugate diameters. Draw the and R'T' of R and R' respectively, R and
B

R' being the extremities of conjugate diameters.

(Fig. 46.)

Then

if

(OT, RT) are (-

*',

/), (OT', R'T') are

In the right triangles


2

ORT
,2

and OR'T'

OR =
and OR' 2 = OT' 2 + R'T' 2 =

+
b
2

Then

OR + OR' =
2
2

5r
b x' 2
2

+ /' +
a* y'*

+
b
2

a 2 y' 2

+
a
2

x' 2

a 2 b2

^r + -^==
a2 b2
.

a2 b2

.
2

for since (x

r
,

/)

is

on the
x'
2

ellipse,

a 2 y' 2

That

is,

the

sum

of the squares of

any pair

of conjugate

diameters equals the

sum

of the squares of the axes.

Analytical Geometry.

121
a'

&',

Conjugate diameters are usually represented by hence


a'2

and

b'

a2

2
.

ART.

87. Major and Minor auxiliary circles. The circle drawn with the major axis as diameter

is

called the major auxiliary circle.

The

circle

drawn with

the minor axis as diameter

is

called

the minor auxiliary circle. Fig. 47, the angle AOP',


the point

is called the eccentric angle of the ellipse. The eccentric angle of any point is determined, thus: Produce the ordinate of the given point to meet the

P on

Fig. 47.

major auxiliary
line

circle,

and

join this

point of meeting on

the circle with the centre.

The

angle between this joining

and the

axis,

measured
ellipse.

positively, is the eccentric angle

of the point

on the

ART. 88.
the ellipse

Relation between the ordinates of a point on


of the corresponding point

and

on the major
is
.

circle.

The

equation of the

major

circle,

whose radius
a2

a, is,
.

x2

-j-

a 2 or y 2

x2

(i)

122

Analytical Geometry.

Call the Point P' (Fig. 47), (V, /')

and P,

(*',

/).

(Observe P' and

P
2

have the same abscissa.)

Then from
2

(i),
2

y"
2

a2
x'
2

x' 2

(2)

Also,

y'

=b

(a

(3)

(from ellipse equation).

Dividing (3) by (2)


y^_ ==

P
'

f
or

a2
:

2_
y"

=
a

whence y f

y"

a.

That is, the ordinate oj any point on the ellipse is to the ordinate of the corresponding point on the major circle as
the semi-minor axis is to the semi-major axis.

Corollary: Let
circle.

Q be the intersection
and OP'

of

OP' with

the minor

(Fig. 47.)

Join

Q with
since
:

P.
b
:

Then
and
or

OQ =
:
:

/ f
is,

a,
:

= a, / /'
:

OQ
is,

OP',
to

PD
That

P'D

OQ
OD;

OP'.
that
parallel

QP

is

parallel to

the

axis.

Hence RP,
of

the prolongation of

the abscissa of

P and

P'.

= BB', equals This furnishes another method


QP,
to

OD

drawing an

ellipse.

Thus:

Draw two
minor axes
positions.

concentric circles with the given major and as diameters, respectively, in their normal

angle with the major axis, as AOP' in Fig. 47, the terminal line of this angle intersect the two and P' respectively. Then the intersection of circles in

Make any
let

and

the abscissa,

RQ,

of

Q, with the ordinate, P'D, of

P', will

be a point on the

ellipse.

Analytical Geometry.

123

This
(Fig.

may

be shown by analytical means, purely, for

OP'

47) in the right triangle OP'D, cos P'OD a cos <, say, and drawing

OD

(= RP)

QE

perpen-

dicular to

PD = QE = OQ
a cos
<f>

OA,
t

sin
<

QOD =
a 2 y2

b sin 0,
2

but the values


2
,

for

x and
2 2

b sin

for y, satisfy the ellipse equation.

+b
2

x2
<f>

thus,

a b sin

+
sin
2

a b cos
(f>

=a =a

b b

2
,

cos 2 <f>=

i,

hence since
the ellipse.

OD

and

PD

are the co-ordinates of P,

is

on

ART.

89.

The

eccentric

angle between two conjugate

diameters.

Let the eccentric angle of R'


R'S' be
0,

(yf,

/), the extremity of

and

that of

- -^ +
,

the extremity of

Fig. 48.

the conjugate diameter RS be <f>. (Fig. 48.) Then in the right triangle OP'T',

124

Analytical Geometry

cos

P'OT'

p~

or cos d

= -

(i)

In the right triangle

OPT,

sin

P"OT =

^. =
sin

*__-.

[Art. 88]

That

is,

sin (180

<j>)

6=

=
a

(2)

.'.

sin

=
90

cos 6 from (i)

and

(2),

whence by trigonometry,

=
(j)

or

<j)

90.

That

is,

the difference

between the eccentric angles of

the extremities of conjugate diameters is a right angle. ART. 90. By combining the slope equations of
readily proved, as

two

perpendicular diameters, both expressed in terms of the


slope of one,
it

is

was done under the


is

parabola,

that the locus


is

oj their 'intersections

circle,

whose equation

x>

y*

a2

2
.

Also by a similar can be shown that the major auxiliary circle is process the locus of the intersection oj a tangent with the perpendic-

This

circle is called the director circle.


it

ular

to it

from a focus.

ART.

91.

The

ellipse

possesses

physical

property,

somewhat similar to that possessed by the parabola, namely: The angle formed by the focal radii to any point on the
ellipse is bisected

Geometry

tells

by the normal at that point. us that the bisector of an angle of a

tri-

angle divides the opposite side into segments proportional

Analytical Geometry.
to the other sides, hence,
if

125
(Fig. 49) that
It is

we can prove
is

F'N

FN

F'P

FP

our proposition

established.

necessary then to find values for these four lines in the same terms. the ^-intercept of the normal was found in Art. 78, Cor. to be

ON

a2

xf

where x f

is

the point of tangency.

Fig. 49.

Let

(Fig. 49)

be
c

(*',

Then F'N

F'O

+ ON = =
a
e,

+ cV =
c

/).

ae

(since

hence

ae\

But

FN = FO - ON = ae - e*x'. F'P = a + ex' and FP = a - ex' ae -f e x' _ e (a + e'x') _ a +


.

(Art. 75)
f

2 2

ex
ex

ae

e (a

ex

F'N

F'P

FN
It
if

FP

or

F'N

FN

F'P

FP.

follows from the law of reflection for vibrations, that

light or

sound

issue

from one focus of an

ellipse

it

will

be reflected to the other focus.

126

Analytical Geometry.

ART.

92.

The area

oj

an

ellipse.

Draw
and

the major auxiliary circle to the ellipse construct rectangles as indicated in Fig. 50.

ABA'B',
.

Then

the area of one of these rectangles in the ellipse as

mnpo

is

Area mnpo
Let the points on the (V, /'), (X", /"),

= mn X

pn.

beginning with p be (V, /), and the corresponding points on etc., f f the circle beginning with R, be (x y^, (x", y 2 ), (x" y 3 ) etc. f Then Area mnpo = (V x") y
ellipse
, ,
.

The corresponding

rectangle in the circle


r

mnRS =
.

(x
Ix'
f

mnRS =
mnpo

- x") yv - x"\ y_ = ^=
v

\x

x"J y

y'

b'

a typical rectangle each circle rectangle is to each ellipse rectangle as a is to b, hence by the law of continued proportion, the sum of all the circle rectangles is to
this is

As

the

sum of all the ellipse rectangles as a is to b. As the above expression is independent of the

size

or

Fig. 50.

number of same when

the
the

individual

rectangles

the

relation
infinite.

is

the

number

of rectangles

becomes

But

Analytical Geometry.
in this latter case the

127

sum

tively, the area of the circle


finally,

of the areas approach, respecand that of the ellipse; hence,

Area Area

of the circle of the ellipse

a
b

That
circle,

is,

area of the ellipse

=
a
?ra
2
.

times

the

area of

the

but area of the circle


.'.

area of the ellipse

no 2

nab.

EXERCISE.

What
ellipses ? ipses
1.

are the equations of the tangents to the following

2.

3. 4.
5.

6.
7.

+ 3 / = 3 at the point (f i). x + 25 y = 225 at the point (4, ?). 9 = 25 at the point (?, 2). 25 x + 100 y x + 2 y = 18 at the point (?, i).
x*
,

x 2 + 4 y 2 = 4 at the point (f 2 2 4 x + 9 y = 36 at the point


2 2

i).
(i,

f \/2).

Find the normal equation

to the

above

ellipses.

What are the equations of the tangents to 16 y 2 + 9 x 2 = 144 from the point (3, 2) ? 9. What is the equation of the tangent to
8.
2 9 x

the ellipse

25 y

225, that

is

parallel to the line 10

the ellipse y 8x 5.

10.

What
4 y
2

is

the equation of the tangent to the ellipse


that
is

x2

+
11.

4,

*parallel to the line 2

x \/3

i ?

What

is

2 4 x

9 y*

36,

the equation of the tangent to the ellipse which is perpendicular to the line

^- 3 *=

5?

128
12.
,

Analytical Geometry.

is |.

The subtangent to an ellipse, whose What is the ellipse equation?

eccentricity is

13. Find the equation of the tangent to the ellipse in terms of the eccentric angle of the point of tangency. 14.

What
y
4
2

are the equations of the tangents to the ellipse

x
9

i,

which form an equilateral triangle with the

axis?
15.

What
-\-

is

the equation of the diameter conjugate to


12

4^ +
16.

9^=o? 2 y x=
The middle
is
(

and

3 are
?

supplementary

chords of an
17.

ellipse.

What

is its

equation

= =

225
18.

5,

2 point of a chord of the ellipse 25 y 9 What is the equation of the chord? i).

x2

The
is

64

2 2 equation of a diameter to the ellipse 4 x +16 y x. What is the equation of a tangent to the 4y

ellipse at the
19.

end

of

its

conjugate diameter ?
of

Find the equation


*\7
|

the

tangents to the ellipse


is

*V^

i,

16

which makes an angle whose tangent


y

9
line 2

with the
20.
2

i.

4 y

Find the equation of the normal to the ellipse x 2 + 4 which is parallel to the line 4 x 37= 7.
?

21.

Show

that the product of the perpendiculars

from

the two foci


axis.

upon any tangent


to

is

equal to the semi-minor

22.

Find the equation


h

diameter
the

of

the

ellipse

x2
16
3

y2 *9

i,

which

bisects

chords

parallel

to

23.

y = 9. Find the locus


5
(i,

of the centres of circles

which pass

through

3)

and are tangent

internally to

x2

25.

Analytical Geometry.

129

24.

The
is

equation of an ellipse

x2
is

v2
144

i.

169

What
is

the eccentric angle of the point

whose abscissa

5?
25.

Find the equation of the chord joining the points [called the chord of contact] of two tangents to 2 2 the ellipse 9 x + 16 y = 144, drawn from (4, 3) outside
of contact

the ellipse.
26.

base
i

2 a,

Find the locus of the vertices of triangles having the and the product of the tangents of their base

angles
27.

& c

The minor

axis of

an

ellipse is 18,

and
is

its

area

is
is

equal to that of a circle whose diameter


the equation to the ellipse ? 28. The axes of an ellipse are 40

24.

What

and

50.

Find the

areas of the two parts into which rectum.

it is

divided by the latus

CHAPTER

VII.

THE HYPERBOLA.
ART.
93.

The

characteristic of

the

hyperbola

is
it,

that

the difference of the distances of any point on two fixed points, is constant.

from

With

this

understanding of the locus,

To

find the equation oj the hyperbola.


let

foci are

be any point on the hyperbola, whose and whose vertices are A and A'. Draw F', the ordinate PD and the focal radii PF, PF'.

In Fig. 51,

and

Fig. Si.

The

co-ordinates of

are

(OD, PD), say


It is

the origin,

OX

and

OY

the axes.

(x, y), O being our problem then

Analytical Geometry.
to find a relation

131
right tri-

between

OD

and PD, and the

angle PFD suggests itself. In the right triangle


Call the focal distance

2 2 PFD, PF = PD + FD 2 OF, c. Then (i) becomes,

(i).

PF2

_ cy

|-

since

FD = OD - OF = x
2

-c]
(2)

(x-c)
In the right triangle F'PD, PF'2
==
2

.....
2 2 2 2

PD +"F D That is, r' = y + (x + c) [since = OD + OF' = x + c] or / = \/y + (x+c) (3) FD


7
2 2
.

By

definition,

constant

m,

say.

Subtract (2) from (3);

- r=2
Transpose and square;

m.

+^+ 2cx + ^{= 4m


Transpose,
collect,
2

+ 4 m \/y + + ;X+^- 2 ex + <H


2
2

(x

and divide by
(

4;

m \/y +
Square again;

~~ C

Y=
2

ex

m
2

2
.

2 wS?&. + m c = c x 2 +m x - c x = m (m -c Collect; m y + (m To determine m is only necessary to give


2

(4)

it

x and y
o,

suitable values, or rather to give

y the particular value

since the above equation

is

true for every point on the

We then get the value of hyperbola. the ordinates of A and A' are o.
Letting y

for the vertex, since

o in

(4)

(m

x2

=m

(m

132

Analytical Geometry.

whence
but

x2

= m
OA

2
;

x
or

=
OA',

m,

x here equals

hence
that
call
is,

AA',

Let

m = OA or OA'; 2 m = the major axis AA'. As in = a, and (4) becomes, 2 a; then m a y + (a - c x = a (a - c c - a = b


2

the ellipse

(5)

which by analogy with the


axis.
2 2

ellipse

We shall see that this is a2 y - b x = 2

we may call the minor Then (5) becomes, justified.


a2 b2
b
2
,

or

-a

(A)
is

ART.

94.

A
a,

glance at the figure will show that c

greater than

hence the eccentricity,


e

= a

is

>

i.

Then

in the polar equation for conies

=
i

e cos

(e

>

i),

and by a process exactly


for the hyperbola,

like that in Art. 84, this

becomes

a(e
i

i)

e cos

ART.

95.

To determine
2

b in the figure of

a hyperbola.

The
and

relation c
c

triangle with

as

immediately suggests a right hypotenuse. Hence with c as radius


b
,

a2

or A' as centre, describe arcs cutting the y-axis at


B',

B and
b,

OB will equal or BB' = 2 6; for OB = AB - OA =


2

a2

Analytical Geometry.
It is

133

plain that the curve does not cut this minor axis,

for, setting

o [the abscissa of any point on BB'

o]

in (A,),

a 2 y2
b
2

=
=

a2 b2

=
96.

A/
To

b\/

i,

an imaginary value.

ART.
point, r

find the length of the focal radii for

any

and /.

Fig. sia.

In Fig. 510,
or

PF =
2

r
2

= =

= PD + FD + (x - c)
2 2
.

2
,

(i)

Since

ae,

and

(i)

becomes,
r
2

or

=f+ X=y +x
( 2 2

ae}\
2

aex

a 2 e2

134
2

Analytical Geometry.

By

(A h ),y

=
=

(*

-<z 2 ).

/.

^
b
2

+* 2

ae*

a2

( fl2

2
fr

*2

b
2

aex

a2

e2 .

2 [But a

+b

= +

2 ]

=
<r

aex

a2

x2

2 tf&v

a 2e2

x2

aex

a 2 [since a 2

b2

.......
By
exactly similar treatment of (3) Art. 93,

(3)

we

get,

/=
Subtract (3) from (4),
the constant difference r
axis.
f

ex
r
f

a
r =

.......
2 a,

(4)

which shows that

r is

always equal to the major

ART.

97.

comparison of the
if

ellipse

and hyperbola
b
2

equations shows that


stituted for

in the ellipse equation

is

sub-

2
,

the hyperbola equation results; hence

since the fundamental processes in deriving tangent, norall curves, the equations for these lines in relation to the hyperbola can be derived from the corresponding equations in the

mal, and diameter equations are the same for

ellipse

by substituting

for b

2
.

Analytical Geometry.

135

For example
(a)

The

ellipse

tangent has the equation,


a2 y

y+
f

b2

xx >

a2

62j

hence the hyberbola tangent


a 2 yy
or
b
2

is,

xx

2 2

xxf
f

a yy

= =a
2

a2 b2
b
2
. .
.

(T h )

The

slope form

is,

y
(6)

= mx

^/a

m -

2
. .
.

(T A

The normal equation

for the ellipse

is,

hence the normal equation for the hyperbola

is,

_
(c)

= _

a
b

2
2

y
x'

(x

x/]

The

subtangent then

is
00

and the subnormal

is

b 2 x' -

a2
(d)

the

same

as for the ellipse.

The

equation for a diameter of the ellipse

is,

vb
2

a2m

*,

hence a diameter to the hyperbola

is,

a2

m m
[

Conjugate diameters are defined in the same way, hence


the product of their slopes,

and
b
2

m', say,

is

mm'

2 replaces b ].

136

Analytical Geometry.
98.

ART.

As the

ellipse

becomes a
a,

circle

when

its

axes

become

equal, for

when

= =

a 2 y2
so
if

x2

a 2 b 2 becomes y 2

x2

a2
it

the axes of a hyperbola


hyberbola, which
is

become
the

equal,

we

call

an

equilateral

hyperbola-analogue of
a\ then

the circle.

In b 2
is

x2

a 2 y2

a2 b2

let

x2

is

a2

the equation of an equilateral hyperbola. ART. 99. The latus rectum of the hyperbola
its

readily

found from

equation by setting

x
Whence
2

=
2

=
2

\/a

b
2

2
.

b (a

+
b -

a 2y2

=
a

a b2

a2

'

l = + b
=
latus rectum, since
it

2y=

2 b

is

the

double ordinate through the focus.

EXERCISE.

What
x2
2

are the axes


:

and

eccentricities

of

the following

hyperbolas
i.

3.
5.
7.

a;

= 9. 16 y - 9 x = 144. - 4 x = - 36. 9 y 16 y = 16.


2

2.

4.
6. 8.

2 x2 4 y = 4. 2 8 f = 15. 5 x 2 2 = 12. 4y 3 x

4% 2
is

i6y
if

64.

9.

What

is

the equation of a hyperbola,

half the dif-

ference of the focal radii for any point


distance between foci
is

7,

and

half the

Analytical Geometry.
10.

137

What
The

jugate axis
11.

is

the equation of the hyperbola, whose con6 and eccentricity, ij? co-ordinates of a certain point on a hyperbola,
is

whose major
tion.

axis

is 20,

are

6,

=
is

4.

Find

its

equa-

12.

The

eccentricity of a hyperbola

if,

focal

radius of the point

and the longer

5,

is

32.

Find hyperbola
latus

equation.
13.

In a hyperbola
its

= =

20,

and the

rectum

Find
14.

equation.

The

conjugate axis

10,

and the transverse

axis

is

twice the conjugate.

Find the equation. = 16 and the transverse 15. The conjugate axis f of the distance between foci. Find the equation.
In
the

axis

16.

hyperbola

25

x2

4y

100,
is

find

the
its

co-ordinates of the point


abscissa.

whose ordinate

2$ times
find

4225, 169 y 2 focal radii of the point whose ordinate is 10


17.

In the hyperbola 25

x2

the

V
:

Find the intersection points


18.

of the following
2

16 y

4x

16

and
an d

3.

19.

499
4-2L
16
6
2

=L

$y

2x + 8=o.

20. 21.
22. 23.

9 y 9 y 16 x 2
2

x 2 = 144 and x 2 + y 2 = 36. x 2 = 36 and 4 x 2 + 9 y 2 = 36.


2

25 ^
2

400 and
2

4X

2
-\-

16 y 2
100.

16.

24.

16 y2
25.

x 2 = 144 at the point (V 5). At what angle do the curves in


5

y Find the equation


9

50 and #

=
,

of the tangent to the hyperbola

Ex.

22

inter-

sect?

138

Analytical Geometry.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE HYPERBOLA.


ART. 100.

method
ellipse.

of

The definition of the hyperbola suggests a mechanical construction similar to that for the
is

Since the difference between the focal radii


if

constant,

a fixed length of string be taken, attached at the two foci, and the same amount subtracted from each of two
branches, continually, the hyperbola results.

Fig. 52'

In Fig. 52,
pivoted at F',
to its free

let

a straight

edge of length

2 a,

be

and one end of a string of length- / be fastened end, N, and attached to the focus F, at its other

end.

pencil pressed against the straight edge, keeping the


(as at P), will describe the right

string stretched
of the hyperbola.

branch

For

at

any

point as at P,

- PF = (F'N - PN) - (NPF - PN) = F'N - NPF = + 2 a - = 2 a.


PF'
/
I

Analytical Geometry.

'39

The

other branch

may

be described similarly by pivotalso be constructed

ing at F,

and attaching the string at F'. Second Method : The hyperbola may

by points, making use of the definition. Let AA' [Fig. 52 (a)] be the major axis, F and F' the 'foci and O the centre.

Fig.

5a.

Let

LK

[Fig. 52 (b)]

number of points on

= AA'. Extend LK and take any LK produced as P, R, S, T, etc. With


P

Fig. 52b.

LP > LK

as radius

and F and

F', successively, as centres

describe arcs as at G, H, G' and H'; with the same centres and as radius, describe intersecting arcs at G, H, G' and H'. The intersections will be points on the ellipse for the radii LP AA'. The same process

KP

- KP = LK =

with points R, S, T, etc., will 'give as many points as desired. smooth curve through these points will be the hyperbola.

140

Analytical Geometry.

CONJUGATE HYPERBOLA.
ART. TOI.

The hyperbola whose


is

axis

coincides

with

the axis of ordinates

called the conjugate hyberbola to the

one whose axis

is

the'^-axis.

MEN

RB'S

(Fig. 53).

Fig.

53-

Its

equation

is

readily found to be

ay -

oc

a 2b 2

ART. 102. If the equations of two conjugate diameters be combined with the equation to the original hyperbola, it will be found that the results will be imaginary for one
of

the

diameters,

touch the original hyperbola.

showing that both diameters do not Thus:

Let

= mx

(i)

Analytical Geometry.

141

and
.
.

<>

be conjugate diameters.

Combining these with


b 2x 2

a 2y 2

a 2b 2

(3)

we

get

from

(i)

and

(3),

a 2b 2
b
2

a2

'

from

(2)

and

(3),

a2
If
if

m 2
2

b
b
2

a2

m
2

is

2 plus, a

must be minus, hence


second x 2
is

the

first

is

plus,

and hence

x, real, the

minus, and hence x, imaginary, or vice versa. But if (2) be combined with the conjugate hyperbola,
a 2y 2

x2

=
>

a2b2

2 a.

a2

which

is real,

if

2 .

isreal

Hence conjugate diameters


hyperbola, the other,
its

intersect,

one,

conjugate, as aa!

and

the

original
(Fig. 53)
.

ASYMPTOTES.
ART. 103.

An

asymptote of

the

hyperbola

may be
are

defined as a tangent at a point


infinite,

whose co-ordinate

which, nevertheless, intersects at least one of the co-ordinate axes at a finite distance from the origin.

To

find the equation of the asymptotes then,

it is

neces-

142

Analytical Geometry.

sary to determine a line that will touch the hyperbola at


infinity (Fig. 54).

Fig. 54-

Let the equation

of a line be

= mx +
a 2y 2

(i)

and the equation

to the hyperbola be

b~x 2

a 2b2

(2)

Combining (i) and (2), 2 2 a 2 m 2x 2 b x


or

2 2

a 2 mcx

a 2c 2
(a c
2 2

x2

(b

a2m2 )

a 2 mcx

=ab +ab =
2 2
,

wherein the values of x are the abscissas of the point of


intersection.

be

infinite

if

By the theory of equations, these values will the coefficient of


2

that

is, if

= m =
x2
2

o,

or

m=

Analytical Geometry.

143

For

in the typical quadratic,


_

ax 2

+ V b - 4 ac ^ _
2

QJ"

+ bx + c = o - b - Vb - 4 ac
2
-

a
the denominator 2 a
infinite,

a o or a

In either case
values of
is

if

o the

will

be

the coefficient of
/. if

x2

having a -denominator o; but a hence the rule.

m=
a 2y2

the line y

= mx +

meets the hyperbola

x2

a 2 ^ 2 at infinity.

We

found, however, in Art. 107, that the slope equation,


is,
2 2 2
;

of the tangent to the hyperbola

that

is,

in

Va m b y = mx = mx + c, if c = Va m y
2
,

2
,

= mx +

becomes a tangent.
If

m=
a a2m2

however,

~
/T

2 7l 2

<:

a2

o.

/.

at infinity

= mx +
Hence

becomes a tangent

if

=
is

and

m=
a

the equation to an asymptote

or

x.

The form

of these equations

shows that the asymptotes

pass through the origin. ART. 104. Relation between the equations of the asymptotes

and

that of the hyperbola.

Clearing the two above equations of fractions, trans-

posing and multiplying together,


(ay or

bx)
b
2

(ay
2

bx)
b

=
2

o,

a y

or

x2

a 2y 2

o.

144

Analytical Geometry.
this

Comparing
given
its

they are the

with b 2 x 2 same except

a 2y2

a 2b2

it is

observed that
,

for the constant


it is

term a 2 b 2 hence

two asymptotes

easy to write the equation of

the hyperbola, or vice versa.


If

=
a

x and y

=
a
its
2 2

are the

equations of the

asymptotes to a hyperbola,
b
2

equation

may

be written,

a y

C=

()

indicating the primary hyperbola;, the its conjugate. If in addition a point is given plus sign, which the hyperbola must pass, C can be deterthrough
the
of

minus sign

mined.

For example The asymptotes of a hyperbola are y = J x and y = J x. If the hyperbola passes through the
:

point

(6,

2Va),
(2

to find its equation.

The equation will be

y
2

x)

(2

or
Substituting;

4 y

+ C=
y
2

x)
o.

(2

VI) 2 -

(6)

C=o,

whence

x2 whence 4 y 2 4 = o are the equations to primary and conjugate hyperbola. Corollary: The same principle will clearly apply no matter where the origin is taken, since both hyperbola and asymptotes are referred to the same point as origin, and hence
4,

C=

the relation between

their
3

equations remains the same.


i

For example,

if

=
3

o and
its

;y

+
C

2jc
is,

+ 3=o,

are the asymptotes of a hyperbola,


(y

equation
i)

+ 2X +
its

3)

(2

o.

ART. 105.
hyperbola to

It is often

desirable to refer the equation of a

asymptotes as axes.

Analytical Geometry.

'45

By

determining the angles


old,

asymptotes) and the


equations achieved.
(J'),

Art.

38,

made by the new axes (the and using the transformation most readily the result is

These equations are


y

= =

x' sin 6

X' COS

+ / sin 0) ) + / COS >


(f>)

.,,.

reflex

ZXON = Z -XON,

MOX

(Fig. 55).

Fig. 55-

Since
\

the

new axes
from
a

are

asymptotes,

their
is,

slopes

are

and
a

their equations, that

tan

tan

=
<j)

146

Analytical Geometry.

whence by Goniometry,
b
'

COS

+
sin d>

2
ft

0= -=4 Va +
2

'

2
ft

=
'a
2

cos

d>

=
2

Va +

2
ft

Substituting these values in (J'),


ft

Va +
2

(/-*')
ft-

....

(i)

*=

Substituting (i) and (2) in the hyperbola equation,


2
ft

*2

a 2y 2

a 2b 2

or

(/

whence
Dropping

+ ^) 4 ^y =
2

(/
a2

- y) =
2 2
-fft
.

a2

2
,

accents,

4*y=a +
2

=c

2
.

(A a>

h)

which
totes.
It
its

is

the equation of a hyperbola referred to

its

asymp-

shows that the co-ordinates


the

of a hyperbola referred to

asymptotes vary inversely as one another.

ART. 106.
referred to its

Equation

of

tangent

to

the

hyperbola

asymptotes. Pursuing exactly the same method as- before, we determine the equation of a secant line and revolve this line to a

tangent position.

Analytical Geometry.

147

The

equations of any line through

(x',

/) and

(x", y")

is

If the points (x', y') and (x", /') are on the hyperbola, 2 c they must satisfy

4xy=

.-.

4X'y' =
4x"y"=

c
c

...... ......
=
x'y'

(i)
(2)

Subtracting (i)

from
x'y'

(2)

and simplifying;
o
or

x"y f

x"f

...
2
x"

(3)

Subtracting x"y from both sides to get the value of


f

x"y"
Factoring;
or

x"y

x" (y"

x"
Substituting in B,

y')
^-

= =

x'y'

x"y

y' (x"
-^

x')

x'

x"

y=
As

2
OC

(x

x') (4).

[The equation of a secant.]

the points approach coincidence y? approaches x'

and

y approaches /,
y

and eventually x"

x',

y"

Substituting in (4);

=-

^
f

(x

x')

whence

x'y x'y

x'y'

xy
2 x'y',

+ xy +

-,

^=* v

148

Analytical Geometry.

EXERCISE.
Tangents and Asymptotes.

Find the equation


bolas:
1.

of a tangent to the following hyper-

x2
2 -

2 2

2.

16 y

= = = = =

12, at (12,

2)_._

144, at (4 \/3, 6).

3. 4.
5.

x2 i6# 2
25

4/=
-

4 at
J 44

(?,

|).
(?, 3).

9y
25

at at

/
2

-- 16

6.
7.

36 y

goo at (3^, ?). Find the normal to each of the above.

x2 x2

400

(3!, ?).

8.

What

points on a hyperbola have equal subtangent

and subnormal ?
bola 16

What are the equations of the tangents to the hyperx 2 9 y 2 = 144, parallel to the line 3? 5^ + 3=0? 10. What are the equations of the tangents to the hyper2 bola x 2 4 y = 4, perpendicular to the line y = -2^ + 3? 11. What is the equation of the normal to the hyperbola
9.

x2
12.

4y

16

x2
13.
.

= 4, perpendicular to the line y = 2 # + 3 ? Find the equations of the common tangents to 2 2 2 400 and x + y = 9. 25 y 2 2 Find the slope equation of a tangent a 2 y 2 b x =
2

a 2 b2

14.
2

x2
15.

y = 3, drawn through the point (3, 5). Find the equations of tangents drawn from
2

Find the equations

of

tangents to the

hyperbola
5) to

(2,

the hyperbola 16
16.
2

x2

25 y

400.

Find the equations of the tangents to the hyperbola 2 y 9x = 144, which with the tangent at the vertex form an equilateral triangle.
16

17.

Find the angle between the asymptotes

bola 16

x2

25 y

of the hyper-

400.

Analytical Geometry.
18.

149
hyperbola having o for its asymp-

What x + i
it

is

the

equation

of
3

the
5

o and 3 x

totes, if

19.

Show

passes through (o, 7)? that the perpendicular from the focus of a

hyperbola to
20.
2

9y

its asymptote equals the semi-conjugate axis. Find the equations of the tangents to the hyperbola 2 x = o intersects it. 4 x = 56 at the points where y

21.

the

= ^-intercept
Two
2).

tangent to the hyperbola 9


3.

x2
2

25 y
2

= =

225 has

Find

its

equation.

22.
(i,

4y tangents are drawn to 9 x 36 from Find the equation of the chord joining the points
of the distances
is

of contact.
23.

The product
to
its

from any point on a

hyperbola
constant
?

asymptotes

constant.

What

is

the

that the sum of the squares of the reciprocals 24. of the eccentricities of conjugate hyperbolas equals unity.
25.

Show

The
a 2y 2

b 2x 2

equation of a a2b2 being


,

directrix

of

the

hyperbola

^1.
c

[c

= Va +
2

],

show that the major auxiliary circle passes through the points of intersection of the directrix with the asymptotes.
Supplemental chords. Supplemental chords in the hyperbola are denned as they were in the circle and ellipse, hence from the relation

ART. 107.

between

ellipse

and hyperbola the

relation

between the
is,

slopes of supplemental chords in the hyperbola

mm' =
Since this
is

[putting

2 for b in ellipse condition].

also the relation

between the slopes of conjugate

15
it

Analytical Geometry.
follows that there
is

diameters,

a pair of diameters parallel

to every pair of supplemental chords,

which suggests an

easy method of drawing conjugate diameters.

ART.
Since

08.

The

eccentric angle.

the

ordinates of

the

auxiliary circles, the eccentric angle of a point is

hyperbola do not cut the not so

Fig. 56-

readily determined as in the ellipse


definition is necessary.

and a more arbitrary


so determined that
(j>,

The
<j)

angle

</>

x
is

a sec

and y

b tan

called the eccentric angle for the point

(x, y).

These

values will satisfy the equation

for substituting;

a 2 b 2 sec 2

<

tan

a>b\

Analytical Geometry.
or
sec
is
2
<fi

151

tan 2

^>

i.

which

true by goniometry.

construct this angle for a given point, the auxiliary circles [with radii a and b] are drawn. (Fig. 56.)

To

Let

PD

P be any point on the hyperbola. Draw its ordinate and from the foot of PD draw a tangent to the major
touching
it

auxiliary circle

at

C,

then Z.

COD =

<

for

point P, (xt y).

For,

draw

BE

a parallel tangent to the minor

circle,

then

in the right triangle

OCD,
'-

cos

COD

= - [OD = =
a sec

abscissa of P]

or

Again

in the right triangle

COD OBE tan BOE = tan COD =


x
and

(i)

OB

(2)

The

triangles

COD
.'.

BOE
:

are similar.
:
:

OB OC

BE CD,
:

whence

- OC 2 BE = OB x CD = OB VOD
2

OC

or

BE =
2

az

(x

OC -a

a
2
).

But

f- -

(x

a2)

from

(A A

).

.-.

BE =

y.

Hence from
or

(2) tan

COD = y
b

y=
Comparing
(T)

b tan

COD

...

(3)

and

(3) with the condition equations


<f>.

for 0,

we

see that

COD =

Hence

the eccentric

angle

is

found by drawing from

152

Analytical Geometry.

the foot of the ordinate of a point, a tangent to the major Then the angle formed with the axis by auxiliary circle.

the radius

drawn

to the point of

tangency

is
is

the eccentric

angle for that point.

The

eccentric angle

used to best

advantage in the calculus. ART. 109. There are two interesting geometrical properties of the

hyperbola when referred to


of the intercepts of

its

asymptotes.
the

(a)

The product
is the

any tangent on

asymptotes

same.

Fig. 57.

Let

BPC

(Fig. 57)

be a tangent at P, then

its

intercepts

on

OX and OY

(OB and OC),


y =

respectively, will

be found

by

setting successively

o and

o in

its

equation,

^
,'

+-=2, S
'

'

whence
and

= OB = y = OC =

2 yf
2

, )

(*',

being point P),

Analytical Geometry.
multiplying;

153
2

OB

OC =

4 x'

Since x'y'
(6)

is

on the hyperbola
<?/

= a +b 4 x'y' = a + 6
2

y'

(a constant).
2
.

77ze araz
is

asymptotes
(Fig. 57),

triangle formed by a tangent and the constant. The area of the triangle
//ze

BOC

by trigonometry,

is

Area

BOC =

^OC
2

gin

BQC = OROC
2
.

^
cos

[COA - BOA = 0, Art. 105] - OB OC = 2 sin cos ] [since sin 2 <p

sin

OB.OC.
But

~==.
.

a
.

=QB.OC
2

.;.

OB OC = area BOC =

a2
(a

+b +

2
.

That

is,

the area of this triangle always equals the product

of the semi-axes.

EXERCISE.
General Examples.
1.
2 36 x

If

^=3^ +
16 y 2

15

is

a
is

chord

of

the

hyperbola

576,

what
lies

the equation of the supple-

mentary chord ?
on the hyperbola 4 # 2 9 ^=36. Find the equations of the diameter through this point and
2.

The

point

(5,

f)

of its conjugate.
3.

Find the equation of the

line passing
its

through a focus

conjugate hyperbola. 4. Find the angle between a pair of conjugate diameters of the hyperbola, b 2 x 2 a 2y 2 a2b2
.

of a hyperbola

and a focus

of

154
5.

Analytical Geometry.

x2
6.

Find the equation of the chord of the hyperbola 2 16 y = 144, which is bisected by the point (2, 3).

Show
is is

that the locus of the vertex of a triangle,

whose

base

constant,

and the product


is

of the tangents of its base

angels
7.

a negative constant,

a hyperbola.

Show

that the eccentric angles of the extremities of

a pair of conjugate diameters are complementary.


8.

What
In
the

is

the equation of the focal chord which

is

bisected
9.

by the

x? 2 hyperbola 9 x
line

16 y 2

144,

what

is

the

equation of the diameter conjugate to y


10.

3^=0?
difference of
is

Show

eters intersect
11.

that tangents at the ends of conjugate diamon the asymptotes.


is

The

base of a triangle
is 2 a.

2 b

and the

the other sides

Show

that the locus of the vertex

a hyperbola.
12.

[Take the middle of the base as origin.] For what point of the hyperbola xy = 12 is the sub-

tangent
13.

4?
that

Show

an

ellipse

and hyperbola which have the

same
14.

foci intersect at right angles.

bola

What are the equations of the tangents to the hyper2 x2 4 y = 4, which are perpendicular to the asympIn
the
of
2 16 y 2 = 400, find the hyperbola 25 x conjugate diameters that cut at an angle

totes ?
15.

equations
of

451 6.
2

In the hyperbola 16 x 400, what are 25 y the co-ordinates of the extremity of the diameter conjugate to 25 y -f 16 x o?

17.

In the hyperbola 4
is

x2
o.

diameter

3 y

9 y

=
is

36, the equation of a

What

the equation of any

one of

its

system of chords ?

CHAPTER

VIII.

HIGHER PLANE CURVES.


ART. 101.

There are several other curves known as

Higher Plane Curves because their equations are more complex, that are used extensively in engineering. These

we

will consider briefly.

THE CYCLOID.
The cycloid, much used in gear teeth, is the curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle of given The circle radius, as the circle rolls along a straight line.

may

be called the generator

circle,

and the

straight line the

directrix.

Fig. 58.

To f,nd its equation. Let point, r the radius CP,


call

P(

OE =

Fig. 58) be the generating

x and PE
r cos 6.

for P,

and

Z PCB,

6.

Then PE

= CD - CB = r -

156

Analytical Geometry.

That
Also
r sin 6

is,

r cos

..........
-

(i)

...............
is

x = OE = OD

ED = OD - PB =
is

rO

(2)

Since 6

an extra

variable, its elimination

necessary.

From
whence
i

(i)

cos 6

= -

-^-

- y ,

cos 6

vers

=
r

or

vers" 1

*-

Substituting this value of 6 in (2),

1 r vers" ^r

r sin

vers" 1

r)
2
.

or

r vers"

\7 2 ?y

For

vers" 1

^-=
r

6,

vers

0=i

cos 6,

cos* 0.

/JlrJ!

J_
Whence

an

fl

vers" 1
j
)

and

r sin ^

r sin

V2 r

2
.

Analytical Geometry.

157

CONSTRUCTION OF THE CYCLOID.


ART. in.
cycloid,
it

From
is

the nature of the development of the

readily

constructed

by

points.

The

first

be shown produces an accurate cycloid cient points be taken.


to

method

if suffi-

The second method, which


First

is

employed

in mechanical

drawing, gives a cycloid of sufficient approximation.

Method

Let

be the generator
the directrix.

circle

in

its

middle position, and


i the circumference

XX' of M.

equal Divide the semi-circumference

Make

OV

OCN into 6 equal parts,

also

OV into 6 equal

parts.

Then

V^^/~K

^\""\

Analytical Geometry.
sive positions of

N, and

if

these be joined

by a smooth

curve,

we have

the cycloid described


:

by N.

ART. 112.

Second Method

tion used in mechanical

drawing
"

This approximate construcis based on the fact that

for very small arcs the arc does not sensibly differ

from

its

with the comstepped passes, thus really getting chords not arcs, but by taking the distances small enough, any degree of approximation
chord, so the divisions are
off

"

may be

attained.
this

Draftsmen use

slightly

modified

method,

which

gives a sufficient approximation, as follows:

E'

ABODE
Fig. 60.

Fig. 60.
circle.

Let
off

MN

be the directrix and


distance

the generator

Lay
it

any small

on

MN

a sufficient

number

of times choosing the distance small

as a chord

would not sensibly

differ

from

enough so that its arc, as AB.

arcs

Then AB, BC, CD, etc., will practically on C. Draw a series of circles
having the
radius
of

equal corresponding
(or parts

C.

of them) These represent the generator

circle in its successive positions.

From

B, C, D,

"
etc.,

successively

step off

"

with com-

passes on the arc passing through them, i, 2, 3, etc., units These will give points on the cycloid as A', B', (as AB). etc. The curve drawn through these points will be C', D',

a very good approximation.

Analytical Geometry.

'59

ROULETTES.
The hypocydoid is described by a point on the circumference of a circle, which rolls on the inner side of the
circumference of a second
If the
circle.

on the outside of the circumgenerator ference of the directrix, the resulting curve is called an
circle rolls

epicycloid.

The two
ratio

circles

may have any


is

relative radii,

and

if

the

between them

commensurable, the cycloids will be

closed curves, consisting of as


tains units.

many

arches as the ratio conIf the ratio is i, the

The common
is

ratio is 4.

epicycloid resulting

called a cardioid (see Art. 16).

Curves described by rolling one figure upon another are

known

collectively as roulettes.

ART. 114. Let circle


circle

To

find the equation of the hypocydoid.


circle

be the directrix and

C' the generator

(Fig. 61).

Let

be the generating point, starting

Fig. 61.

from coincidence with D.

Draw

the co-ordinates of P,
||

CD and PA to CD and CY (_[_ to CD through C) be the axes. Let Z BCD = Z BC'P = Z C'PA - 0; = r and C'B - /. CB
CF
and

PF

(x, y)\

C'

perpendicular to

CD, and

let

</>,

160

Analytical Geometry.

Then CF

C'P cos 6 or x Extend C'P

=
<j>

= CE - FE = CE - PA = CC' cos = (r - r') cos ^ - /cos d. to meet CD at G; Z C'GD = 6, C'GC = + (180 - 0) +


. . .

<f>

(i)

and

(/>

[a

is

exterior angle of triangle

C'GC].

Hence
cos (a
(f>)

=
(f>

180

6.

cos (180

0)'=

cos

[Goniometry].

Substituting in (i);

x
Likewise,

= y =

(r

/) cos
r') sin

<j)

-f r'
r'

cos (a
sin (a

</>)

(2)
.(3)

(r

(j>

0)

But since arc

BD =
and

arc
rcj)

tion of the hypocycloid Substituting in (2 )

BP = r'
;

by method
a, or

of descrip-

=
,

(3

x=

(r

/) cos $

+ / cos
- /
sin

(r
. .

(a)

y
If
<^>

/)

sin

(r

^^

(b)

(ft) the rectangular the hypocycloid results, but in this general equation for

be eliminated between (a) and

form the equation would be exceedingly complicated. But if r = 4 r', as is customary, the result is comparatifely simple, thus:

(a)
(b)

becomes;

becomes;

= = y = =
?

} r cos

</>

| r cos 3

<^>.

r sin

<yS

r sin 3

c/>,

or

(3

cos (/>+ cos 3 <)

(a')

and
T,

(3 sin

<

sin 3

0)
3 4 cos

(6')

By Tngonometry

>
)

cos *-

(/>

cos

3 sin

sin 3

= =

</>

f smd (p

Analytical Geometry.

161
r cos3
r sin
3
.

Hence
and

(a'}
f

(b

Combining
Add;

(a"}

and

(&");

= becomes y = #* =
becomes x

<

(a")
(b")

<j>

r* cos

<,

#3

y$

r3 [since cos 2 <

sin 2 <

i].

ART. 115. To construct the hypocydoid. Let C be the directrix; (Fig. 62) C' the generator circle; the generating point. Divide the quadrant P'K into 8

equal parts and the semicircle PE' into 4 equal parts. Let P start at P', then when A' and A coincide as the circle C'

Fig. 62.
rolls,

will

be at the distance

DD'

from P' and


as a centre

at the dis-

tance

AT
A

from A.

Hence with P x

and DD'

as radius describe

with

an arc intersecting another described This intersection as centre and A'P as radius.

point will be a point on the hypocycloid. When B' is at B, P will be at the distance

BB' from

P'

and

at the distance

described with centres


respectively, will

B'P from B. The P r and B and radii BB' and B 7 P,

intersection of arcs

be a second point on the hypocycloid,

and

so on.

62

Analytical Geometry.

Evidently the greater the


the

number

of

equal parts into


circle

which the quadrant and the generator

are divided

more accurate

will

be the hypocycloid.

If the ratio of the radii of the

two

circles is 3, the entire

directrix will be divided into 3 times as

many

parts as the

circumference of the generator circle and similarly for any In the figure 62 the ratio is 4. ratio.

ART.
cycloid.

1 1 6.

Draftsman's method of constructing the hypois

This method
for

-almost exactly similar to that described

the cycloid,

using,
is

directrix,

which

now

however, angular division of the a circumference.

Fig. 63.

Let C be the centre of the directrix and C' the Fig. 63. " " on the circumference of C generator circle. Step off any small equal arcs as AB, BD, DE, etc.; at A, B, D, etc.,

draw tangent

circles

equal to

7
.

From A,

B, C, D, E,

etc.,

Analytical Geometry.
"
successively
step off

163
times the distance

"
i,

2,

3,

4, etc.,

the resulting points will determine the hypocycloid. An exactly similar process will produce the epicycloid, if the generator circle be rolled on the outside.

AB,

ART. 117.

Another form

of

roulette

is

the

involute,

which

described by a fixed point on a straight line, that rolls as a tangent on a fixed circle. Let C (Fig. 64) be the
is

directrix circle

and

MN

the initial position of the line.

Fig. 64.

"

Step

off

"

as

division

AB, and beginning with


times the distance
points
will
will

any small equal arcs on the circumference of CD, DE, etc. Draw tangents at the points of

3, 4, etc.,

A stepoff, successively i, 2, AB on the tangent lines. The


Any
curve

resulting

determine an involute.
this

whatever
circle is

produce an involute in

of cycloid, evolute,

most commonly used. A and circular arc

way, but the tooth is made up gear


in varying proportions.

SPIRALS.
ART. 118. A spiral is described by a point receding, according to some fixed law, along a straight line that There are a number of revolves about one of its points.

164
spirals,

Analytical Geometry.

one of which
in

will illustrate this

type of curve.

The
it

revolving line is called the radius vector

and the angle

makes,

any position, with the


is

initial line, is called

the

rectorial angle.

The

hyperbolic spiral

which moves so that the product


vectorial angle
is

the curve generated by a point, of radius vector and

constant.

Fig. 65.

Calling the radius vector, r the vectorial angle 6 and the constant C, we have by definition,
;

To

construct

it

r6= C. when C = n, then r =

ii

Analytical Geometry.

165

Make

a table of values for 6

r,

as follows;
,

When

o,

r =

oo

TT

3 \.
I 4-

0=
6

->
4

(45),

'H
=

-,
"S-

(60), r

10.5.

(75),

8.4.

~,

.(90),

r-7-

r=
One complete
360

4 5,etc.

revolution of the radius vector from o

to

describes a spire, as from GO to B [Fig. 65], and the circle described with the final radius vector of the first
spire, as radius, is called the

measuring

circle,

ELEMENTARY CALCULUS.

ELEMENTARY CALCULUS.
CHAPTER
I.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES.
ART.
i.

Variables

and

constants.

Suppose we wish to

plot a curve, corresponding to the relation y


$

x3

x2

6;

and

for this purpose assign to

certain arbi-

trary values, calculating from these the corresponding and dependent values of y. Now in such a case both x and y

are variable

quantities,

x being

called

an independent,

and y a dependent

variable.

In general: A Variable is a quantity which is subject to continual change of value, while an Independent Variable
is

supposed

to

assume any arbitrary value, and a Depenis

dent Variable,

determined when the value of the Indeis

pendent Variable

known.
x*,

Examples

y =

y=
x
is

tan x,

log x.

In the above examples

the independent,

and y the

dependent

variable.

When
as
TT

3.14159 a Constant. simply ART. 2. Functions.


. .

a quantity does not change or alter its value such it is called a Constant Quantity, or
.

Let us again take the equation

y=x
of

4x +x +
z

6'

we know

that for every value

there

is

a corresponding value of y;
if

not necessarily
2,

different,

for

3,

o,

and

if

o,

but

169

170

Elementary Calculus.

nevertheless to each value of


definite value of y.

there corresponds a certain


quantities,

When

two

x and

y,

are

related in this

manner we say

that y is a /unction of x.

In the examples given above, namely, y

y=
to

log x,

we

see that in each case

there corresponds a definite


of x.

we y value; we
if

tan x, y x4 assign a value


y

therefore call

y a function
Again,
to each
if

we

note the barometer readings corresponding

hour of the day, we can involve the observations in a curve, and we say that the height of the barometer is a
function of the time, because to each change in the time there corresponds a certain definite barometric height.
It is

equally true that the barometer readings are a func-

tion of the time.

quantity P is a junction of a quantity Q, can assume there corresponds value which when to every a certain definite value of P. " " It is customary to express the term function of by F (x), the symbols F, /, <j> (Phi); thus we write sin x

In general,

sin

I (x} or, sin


is

(f>

(x),

meaning

that the sine of

a quantity which assumes certain definite values cos x, dependent upon the size of the angle x. Again, if y or in the case of an equation such as then y f (x)

an angle

x3

x*

This

latter

5 x mode

we may

also write

y=f

(x).

of expressing

an equation

briefly

by

F (x) or y the symbol y f (x} is in very general use. From the definition of a function, given above, we see
that
if

an expression involves any quantity,

it

is

itself

function of that quantity; for example,

-^ D

is

a function of

x, since this fraction has a definite value corresponding to

each change in the value of x, likewise 3 cos a


is

5 tan

a function of a.

Elementary Calculus.

171

and

Further, the area of a triangle is a function of its base also of its altitude. Such a double relation is indicated

thus: area

A=
its

/ (b, h),

function of

side.

If

while the area of a square is a x is a side and y the area, then

= y=
y
its

x2

we may

f (x).

write this equation in the general form Again, the volume of a sphere is a function of

radius, or

V=

<f>

(r).

ART.

3.

Object of the Differential Calculus.

In algebra,

geometry,
ing values.

and trigonometry, the

quantities

which enter
unchang-

into the calculations are fixed; they have absolute

Now, suppose we wish to find the greatest value that y can assume, between x = 3 and x = 2 when y = x? 4 y? Here we have two variables, x and y entering + x 4- 6.
t

into the calculation, each of

number
is

of

which may have an infinite values and from which one special value of x

is defined by the condition imposed. problem, such as the above, involving the relation of two or more variable quantities, comes within the province In general the differential of the differential calculus.

sought, which

calculus supplies us with a means of obtaining information regarding the properties of quantities, the number of

whose values are

infinite,

and which vary according

to

some known

law.

One

of the chief advantages of the calculus lies in the

comparative

simplicity

with

which

complex

problems

involving variable quantities are solved, problems, which if attacked by other methods, would require long and tedious operations and sometimes be impossible of solution.

ART.

4.

The

Differential

Coefficient.

Suppose an ob-

server to take notice of a passing bicyclist,


his

and

to estimate
this

speed at 10 miles

an hour;

now, a statement to

172
effect

Elementary Calculus.

vation

would imply that the bicycle at the moment of obserwas travelling with a velocity, which if maintained

for the next hour,

would cause the

rider to cover 10 miles.

It does not follow, however, that this will be the case, for

5 seconds later the speed of the bicyclist

reduced or accelerated;

further,

the

might be either above statement in

no way

refers to the velocity of the bicycle prior to the

time of observation, having reference to the speed only, at the exact moment when the bicyclist passed the observer.

Should

it

be desired to

of the speed of the machine,

make an accurate determination we might place two electrical

contacts in

its

time taken in

path, which on closing would cause the traversing the space between them to be

automatically registered.
/

Then

if

velocity, s

space,

time,

we have

v =

as a measure of the velocity.

In choosing a position for the second contact, we would undoubtedly select a point near to the first; because the

speed of the machine at the moment of passing the first contact would be unlikely to remain constant for a space say of 100 yards, but would be less liable to change in 10
yards, less in
i

yard,
that
if

still

less in i foot,

and so

on.
result,

Hence

it is,

we wish
body

to obtain
at the

an accurate
of

giving the velocity of a


certain point,
is

moment

passing a

we measure

as short a portion of

its

path as

practicable,

and divide by the correspondingly small


a case of uniform motion; suppose a
velocity implies that equal

time interval.

Let us

now examine

point to travel a distance of 30 miles in 6 hours with uni-

form

velocity.

Now, uniform

lengths of path are traversed in equal times,

small are the time intervals considered.


travelling 30 miles in 6 hours, at

no matter how Hence a point

uniform speed, travels

Elementary Calculus.
5 miles in
i

173

hour,

mile in one-fifth of an hour, and so on,


:

as indicated in the following table


Space described
(in miles)
.

174
In general

Elementary Calculus.

we may
is

state that the ratio of

two

quantities,

each of which

beyond our comresult in an appreciable and prehension, may, nevertheless, practically useful quotient, a fact which should be most
so small as to be entirely
carefully noted.

When we
A/
used
that

wish in general to indicate that we are considfinite space,

ering a small
is

we employ

the symbol As, while

to

express a short time interval.

Thus

means

we

are comparing a small space with a corre-

spondingly small time interval. In the example above, we have:

| =5
Carrying
this

or

A,
still

5.

A/.

conception

further

we may

consider
in

As

to

become smaller than any imaginable quantity;

other words, that the space taken is infinitely small we indicate by ds, and call ds a differential of space.

This

The same process of reasoning applied to A 2 gives dt as representing an infinitely small time interval or a differoften refer to ds and dt simply as differential of time.

We

entials.

The

infinite

reduction of the space and time will

not affect the value of their ratio.

We

will

still

have

=
dt

and ds

dt.

The
and
dt,

value of the ratio of two differentials such as ds


is

referred to
quotient;

by German mathematicians as a
5,

differential

hence

in

our

case,

is

called a

differential quotient.

Again,
ds

if

we

write the expression,

-^

in the
it

form

dt,

then 5 becomes a coefficient, for

multiplies

Elementary Calculus.
the differential of the dependent variable dt
fore called a differential coefficient.

and

is

there-

For the present the student might consider a


tial quotient, in general,

differen-

as the value of the ratio of two differdifferential


coefficient

entials;

while the term

implies

the

same quantity regarded as that factor the independent variable which makes
ential oj the dependent variable.
It will

oj the differential of
it

equal to the differ-

tible of

be found later that these conceptions are suscepa deeper meaning and lead to results of great prac-

tical value.

Progress in the study of the calculus, primarily depends

upon

the thorough understanding of the

meaning

of the

differential quotient or coefficient.

Much
and

misunderstand-

ing has arisen from the fact,


expressions as above, viz.
dt

that

when we have such


also ds

=5

5. dt, it is

customary

to

coefficient; in the

speak of the 5 in either case as a differential former case it is strictly a quotient, which

quotient becomes a coefficient ART. 5. Rates of Increase.

when we

write ds

5.

dt.

Suppose we have a square

(see Fig. i), a side of

which

n
is

of unit length; further

imagine that while the

left

lower

corner remains fixed, the sides are capable of continuous

76

Elementary Calculus.

uniform extension, so that the square

and
in

A l assumes larger larger proportions, thus passing, during this continuous


side of each

expansion, through the dimensions

which the

shown by A A 3 A 4 new square is one unit greater


2
, ,

than that of the preceding.


AJ,

Now

by an inspection

of

A A A we
2, 3, 4,

see that

Square.

Elementary Calculus.

177

speed of the bicycle at the moment of passing the point fcf observation, then the smaller the space measured, the more accurate would be our results; this would clearly hold if
the bicyclist passed the observer with an accelerated velocity. Now this case is similar to that of the square above mentioned, for suppose the side of the square,

which

is

con-

tinuously lengthening,

linear units,

we
3

pass through the point at which might ask ourselves, what is the

relation of the rate of increase of area of the square, at the

moment when x
side.

= =

to the rate of linear increase of its

Let the side x


the

3 centimetres,

and

let

y be the area

of

square on

x',

we
let

x2

9.

Now

thus get the side x

receive a small increase, called

an
let

increment,

which

we

will

y-x'<

represent by

Ax

(read, delta x),

A x =0.1

centimeters; thus

becomes

x+ Ax = 3 + 0.1 = 3.1.
we now have
Fig.
2),

Upon

the increased side describe

a second square;

two squares

(see

and
due

Fig

the increase in
to the increment
this

area of

y,

A#, is represented by the shaded strip; increment, which we will call Ay, is obviously an

increment of area.

We
on (x

thus have:

Area

of square

A#)

Area

of square

on

x
(x

Difference

= (^ + A#) = (3.i) =9.6i. = (3) =9= x -x = Ay =0.61. + kx)


2 2 2

Now
the

the difference

Ay

0.6 1,

is

the increase in area of

square y, in square centimetres, during the time = 3.1 centimetres; intro that x increased from 3 to x

x=

178

Elementary Calculus.
to,

ducing the arbitrary unit of time before alluded


say:

we

Rate of increase of square y Rate of increase of side x

0.61
.1

_ Ay _
Ax

We

will

now

tabulate a
-2

number

of values,

calculated

exactly as above, for

Ax

f or

3 centimetres:

If

A* =

o.i then

4^ = ax

=
.1

6.1

A* =.01
A* =.ooi
A Ax =

42 = ^2621=6.01. .01 Ax 42 = Ax
Ay = z Ax
:22622i
.001

6.001.

.0000001

.00000060000001 .000000 1

6.0000001.

We
more
If

thus see that

A*

approaches the value 6 more and

nearly, the less the increment

Ax.

Ax

is

infinitely small,

in

other words becomes the


of zeroes to the right

differential dx, then the

number

hand
and

of the decimal point before the

one would be

infinite,

the value of the quotient would be truly 6. If Ax becomes a differential of length, dx, then Ay, becomes a differential
of area, dy,

and as the quotient 6 is the result of the comparison of these two differentials, it is, therefore, a differenquotient; thus

tial

we

write:

TT

Hence we say moment when

the rate of increase of the square


the rate of increase ot the side
side
is

~~n

- -=
ri

6 at

the

units

in length.

As before

Elementary Calculus.

179

mentioned we sometimes write dy


variable,

6 dx; here, six figures

as the coefficient of the differential

dx

of the

independent

and

is therefore called

differential coefficient.

We
manthus,

might calculate this differential quotient in another


to a more general x = 3, and .'. y = x 2 = 9 and &x = taking x becomes x + A#. Now area of square, x* + 2 x (A#)

ner,

which would lead us

result;

.001, the side


2

(x

A*)

(3

+ .ooi) =
2

2 (3)

+ A* (.001) + .000001

=9

By

subtraction

Dividing by

A:

180
this

Elementary Calculus.
matter more generally and see is a rigid truth.
6.
.

if

the

result

above

indicated

ART.

Geometrical view of the differential coefficient

2 ofy= x

Fig. 3).

Suppose we have a square the side of which is x (see The area x 2 we call y, thus we have y= x 2
,
.

Now

let

receive

an increcan be
lar-

ment Ax, then x

+ Ax
2
.

considered as the side of a


ger square (x A:*;) pleting the construction
in Fig. 3,

Comshown

we

notice that the

difference between the squares

(x

(x Aa
Fig.
3.
,

+ +

2 2 Ax) and x which is 2 2 x is made up Ax)


,

of

two "rectangles Pj and P 2 together with the small square


S.

The

rectangles have each


of

an area

of

x Ax and
.

the square S

Ax

These parts taken together represent the the square y when x changes to x + Ax, increment Ax. We thus get
:

Ax = A.T2 increase Ay of
. .

in virtue of its

Ay =
(Increase of square y)

x. Ax-{-

Ax2
P P2 .)
1

(Two

rectangles

(Square

S.).

We further notice that the square S is much less in area than the two rectangles P t and P,. Now the smaller the increment Ax, the narrower become the rectangles and
the less the relative area of S. This is easily seen, for suppose Ax is exceedingly small, then the rectangles P x and Po may be represented by long thin lines (see black line Fig. 4), while S is reduced to their intersection.

Elementary Calculus.
If

181

consider the lines representing these rectangles infinitely thin, then the sides of the squares become infinitely short, while the lines
to

now we

be

representing the rectangles re-

PL-

main of finite length, hence it would take an infinite number


of

such squares to make one of


rectangles.

the

square

tends

to

Clearly the vanish if


<

PI

the rectangles become infinitely narrow, that is if Ax changes


to

x
pig.
4.

dx then
is,

(dx)

is

evanes-

cent, that

tends to "vanish.

We
If

had above,
becomes dx then

Ay =
dy =

xAx +
xdx

(Ax)

2
.

Ax

and
dx

=
thus find that
if

2 X.

We

x 2 then
,

2 x.

In other

dx

words we have found that

if a quantity y (in our case the area of a square) is dependent upon another x (here the side of a square), in such a manner that y x 2 then the

rate of increase of

at

increase of

at the

any moment, compared to the rate of same moment, is =2 x, which latter

called the differential quotient of the expression y x 2 or more generally, the differential coefficient of x 2 with respect to x.

quantity

is

ART.
method.

7.

Differential

coefficient

of

x2

Analytical

now examine a general analytical method of the differential coefficient of x 2 with respect to x in obtaining x2 the case of the function y
will

We

182

Elementary Calculus.

Given
then

+ A;y =

(#

-f-

now
and
Subtracting;

= A#) = + A;y = =
y
2

x2 x2

+ +
.

2
2

x2

Ay
.-.

?= 2

A#
If

*- 2* + A*.
of

A#

becomes dx then the value


is

A#

alone tends to

vanish or

evanescent.

Hence again we

find

if

quotient of the expression


differential coefficient of

y=

=
x
2

x2

then the differential


2 x;

is

which

is

also the

x 2 with
dx

respect to x, for 2

is

the

multiplier of the differential

of the independent variable

x when we
ART.
8.

write

-^-

in the

form of

dx
Differential coefficient oj

d-y

dx.

= X
if

s
.

We
to dart

will

now

take another case;

j (x)

and the
dy

function be such that y

x3 what
,

is

the relation of

Suppose x to be a straight the volume of a cube = y.

line,

then

x3

will represent

Now let x

increase by A#, then

of a second larger cube

whose volume
Fig. 5,

+ A# will form is y + Av.

the side

Now
is

if

we examine
volume

we

see that A;y

which
3

is

the
,

difference in

of the

two cubes, (x

3 A^;) and x
.

made up of three slabs each of dimensions x. x A:*; = x 2 Ax together with three parallelopipidons of dimenAx A^ = x A# 2 and of one cube of volume sions x
.
.

A# Ax A# =
.
.

A^e3

Elementary Calculus.

183
3

Hence we have
and

\y

x 2 Ax
2

x A# 2

I=2=x

x&x

Fig.

5.

If

becomes dx then,
dy

dx

*2
2

+3x

dx

(dx)

Now both $x.dx and

(dx)

are evanescent, but

rememberis finite,

ing the ratio of the infinitely small quantities dy, dx, 2 it is in fact the quotient 3 x
.

Hence
or

if

x3

then

=
dx
dy

x2 x2

dx.
of

Therefore
regard to x,
that at

the
is 3

differential

coefficient

x and

the expression

dy =

y
3

=
2

x9 with
,

x dx means
volume
in

any moment the

rate of increase of the

184
units of

Elementary Calculus.

volume

is

x 2 times

the rate of increase of the side

in linear units.
If the

sides be 2 inches

and the increment

A#

is

.001

then

x2

x Ax

A^; 2

=
Obviously
right

12

.OO6

.OOOOOI.
of the

if Ax becomes evanescent, the value hand member becomes =12.

.'.

when

-2

A#

becomes

dx

-^-,

then -2-

12.

dx

This

result

we could

obtain at once from the previous


;

expression

-*

dx

x2

for putting

2,

we

get

=
|2L
at the

3 (4)

12.

Meaning, that
as fast in units of

units in length, the

moment when the side x is two volume of the cube increases 12 times
side in linear units.

volume as the
y

ART.

9.

d.c.

of

= x

3
,

analytically.

Orders of

Infini-

tesimals.
If

y=**,
y
3
.

then

+ Ay = (x + A^) y + Ay = y? + 3 y= X Subtracting; Ay = 3 # A# + 3 #
.*.

And
then

if

A.v becomes dx,

Jy=3

8
(Z

+ 3^

(^)

(dx)

Elementary. Calculus.

185
it

Now
first

dx
3

is is

an

infinitesimal,

and when
first

occurs in the
2

power,

said to be of the
of the second

order; similarly (dx)

and (dx) are

Obviously the

and third orders respectively. same reasoning that causes us to consider


of

an infinitesimal

the

first

compared
itesimal

to

finite quantity,

order as unimportant when leads us to regard an infin-

of

pared

with
2

any higher order as evanescent when comone of lower order. Then the quantities
in the
3

3 x(dx) sion

and (dx) 3 are unimportant terms


dy

expres-

Hence
and
ART.
10.

dy

= =

3 3

x dx x dx *2
2

(dx)

(dx)

dx

^=
d.c.

The

and

the gradient.

In engineering work grades are often described by referhoriring the rise in level of a point to its corresponding We thus speak zontal distance from some fixed position.
of a grade of 20
ft. ft.

in 100

ft., ft.,

meaning the slope


or
i
ft.

resulting

from arise
in Fig. 6,

of 20

in 100

in 5

ft.,

as indicated

and measured by the tangent Z. BAG.

The

term " gradient "


rati0;

is

applied to the numerical value of the

vertical rise

honzontal distance

Now

tangent

AB BAG = -5- = - =
Ar>
(11
5

_ BC
0.2,

(See

Rg

6-)

and

since the

natural tangent of

19')

0.2

unit,

therefore,

the

[86

Elementary Calculus.

gradient of the slope

AC is 0.2, and the angle BAG is approxline

imately 11
the#-axis.

19'.

Suppose a straight

AB

to

make an

angle

DCB

with

(See Fig. 7.)

Fig.

7'

Let the co-ordinates of any point Q on Let x he increased by A#, and y by A;y.

AB
7,

be

x and

y.

Completing the construction shown in Fig.


tan

we have

Z DCB =

^'

(by similar triangles),

and

r^

Ay ^

QR
=% =
increment
tangent

Hence
If the

Z DCB.
ZDCB.
is,

A# becomes

infinitely small, then

&. =

tangent

This means that in the case of a linear function, that


'

a function whose graph is a straight line, the ratio of an to dx gives the infinitely small increment of the y-ordinate

Elementary Calculus.
tangent of the angle which the straight line
#-axis,

makes with the


the

and therefore
will

its

gradient.

We

now

test

this

numerically

by

following

example. Given the linear function, y = 0.7 x + 2, to find the differential coefficient with respect to x, namely, the value
of

2Z-,

and

dx

88
ART.
ii.

Elementary Calculus.

The gradient

of a curve.

Suppose we have two

bodies,

"B

and B 2

travelling in

parallel paths, the former with an accelerated velocity of 2 ft. per second per second and the latter with a uniform velocity

of 2
line

ft.

per second.

Further, imagine that

starts

upon a
left

AjA 2

(see Fig. 9), while

B2

starts

one foot to the

of

it

but at the same moment.

B2

Fig. 9.

In the
ated,

first

case, that of
5
/

Bv

where the velocity

is

acceler-

we have
s

=
2
,

\ at

2
,

where a

hence

J (2 )

and

therefore,

= = s
is

2 is the
2
/
.

acceleration,

In the second case, the velocity

constant,

and we have

the space traversed by B 2 expressed by the equation s 2 t. and since v 2, we have s

vt,

The
and B 2

following table gives the spaces traversed by


at the conclusion of different

B,

time intervals.

Br
Space traversed from rest at the end of
J second
1

B2

Space traversed from rest at the end of


J second i second
2

second

= = seconds = seconds =
9,
1

ft.

i ft.

4
9

ft.
ft.

= = seconds = seconds =

i ft.

ft.

4
6

ft. ft.

In Fig.

two bodies
paths,

E and B

and

depicted the relative positions of the graphically, showing a portion of their using the data given in the above table. Notice
2

we have

Elementary Calculus.
that during the

189

first second, B travels slower than B 2 and t has caught up with B t at the end of the first second, and for one instant of time the two are abreast, and
,

that

B2

travelling with the

same

velocity, after

which the speed of

Bj

is

greater than that of

shown by
second.

constantly growing, as the increasing distance covered in each ensuing


is

B 2 and

SIN FEET

B2/H

7/ /R

Fig. 10.

we

Plotting the values given for s and / in the above table obtain in the case of B t a curve (see Fig. 10), and in

that of

B2

a straight

line;

this latter,

it

will

be noticed,

touches the curve at the point P; which point corresponds to the positions of the two bodies when they are, for an
instant of time, one foot

from the

line

A,A 2 and

traveling

with the same velocity.

190

Elementary Calculus.

We
line is

have already said

(Art.

measured by the tangent


the abscissa; but
if

10) that the gradient of a of the angle that the line

makes with
the

a line

is

a geometrical tan-

gent to a curve, then at the point of

tangency the two have

the slope of the geometrical to a curve, at a point, shows the steepness of the tangent curve at that point, but the gradient of the line is measured
direction.

same

Hence

by the tangent
is

of its abscissa angle.

We

thus have the

fol-

lowing definition:

The gradient

oj a curve at any

point

measured by the tangent oj the angle which the geometrical tangent, at thai point, makes with the abscissa.

Now
tan

the

gradient
:

of

the

line

NH

is

measured by

MNP =

NM

=
%

2,

and

this quantity is also a

measure of the gradient


the above definition.

of the curve at the point P,

from

time increment of
curve,

Let us now take increments to the ordinates of P; let the /be A/ = PQ, in both the case of the

and that

of the. line;

for the space increment

we

have, for the line,

As

QR, and
-

for the curve,

As

= QK.

Hence

for the line,

=
==

A/

PQ

As
for the curve,

QK
if

QR + RK
is

~~

Now

clearly in

this

case

A/
,

infinitely small,

then

the latter expression the figure.

becomes

as can be inferred from

Hence
line

at the point

has the same value for both the

and curve, namely -

= 2.

at

Elementary Calculus.

191
of the
2, is

That
function

is,

the
,

value of

the differential quotient

=t 2

for the point

(i, i),

namely

dt

the tangent at P.

of

the

angle

the

geometric

tangent

makes

We

will

now
/ (x)

see

if

this

statement

is

susceptible of a

general application.

Let y

be any curve of which a portion of the

Fig. ii.

graph
y =
If

is

shown

in

Fig.

n.

MB =

= y. x and (x) has the co-ordinates = Ay, and the ratio of the rate A* then

OM =

Suppose the point

P upon

MP

QK

of increase of the function

to the rate of increase of the

independent variable x,
-

will

be expressed by

Ax

Now

Ay = ^-

tan

KNB

which

latter is the tangent of the angle

that the geometrical secant

NK makes with the #-axis.

192

Elementary Calculus.

The

value of
as

A*

will

depend upon the

size of the incre-

ment A#,
straight

line

we have already seen, except in the case when the function is linear. Further
is

of a

the

value of

--2-

Ax

dependent upon the position of the point P.

moved

as can be readily inferred from the figure, for if P were to the right, then an increment A# would bring

about an immensely increased corresponding increment, Ay, because of the steeper slope of the curve, and therefore
-

A#

would assume a greater

value.

NK

gradually decreased, then the point will continually approach the point P, while the secant will cut the abscissa at a more and more acute
If,

however,

A#

is

angle,

until
its

finally,

when

A# =

dx,

the
is

secant

will

take

limiting

position

AH, which

the

tangent to the curve y

geometric

/ (x) at the point P,

and we have

It is

-^ important to notice that the value of depends

dx

wholly on the direction of the curve


therefore, expresses
its

at the point

P, and,

gradient at this point.


then
the
differential
coefficient

Hence,

if

j (x),

of

this junction is equal to the tangent of the angle

which the
it

geometric tangent to the curve at any point with the x-axis, while, at the same time it

upon

makes
the

expresses

gradient of the curve at that point.

From
putting

Art. 9,

we know
we
find 3

that

if

x3 then
2

-*
(tOC

x2

x=

i.i

x2

3 (i.i)

3.63,

therefore

Elementary Calculus.

193

=
doc

3-63;

which on referring

to a table is

found

to

be the

natural tangent of 74 36'. thus have found that

We

the

rate

of

increase

of

the

given y ordinate
is

x?,

the
that

ratio of of

to

the

abscissa at a point where abscissa latter is the gradient of the curve


the geometrical tangent the ^-axis.

i.i, is

3.63.

This

at

that point, while


of 74

makes an angle

36' with

Let us

test the

curve and drawing the tangent.

above calculation by actually plotting the Fig. 12 shows a part of

Fig.

12.

the curve, while

is

that point
it

whose abscissa
will

is

i.i.

If

the angle

KRx

be measured,

be found to be about
to the curve at

20, but the angle which the tangent

makes with
lation, 74

the re-axis,
36'; the

is,

according to our previous calcuis

discrepancy

due

to the fact that the


is

unit of

measurement used on the #-axis


y-axis.

10 times that

used on the
In

order that the tangent should represent the true gradient of the curve at P, we must refer the ordinates and abscissas to the same scale, or we will not obtain the true

comparative rate of increase of y to x.


(nearly), or -^ of the true value.

Tan

20

0.363

194
In order to

Elementary Calculus.

make

this

have plotted the curve y

important point quite clear, we x? a second time (see Fig. 13),

!R

Fig. 13.

and have used the same


abscissas.

scale

for both

ordinates

and

Upon measuring
will

the

angle

PR#

with a pro-

tractor

it

be found to be 74

36' approximately,

which

corresponds with the result

3.63.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
I.

Derive the differential coefficient of the function

Now,
/.

y= = y + Ay
y

2
2

x2
(x
2

$x +

i.

Ax)

3 (x

A#)
3 3

i.

but,

+ Ay = 2 # + 4 # A# + 2 A:v y = 2x
2

# X

A# + 1

+1

Elementary Calculus.

195
2

Subtracting;

Ay =
.-.|2

x A#

A# +

A#

2
.

= 4*-3+*A*.
then
2 <fo is

If

A#

becomes

<fo,

evanescent.

Hence
II.

-^

4#

3.

f/JC

Find the gradient of the curve x 2 x + 2 = y at the point where 1.15, and the angle the geometrical

x=
2

tangent

at this point

makes with
-f 2j
2

the #-axis.

-X y= ^
y y

+ Ay = O + + Ay = x + = X
2 2
>>
.'.

A*)
2

(x

+
2

A*)
^c

2,

# A#

A,T

A^ +

2,

.V
w
.

4- 2.

Ay

2 a;

A#

AJC

+ A^

-^ = 2^ A^
To
x

1+

A.T.

Hence

^
=

-^-

i.

find the gradient of the curve at the point 1.15 we substitute as follows:

where

-2-

=
is

1=2

(1.15)

1.30.

Hence
26'

1.30

the gradient required,


find,

and

since tan 52

1.30,

we

therefore,

that the geometrical

tan-

gent at the point where 26' with the #-axis.


III.

x=

1.15

makes an angle

of 52

Find the rate

at

which the area of a square

is in-

creasing at the instant when the side is 6 feet long, supposing the latter to be subject to uniform increase of length at
the rate of 4.5 feet per second.

196

Elementary Calculus.

Let

By
that

Art. 7,
is,

the rate of

= length of side, y = x = area. dy = 2 x dx, variation of area = 2 x times


%
2

the rate of

variation of the side.

Substituting the given values,

we

get

dy =

2 (6) (4.5)

54

S q. ft.

per second.

EXERCISE
Find the
differential

I.

coefficient

of

the

following

five

functions by the
1.

method

of Art. 7.

= 2 x - 3. y= (x- 2)
y
2

(A?

3).

# X
6.

Plot the graph of

x2
tell

y.

(a)

What can you

about the roots of the equation


for the gradient of the

from the appearance of the graph ? (b) Find the general expression
curve at any point.

(c) Find the angle which the geometrical tangent makes with the curve at those points on it where x o, x },

X
x

= (d)

2,

= ~

2-

Draw
2,

=
(e)

tangents at the points where


test

=
c

and

your answers to question

f and by actual

measurement.
it have upon the gradient of the the scale for the ^-axis was made graph any point, 10 times as large as that of the ^-axis ?

What
at
^

effect

would
if

Elementary Calculus.

197

(/)

If

f (x)

and-ax

for a certain

value,

what

does this imply?


7.

Differentiate the function s

2 J at with respect to

t.

What
8.

does the result

mean ?

A man
is

cuts a circular plate of brass the diameter of

which
area?
9.

4 inches; after heating he finds the diameter to have increased by .006 of an inch. What is the increase of

If

x be

the side of a cube which

is

increasing uni-

formly at the rate of 0.5 inch per

second per second, at

what

rate is
is

the side
10.
ft.

the volume increasing at that instant exactly 2 inches in length?

when

If

a body travels with an accelerated velocity of 2

per second per second, and we call the space traversed at the end of the first second s, show by arithmetical
if

computation that

As

is

any

positive increase of

s,

then

As

approaches more nearly the actual momentary velocity

of the
is

body

at the

end

of the first second, the smaller

As

taken.

CHAPTER

II.

DIFFERENTIATION.
I.

Algebraic and Transcendental Functions.

An Algebraic Function is one in which the 12. only operations indicated are, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, involution, and evolution; further, such
ART.
finite number of terms, and any exponents involved must be constant. Examples

a function must be expressed by a


of algebraic functions are,

'

x2

2 x,

(x

m}*.

(x

fy y%
n}$.

_|_

^
-7

ft

j
.

(*-4)
In distinction to the above

we have

the so-called Tran-

scendental Functions, which cannot be expressed algebraically in a finite number of terms; examples of which are as
follows:
sin x, tan x, vers x, log e x, e x
.

The Binomial Theorem.


In works on algebra a general proof of expansion may be found:
(a

the following

+ bY =

an

+ na n~

n (n
I

~
2

*). a n ~ 2 b 2

1.2.3
For convenience we
will

put n

= Cv
i
.

=C
2

2,

etc.

we

thus get,
(a

b)

an

+C

a"- 1 b

+C
198

an

~2

+C

an

~3

&

+ ..,

ART.
If

13.

then

Expanding the right-hand "member, as explained in the previous paragraph, and multiplying through by a, we get ~ 1 n x"- A x + a C2 xn 2 (A x) 2 y + Ay = ax + a

But, y = ax\
.-.

A)/

and
If

+aC =a
Ax

_
Elementary Calculus.
Differentiation of

199

axn and x ax
n
,

y= + Ay =

a (x

Ax)

+ aC 3 xn ^
a
1

(A*) .+
a
.

=
3

Qx"- Ax +
.

C2 xn - 2 (Ax) 2

xn ^ (Ax) 3 +

xn ~ l +aC xn ~ 2 kx + a C
all

becomes dx, then


after the
first

the terms of the right-hand

member
bering

are evanescent (Art. 6);

and remem-

= Cj

(see Art. 12),

we

get

dx

Now
we
get

if

in the function

= y =

axn

i,

n
,

and

$.= dx
differentiate

nx-i.
respect to x.
the
First, multiply

To

xn with

x by

the index

and then obtain

new power by diminish1

ing the index by unity.

Example
To

x4
y

-^;

=4 x 4

3 4x

rfx

differentiate

ax"; differentiate the function

xn

multiply the result by the constant.

Example: y

x3

5 (3)

x3 - 1

15

x2

2oo

Elementary Calculus.
results

The

above obtained are true for


;

all

values of n,

whether
student.

the proof of the positive, negative, or fractional latter two cases is simple, and is left as an exercise for the

Examples

:y= - x-3

&.=

-! x- 3

= -

^ x~*

y=
Example:* y

xr

ot

Elementary Calculus.
If

201

becomes dx,
dy

then

dx
In a similar manner

du dx

dv

dx
that
if

we can show
y

=
_

u
du dx

v
.

w
dv
.

...

then

dy

dw
dx

"

'

dx
Hence, the

dx

differential coefficient of the

sum

of several
of

functions is the

sum

of

the differential coefficients

the

several parts, due regard being given to the signs.

Example:

=
dx dx

x3

x2

3.

By Art.

14,

=0
=
9

x2

10

2.

ART.
If

1 6.

Differentiation of a product.
.

v where u and v are each functions of x,

re-

dy_ quired the value of

dx

In order to obtain a clear idea of the meaning of the

above function, suppose u G

x and v

3 x.

Then

AMF
Ar

x = 5v
Fig. 14.

a*"

v can be geometrically represented by a rectangle ABCD sides are each of (see Fig. 14), two of whose opposite
.

202
length u

Elementary Calculus.

5 x,

while those adjacent are represented by

v=
If

3*.

is

increased by

Ax

then,

and

Hence

+ Aw = 5 (x + A#) = 5 # + 5 A# = + kv = 3 (x + A#) = 3 x + 3 A# = Aw = 5 A# and Ai; = 3 A#.


A;y,

AE,

AG.

Completing the figure as shown, we see that


the difference in area between the rectangles

which

is

AEFG

and

ABCD,

is

are obviously 3
respectively.

made up of three small rectangles whose areas x (5 A#), 5 x (3 A#), and (5 A#)(3 A#),

Hence Ay

(5

A#)

(3

A*)
(3

(5

A#)

(3

A*).

.'.f^=

3*

(5)

+5*

(3)

+5

A*).

Now

if

A#

is

a small decimal say o.ooooooi, clearly the


least of the rectangles, will
if

last term,

which represents the

tend to vanish; therefore,

A#
(5)

becomes dx, we have

^ = 3*
But and the
of the

+5* (3)
=
3 x,

....
=
dx
5

(i)

x and v

differential of the first function is

and that

second

is

=
dx

3.

Hence

substituting in (i);

^_ =
<fo;

^L
cfo

d#

In general

if

= + Ay =
y

(w

Aw)

(v

Av).

Elementary Calculus.
/.

203 Aw. Av,

+ A? =
A;y

uv

-f

vAw

+ wAv +
.

but

Hence

= vAw + u&v + Aw

Av.

Dividing by A#;

If

A#

becomes

doc

then

A#

Av

=
dx

dv which

is

evanes-

cent, for although the quotient

dx

is finite, it

is

multiplied

by the
TT

differential dv,

and therefore tends

to vanish.

Hence
Again
if

dy -^-

du

dx

dx
u
z
.

+
.

dv dx

--

then putting

= v =
y

w\

we

get

y=z.
dy
-f-

w,

and

dx

-= w dz h z dw
dx dx
u
.

.....
.

(a)

But

since

z=
.

v,

dx

dx

dx

Substituting this value of

dx

in (a)

we

get,

dy _^_

= vw

du

dx

dx

+ uw

dv

dx

uv

dw
.

dx

like

form can be found for the


of variables.

differential coefficient of

any number

Hence, the Differential Coefficient of a Product of several


variables, is the

sum

of the products of the differential coeffi-

cients of each variable multiplied

by

all the others.

2O4
Example:
y

Elementary Calculus.

(3

+
3)

2) (5

6)

Z=

(5*

-6)

+ =

(3*

+ ,)
(3*

(5* -<*)

(3)

+ *)

(s).

.'.

dy -^~

30^

8.

ART.
Let

17.

Differentiation of a quotient.

y
z/

= -

when

and v

are functions of #.

We

have,

vy,
' '

dx

dx
dx dx

dx

dx
but

->
v
du_

/.z;.^L=
'

^-dx
v

' .

d#

^L,
dx

u_

dv

and

dy -J

dx

v dx v

dx

Multiplying numerator and denominator by v

we

get

^
of

dy =

du v dx

~u

dv

dx

Hence, the Differential Coefficient of a fraction whose numerator and denominator are variables, is equal to the product
the

denominator and the

differential

coefficient

of

the

numerator minus the numerator times the


cient of the denominator, the
of the denominator.

differential coeffi-

whole divided by the square

Elementary Calculus.
If

205

- where
is

c is

a com constant, then, since the differential


get,

of a constant

zero,

we

dx

dv

Example:

dy _ dx~~

__
y

dx

v2

v 2 dx

x x

dx

dx

(i

+x

_ (i

+x
dy

2
}

(- i)- (i-*) (2*) 2 2 (I + X )


x2
(i

_ ~

x
2 2

i
)

dx
ART.
1 8.

+x

Differentiation of a function of a function.


to

Suppose we wish

evaluate

x2

x=

+3^ +
2

2,

when

1,2, etc.
2

Putting
2

Vx + 3 x + =
then
if

y and x
"2/z

+ $x +
and y and y

2,

x =i

x
Clearly z
is

= 2,

z= z =

6
12

= ^/6 = 1.817 = v 12 = 2.289.

depends upon
of

that of
is

a function of #, and further the value of y We z, hence y is also a function of z. a function of z which in turn
is

thus see that y


x,

is

a function

and we therefore say that y


latter

a function of a
at first,

function.

This

term

is

sometimes puzzling

and care

206

Elementary Calculus.
it

should be taken that us take the general case

is

thoroughly understood.

Let

and

z
if

= F (z) = / (x).

Now
If

x undergoes a
likewise.

small change in value then z will

change

x becomes x
z

becomes

+ A#, + Az,
Az
[An
identity,

Ay _

A)/

found

A#

Az

A#

by multiplying and
dividing
^Ia3

by

Az.]

and
then

if

Ax
**-

becomes dx,

&
dz

&_.
dbf

o*
Hence,
i/

F(z) and z= /(^), the differential coeffiwith respect to x, is equal to the product of the differential coefficient of y with respect to z, times the differential coefficient of z with respect to x.

y=

cient of y,

Example I :
where
Since

= \/u,

to find -2-

dx

x2

we

have,
the above,

+ 3 = u. y = \/u, y = F (u)
dx
y

and u

}(x).

From
but

$L = *L. *L,
du

dx

u*.

Elementary Calculus.

207

and

since

u
/. -^-

x 2 +3,
2 x.

'

dx

\A
\/x*

+
3,

In general
Given,

we would proceed
y =

thus:

Example II:

y=

(x

2)

(#

3)

Here we have a product, hence by

Art. 16

we

get,

(i)

As

the expression

(x

3)

is

a function of a function,

we

have,

dx

and
Substituting (2) and (3) in (i)

we

find,

dx

and

&- =

x5

45 x*

io& x*

87

x2

36

54.

208

Elementary Calculus.

EXERCISE
5 x?

II.

x 2 -x+2.

2.

ax 2

bx

c.

8 a*

-I.

22.
23. 24.

(3

X *

2).

y= y=

x 2 (2 x3
(x

i).
2

i)

Oc

i).

25.

Elementary Calculus.

209

26.

y y
y

==

X 2 \/2 X 2

I.

27.

28.

=
'

X2 x2
X2
b

+
I

29.

-x +x' b 2

x
2

30.

v/ b
31-

+x

(x

-b}
i

(x*-b)*
32.

y
y

Vx +
X2
\/x

33-

\/X
34-

+
X

^ 7

35-

\/a
I

x2
\/x

36.

v/
i

+Vx
-x/i- ^ + Vi-*

37-

v^
\

38.

y y

39-

40.

X\/

210

Elementary Calculus.
Differentiation of Transcendental Functions.
/THT

II.

ART.

19.

The value

of

sin a.

a tana - and when a becomes a


,

infinitely

small.
is

urement

In higher mathematics, angular measThe choice of always expressed in radians.

many advantages. It enexample, to compare directly the rate of change of a sine with the rate of change of its correables us, for

the radian as a unit possesses

sponding angle.
It is

important that the student should

now examine
an a
as

the

values of the two expressions


ishes.

and

a dimin-

A
for

glance at Fig. 15 will show that


a,
a.

any angle
sin

a < a
sin

<

tan a.
get

Dividing by
sin
a;

sin a,

we
sin

sin

a
a
sin

cos

a a

sin
i

Fig. 15.

<

cos

But coso

i,

hence

=
cos o

i;

and as a diminishes, the

more nearly does

cos

approach the value

i,

and when

is infinitely

reduced,

-- = a
cos
-

i;

therefore;

we may put
a. is infi-

the expression

-- or
sma
sin

when

the angle

nitely small, for

stands constantly between

and a

Elementary Calculus.

211

quantity,
(cos

which continually approaches

i,

as

a)

shown by
i

the inequality, hence


-

must itself approach


it

in

advance of

cos
rives at that value.

and

will

reach

when
cos

ar-

Again,

^^L =
a

J1BJL

a
a

_J: cos

but
-

we have

seen that

each of the expressions

-and

cos a

tends to approach

the value unity as the angle diminishes; hence

a
If

we may put

when a

is infinitely

small.

ART.

20.

Differentiation of

sin

x and y

cos x.

y=
y y

sin x,
sin (x sin

then

And

+ Ay = + Ay = y = Ay = Ay =
.*.

A#).

cos

A# +

cos

sin

A#.

sin x.

sin

cos

.'.

sin

A^ (cos A#
(

sin

i) i)

+ cos x sin A#. + cos x sin A#. +

Hence
but

=
A#
AjC
is infinitely

cos A^ -

when A#

small,

/.

when Ax becomes

dx, then
)

^L = dx
.-.

i(

+cos*

......

(i)

-2-

dx

212

Elementary Calculus.

In an exactly similar manner to the above


that
if

we may show

y = cos x,

-%-

= =
tan

sin x.

dx y

ART.
If

21.

Differentiation of

x and

y=

cot x.

y=

tan x,

then
COS cos
-

X
.

By

Art. 17,

(sin

x}

sin

xd

(cos x^

dy

_ cos x
__ cos
2

cos

x
2

sin

sin x)

dx
dy dx
Jy
</#

cos 2

+
2

sin

cos
g?

#
_
i
2

(tan #)
<fo

cos 2
t

#
that

In like manner,

if

= =

cot

x we may show
i

-r-

dy

=
y

dx

sm 2 ^

esc x.

. 2

ART.
If

22.

Differentiation of

sec

# aw^

y=

cosecx.

sec ^, then

y=-

Differentiating,

we

find
sin - x
-

dy

dx
s

-f-

=
.

cos 2

tan

sec x.

[Since

-^ =

***-

-1- =

tan

sec x.]

Elementary Calculus.

213

Similarly,

when y =

cosec x, then y

= -^

and

dx

sin

The

following convenient table should be committed to


:

memory
y

*
cos

= sn x] -- =
dx

x x #
sec

y y

= c x -2- = cos x; -dx

sn x
C sc 2

y
y

= tan x; = sec x: = cosec

-2-

=
=

sec

dx
-*-.

= cot x;

-%-

dx

tan

#
esc #.

x:

-- =
dbc
i

cot

Since vers

we have
also
if

= y=

cos x,

\i

vers x,

cos x, and, therefore, -2-

sin x:

dx

covers

x=

sin x,

=
dx

cos x.

EXERCISE
i.

III.

y=
y = y=

tan (bx).
sin (3

2.

y y
v

=
= = = =

cos

x
tan

3.
5-

# 2 ).

4. 6.

\/W.
.r

cos ( xH )-

6 sin

7.

y y

= =

sin (i sin #.
5

ax 2 ).

S.

cos

V x
cos 4 a^
.

g.

10.

x2

* Note that the differential coefficients of all the co-functions have a negative sign. The significance of this will be seen later.

214

Elementary Calculus.

ii.

y=
y
y

tan (nx).

12.

y=

cos 5 (3

re).

13.

=
= =

cos n
cot

sin n x.
3 J cot

14.

-\-

re.

15.

re

tan

tan3

re
.

re

sin

x cos

re

17.

y
y

=
=

tan

re

(sin re).

18.

19.

y
y

= \/a
=
sin

cos 2

re

+
a
.

b sin

2
re.

20.

ax

(sin re)

Of what functions
efficients:

are the following the differential co-

21.

dy -*

= =

5 sin

4 4

re

cos

re.

22.

-f-

dx

a [cos

(b

+ ax) + sin

(b

ax}],

dy___

dx
24.

-2-

20 x cos 4

re

sin 2

re

2
.

25.

m cot m/ cosec wre.

Elementary Calculus.

215

DIFFERENTIATION OF LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS.


The
ART.
23.
series

= A + B# + C* + D^ +
2

Consider the geometric


i

series,

(i)

(i)

the value of which


2.

when

the

number

of terms

is infinite is

We
The

can approach

this

value to any required degree

of accuracy

by taking a

sufficient

number
3

of terms.

general notation for such a series

is

as follows:

= A + Ex + Cx + D^ +
2

...
calculation of
is

when A, B,

C,

etc.,

are constants.

The

numerical quantities and of experimental results referred to a series of this form.


In

often

make

order to calculate the logarithms of numbers, we use of a series in which x either is equal to or in-

volves the quantity whose logarithm is sought, and hence the latter can be calculated to any required degree of

accuracy. Such a series to be of practical value should possess the it must converge rapidly, so that following properties
:

it

not require a large number of terms to be taken before the necessary accuracy is reached, and it must be
will

convenient of computation. The binomial theorem supplies us with an expression


of

2 and it y = A + Ex + Cx + Dx? has been found that the determination of the value of

the

form

+
(i

when n becomes

infinite,

forms a suitable

start-

ing-point from which to begin investigations with a view of This will be obtaining a practical logarithmic series. discussed in its proper place.

216

Elementary Calculus.

ART.
finite.

24.

The

'value of

li-i
\ I
i
[

when n becomes m\n


1

Suppose
get
/i

in the expression

--

n
00

we put n
i

oo.,

we

I
;

-\

(i

+ 0)=

now

is

indeter-

minate, for infinity has no definite value; symbol oo as referring to a magnitude which

we regard
is

the

greater than

any we can conceive.

We

shall refer to the


article.

matter of indeterminate forms in a

subsequent

In the

mean time we
in another

by approaching the calculation

show that manner we can


shall
[

obtain a more definite result for the evaluation of

when n

V
oo
.

By

the Binomial

Theorem, we have

n (n-i)
fa
i

(n

1.2 - 2) /A

~ A

+ V^-^ + V

1.2.3 n ~ A /^ (
n

1.2
If

1.2.3
n
n
,

GO

then terms such as

etc.,

vanish;

1.2
We
will

1.2.

put

= e =

2.71828
2.71828.

....

Elementary Calculus.

217

The evaluation of e to any required degree of accuracy can be conveniently performed as follows
:

.000000

4
5

6
7

218

Elementary Calculus.

+
+ +
v

+
nxj
\

nx,

Z3

Now

if

oo

then the terms

>

>

etc.,

vanish.

Hence we have
xv.2
-

I I

*-v

^
A/

^4 ^

Z2

Z3

/^

Now

put

jc

then

Elementary Calculus.

219
its

This

is known as the Logarithmic Series, and by we could calculate many logarithms, but since it = verges slowly and only between the values x

means
i

also con-

and

x=
tation.

i,

it is

From
(Z

not suitable for general logarithmic computhis latter series we can, however, obtain the

following:

LO&

I)

10& Z

|_2Z

- -- --- -+ +
1

(2Z

I)3

5(2Z+I)

7(2Z+i) 7
This
stance
series is
if

most convenient
then
i

\oge 2

= =

for our purpose, for in-

i,

loge
.'.

2
l_3

1
3

^
5

3 (3)

5 (5)

And

in a similar

Loge 2 = manner the

0.6931.

logarithms of other quantities

could be calculated.

ART. 26. The logarithmic modulus. Logarithms calculated to the base e are known as Napierian logarithms,
because of their introduction by Napier; they are also called Natural Logarithms. This latter term was applied because
they appeared
first

in the investigation

conducted for the

purpose of discovering a

method

for calculating logarithms.

The base
this

e is
is

used exclusively in higher mathematics, but


not suitable for practical computation; the

system

student will be aware that for the latter purpose the base 10 is chosen.

We will now show how logarithms to the base transformed to the base 10 and vice versaLet
then
.'.

can be

y
ey

= = =

log,
z
.

x and z = Iog10 x x and io2 = x.


io

220
I.

Elementary Calculus.

To
/.

transform Iog10
ey

x
.

y
z

log,

= e =

to log, x,

we had

io

z log, io.

But
and

log, e

= =

and
/.

log, io

= 2.30258,

and

since

= log, #

Iog 10 #,

\og e

x=
is is

2.30258 Iog 10 #.

The
ierian

quantity 2.30258

called the

Modulus

of the

Napthis

logarithms and

often

denoted by
x.

M.

In

notation

we have
log,

= =

M Iog
.

10

II.

To

transform log, x to Iog 10 x, z e v = io


.'.

we had

y Iog10

z Iog 10 io.

Now

log,

x and
Iog 10

Iog 10 e

0.43429, while Iog10 io

and z = Iog10 Hence

x.

0.43429 log, x.

The

quantity 0.43429
is

is

called the

Modulus

of the Briggs

System and
ART.

denoted by m.
Iog 10

We

therefore have,

= m log, x.

27.

The
Iog 10

relation between

and m.

We

have

Now

loge

x = m log, x B x= m

and

log,

M Iog
we

10

x.

Substituting in the second equation above

get

2&*2 =

Iog10 x.

.*.

M=
.

and
i.

m=
from the base a
log, a

or

M
Hence

m=

to transform logarithms

to the

base b multiply by

Note

=
loga e

loga b

Elementary Calculus.

221
Inx

ART.

28.

The

d. c. of

= log

x.

We will now write

for log, x.

We

have
.-.

= + Ay =
y
ln(x

Inx.

ln(x

Ay

Ax)

Inx

In

Multiplying by

we

get,

if)**
Hence
-

te

+
o,

~
while - /y,

A
If

/y

LX becomes dx then
-?-= n
then

oo

&x

Putting

=
x

hx

- and n
,

I
[

AJC\-^ -- A* =

/
I

*i
n

+
.

-\ *)

n
,

which

for

oo is

equal to e (Art. 24).

Hence we
but

get

-*<fo

=
#

/we,

Ine
<ty

i,

__ i_

dx

ART.

29.

The

d.

c.

= logax, oj y = loga*, y v /. a = x. ylna = Inx,

222

Elementary Calculus.

But by

Art. 27,

Jog,
.-.

=
a

loga

e.

and
Note loga ond term

= -*- =
y

Inx

\oga
e.

e,

ax
e is

x
.*.

log a

a constant,

dx

2_ = o,
product
_

hence the secis

in the differentiation of the

zero.

ART. 30.

Thed.c.o}y=a*
.-.

= ax = x Ina, Iny
y
i.
.

...

&
dx
c
"

Ina.

y
.

&- = anna,
dx
'

ART.

The d
31.

= = y
y
2

e*

ex

1.2

1.2.3

1.2.3.4
Differentiating each term

we

get,

1.2
1.2
Hence
This
is

1.2.3

*+* 1.2.3
coefficient
is

^- = ^.
a function of great importance, and
differential
is the only equal to the

one known whose


function
itself.

The appearance

of

ex

and

ax

in

many

Elementary Calculus.
physical

223
of

formulae

makes

these
will

quantities

particular

interest to the student,

who

have no

difficulty in

show-

ing that

when y

ax

then -2-

= ae ax
uv

dx

by a process similar

to the above.

ART. 32. The d. c. of y u and v are functions of x.


Iny
.'.

Let y

u v when both

i -

y
If

dy -fdx

= =

v Inu. v
.

i - du u dx

h Inu

dv

dx

we now

v multiply by u we

get,
n

dy
-f-

dx
Hence,
first,

m
a

- du dx

uv lnu
7

dv

dx
the
v
\

to

differentiate

differentiate

form y = u as though u were variable and v constant,


junction
of

(as

when y

xn

-*L
,

nx n ~

(tx

second, as though v were

variable

and u constant

(as

when y

ax

-2,

dx

a x lnx)

and

take the

sum

of the results.

The
found
:

following table gives the differential coefficients thus

y=
y

logex

log;

224

Elementary Calculus.

EXERCISE
i.

IV.

y=
y

In
ex

3.
5.
7.

(2x xa

i).

2.

4. 6.

9.

= y =
y

y=e x sin x.
a lnx
.

8.

= y = y =
y

y=

xx

aln (\/x
x x
(e )
.

_
+
a)

cos (Inx).

In (Inx).

10. 12.

y=
=

II.

?=
y

**)*.
e ax sin nx.

+
1

ex

13.

In I \i

+ -

*
)

*/

15-

17.

y y

= =

x log cot e .

19.

Inx
T I

In (a

ao.

y=ln
y y y y

~ +

\/a
.

x 2 ).

cos
COS

* X

21.

= =

+
.

+ V* +bx
2

22. 24.
25.

a s * nx
wvw
at

23.
(u,

ex

=x = e

v and

are functions of x).

(cos w#)*.

III.

Differentiation of the Inverse Trigonometrical

Functions.

ART. 33. When we wish to express in symbols that is an angle whose sine is x, we write y = sin- x, and y = cos- 1 x, y = tan- 1 x, we mean that similarly if we write y
1

is

an angle whose cosine or tangent is x. Now sin- 1 J 30, from which we at once obtain the inverse expressin

sion

30

J; clearly,

if

sin-

x then x

sin y.

Elementary Calculus.

225

The German mathematicians write y = arc sin x instead of y sin- x. The former expression may be read y is
1

an arc whose sine


to

is

x.

similar interpretation

is

given

y =

arc tan

x and y

arc sec x,

and so

on.

sin- 1 x, functions y trigonometrical cos- x, etc., are of great importance in the Integral y Calculus.
inverse
1

The

ART.
If

34.

The

d.

c.

of
1

sin~ l x and y

cos~ l x.

y=
x
dx

sin- x,
sin y,

then

and

= =

cos y

dy

= \/i

sin

y dy.

Hence
dx

vi

x2

The

expression dx

sign of the root depends upon that of cos y in the For angles in the first quadrant cos y dy.

this is clearly positive.

By

a similar process the student will find that

if

y
then

COS" X,
, vi
1

=dx

x
/aw- 1

ART. 35.
If

The

d. c.

= of y
=

1 awe? a?/- #.

then

and
.

(foe

y = #= =

tan- x,
tan y,
sec y
i i
2

dy

(i

tan 2 y) dy.

dy dx
dv

+
i

tan 2 y

Hence

Similarly,

if

cot- 1 x,

-j2

226

Elementary Calculus.

ART. 36.
If

The

d.c.

of

sec~ l

xandy =

cosec* 1 x.

y=
= doc =
x
dy_

sec~X
sec y,

then

sec

y tan y dy
*

= sec y
i

\/sec y

dy,

=
sec y
i

dx

\/sec y

Hence

In like manner,

if

cosec -t x,
i
'

then

dy

x\/x2 -i
The
y
d.c.

ART. 37.
If

of
1

vers~l

x and

covers- 1 x.

then

= vers" x, x = vers y = i cos y, cos y dy, dx = sin y dy = \/i dx = \A vers cty = \/2 vers y vers y dy = \/2 x x dy.
2
C1 2

;y)
2

"
Similarly,

=
S"
if

y = covers

-1

-*x, then

dx

\/2 x

x2

Note that the

differential coefficients of all the co-inverse

functions have a negative sign, and that in each case where a root occurs any ambiguity of sign may be disposed of by
referring to

some previous function

of y.

Elementary Calculus.

227
in concise

The
form:

the above results following table gives

=
y

sin

-i

dy_

= =

dx

\A - &

= =
= =

cos -.* ;

|^
dy

_-^==.
i
i
' .

tan -i *'

^
dy d

~~

+
i

x2
i

-y

cot- 1 vV, *;

x2

sec- *;

y=
y

cosec- 1 *;

r*-

=
*

^*

/-^ v^
T

1 vers- ! *;

^
.

^
dy_
"
:

\/ X
2

X'

covers

-i

_
V.

(^

\/2X~X*

EXERCISE
i.

sin-

(2 *).

2.

y y

= =

tan- 1 3
.

a2
.

3.

y
y

*
=

cos- 1

4-

5.

cos~ 1 \/a^.
tan

6.

=
==

sin-1

\A

-'a*3
.

tan

"'

g.

arc sin 2

10.

arc tan

228

Elementary Calculus.

ii.

=
=

b arc cot

# V^

12.

sin- 1

x
(

V*

*/

13-

sin- 1

^
cos

#
>

;y=
y y y

CQt

1 6.

sec- 1
n e' *.

17.
19.

= = = =

e taQ -^.

18.

= =
=
y

e x sin- 1 2 #.

20.

covers- 1

21.

vers- 1

-. x

22.

cot-

23.

arc cos

\cos

24.

=
=

arc cos

2 5-

1 i cot"

2 3T

CHAPTER

III.

INTEGRATION.
ART. 38. In Chapter I we found that if y f(x) be the equation to a curye, then the Differential Coefficient
dy -*-

dx

expresses:

(1)

The

rate of

change of the function as compared with


of the curve at

the rate of change of the independent variable.


(2)

The gradient
suppose

any

point.

Now

the

differential

coefficient

of

a certain

function y f(x) be given; would it be possible to obtain a law which would enable us to find the original function

from which
derived?
of

the

given

differential
if

coefficient

has
3

been
.

For example,
is
2

dx

2 ==3 ax or dy

ax 2

dx,

what function

ax the

differential coefficient?

Let us examine the following table:


If

=
=

ax,

ax 2

= =

ax3

= =

ax 4

then

dy
If

a dx, dy
2
,

ax
3
,

dx, dy

ax 2 dx, dy

3 4 ax dx.

y=-x 2
dy
(I)

y=-x
3

y=-x* 4
dy

ax

dx, dy

ax 2 dx,

=
if

ax3 dx

Notice, that in each case,

we

multiply the differ-

ential coefficient

by

x, or,

what
229

is

the same, raise the

power

of

in the differential coefficient

by

unity,

we

obtain the

230

Elementary Calculus.
(In differentiating

index of x in the original function.

we

diminished the power of x by unity.)


(II) Again, if we divide by the increased power we obtain the numerical factor of the original function in each

case.
(III)

The

constant factor a remains unaltered.


differential disappears.

(IV)

The

Take

the general case,


(toe

=
x n+l

ax n or dy= ax

11

dx.

Apply-

ing the above rules

we

obtain the original function,

Note
have

if

we

differentiated this latter expression,

we would

-2-

=
n

dx

+
.

(n
i

i )

x "+ 1

1
,

and hence,

dy

ax n

dx.

The
in the

process of

finding a function
is called

when

its

differential

coefficient is

Integration, and we would say given, above case we had integrated the expression ax n dx.
.

We
To
power

have now the following rule:


integrate a differential of the
of

n form ax dx,

first

raise the

x by

unity, then divide by the raised power; omit

the differential of the variable.

Example:
Integrating,

Suppose dy

=
3

x 15

dx.

we

find

=
10 16

x 1Q

was made up

was supposed by Leibnitz, that a function an infinite number of infinitely small differences (differentials), and that their sum made up the funcART.
39.
It

of

Elementary Calculus.
tion.
letter

231
to

Hence,

to

show

that the

sum was
y

S was used.

We

might thus write S dy

and, therefore,

be taken, the S (3 x 2 dx\

x3

Later, for convenience, instead of the letter S the symbol


I

was employed.

This symbol,
It
is

it

will

be noticed,
sign,

is

simply

process
the

an elongated S. which

called

the

Integral

it

represents,

Integration.

The

and the word


to give

''Integrate" means

"to form into one whole, or

sum

total of."

In modern mathematics

we would

write:

Given

dy

dx.

read,

(The

integral of dy)

= =

(the integral of 3

x2

dx).

x3

Notice that the integral sign,

is

only a symbol, which

can be looked upon as meaning that we are to find the function whose derivative with respect to x is a certain
given quantity.

Thus 13 x 2 dx

x?,

can be read, the


2

function whose derivative with respect to x is 3 x dx, We see from the above discussion that Integration

is

x3

may

problems of Integral

be looked upon as the inverse of Differentiation. In fact, Calculus are dependent upon an

inverse operation to those of Differential Calculus. Let us ART. 40. The constant of integration.

now

If we plot the corresponding x2 take the equation y graph we shall obtain a curve, known as a parabola, which
.

232

Elementary Calculus.

will cut the ^-axis at

=
3,

o;

y = = y

x2 x2

2, 2,

y = y =

x2 x2

from the equations, y = # 2 + i, and again y = x 2 - i, etc.,

3, etc.,

we

obtain a series of similar


^y-axis
i,

curves, with coincident axes, which will cut the

y =
A
y =

at points
2,

= i, y = 2, - 3, etc. y =

3, etc.,

and

also at

general

x2

expression for all such curves would be When the value of C, where C is a constant.
is

is

known, then a particular curve

indicated.

Let us take the differential coefficient -%-

dy

dx
2

x, or

dx.

By

integration

we have from
2

dy

dx,

y=
But
(IX

X\
differentiating
2

=
is

x would be obtained by
of expressions of the

an

infinite

number
2

There

nothing to tell us definitely

function the

form y = x + C. from which special x has been obtained, hence we see that we

must write:
Given
or

-2-

dx
dy
I

2 x,

= =
=

x
I

dx,
2

then

dy
y

x
C.

dx,

and

x2

C is called a constant of Integration, and must always be added when integrating an expression about which nothing more is known than that it is the differential coefficient of
a certain junction.

An expression such as

x dx

x2

+C

Elementary Calculus.
is

233

called

data,

the

an Indefinite Integral, because, from the given function cannot be definitely determined. In

practical problems we can generally obtain one or conditions which will indicate the required functions.

more

= 2 x dx and the Suppose, for instance, we had given dy the curve pass through the point x = 2, condition that

y=
and

5-

We

have by integration,
.'.

substituting,

+ C. 5=4 + C,
x2
I.
i.

Cthe function
is

= x 2 -fdefinitely found to be y This expression obtained from the Indefinite Integral


Hence
called a Definite Integral.

is

Take
Here

dv

dt.

/*-/.
/.

idv=
v

Cadi.

at

+C

where a

is

the constant of

the original acceleration, due to gravity, and Now if the condition is integration.

imposed that the body starts from rest, when t = o, v = o, and .'. C = o, and we get the definite integral v = at, where C stands for the initial velocity, which is
zero in this case.

From

the above

we

see that strictly,

ax n dx

= =

4-

C,

and

therefore,

J
We

x 4 dx

$-

x5

C.
is

In practice, however, the constant of integration


understood.
shall

often

refer again to the integration con-

stant in a later article.

234

Elementary Calculus.

ART. 41.

constant factor

may

be

placed outside
is

the

integration sign.

The
I

differential of

ax
I

a dx,

hence,
Rule.
factor,
sign.

dx

ax

dx.

If

an expression

to be integrated has a constant

this factor

may

be placed without the integration

ART. 42.

The

integration of a

sum

or difference.

In the

Differential Calculus,

we found
jb

d (u

j:

w)

__

dx
or

du dx

dv

dw
dx
dw,
I
'

dx
dv
I

d
/

(u

w)

du

hence
Rule.
algebraic

(du

dv

dw)

du

dv
is

dw.

The

integral of

an

algebraic

sum

equal to the

sum

of the integrals of the various terms.

ART. 42 a.
considered.
relation
:

Mechanics

problem of integral calculus geometrically supplies us with the following

where v
Chapter

=
I

velocity,

= a =
v

at

acceleration,

and

we

realized that v
t.

=
-^-

where

= time. In s = space trav/

ersed in the time

Hence
and
.'.

~=
at

at,

ds

at dt.

ids
.'.

= i at dt. =
at\

Elementary Calculus.

235
ds
dt

We have thus found that the differential coefficient


results

at
2
.

from the differentiation


will

of the function

\ at

We

now

investigate this

the student will

matter geometrically and at once be convinced that the Integral


scope than has been thus far

Calculus has a
indicated.

much wider

The graph of v = at is a straight line, and since we will assume that there is no initial velocity, and, therefore, no added constant, this straight line passes through the origin.

In Fig.
as shown.

let

OA
and

the units of time

represent the graph of v at, while are referred to the co-ordinates velocity

Suppose the time represented by OB, which

is

the

abscissa of any point A, to be divided into a number of equal parts, and the construction of the figure completed In the case of uniform velocity s as shown. vt.

Take any

small

time

interval

CD

and suppose the


short period. of this
at

moving body constant jor this The velocity of the body at the beginning interval would be represented by CE and

velocity of the

time

the

end

bvDH.

236
Since s

Elementary Calculus.

vt is the space traversed

the time represented

by the body during under the supposition, by CD, then,

that throughout this short time interval a constant velocity is maintained, or the area of the equal to

CE

CE X CD

rectangle
traversed.

CDFE

would geometrically represent the space


represents the final velocity at the end CD, then the area of the rectangle
traversed,

Again, since

DH

of the time interval

CDHG
be

would represent the space


maintained.

under the
traversed

supposition that throughout the time


constantly

CD

this latter velocity

The

actual

space

would be more than the


less

first

result

would

indicate,

and

than the

latter.

Now the complete space traversed would be clearly mere than that represented by the shaded rectangles and less than that indicated by the larger rectangles, of which

CDHG
is

is

be given by the

a representative. The difference or error would sum of the small rectangles, one of which
of these latter
of

EFHG. Now the sum

is

D'BAK'.

But the area

D'BAK' can

equal to the rectangle be infinitely reduced

by making the time

interval small,

and when the


is

latter is

dt or infinitely small, the area of

D'BAK/

evanescent.

In

this case the error or difference disappears

and the whole

space traversed during the time area of the triangle OAB.

OB

is

represented by the

Now
But
.

the area of the triangle


/

Hence

or area of

OAB = J OB X OB = and BA = v. OAB = \t.v= J a/, OAB = J at


.

BA.

/ .

But the area

of

OAB

represents

s,

.-.$=* at\

Elementary Calculus.

237

Hence we
at
.

find

that

when we
2 J a/ ,

integrate thus,

ds

dt,

and

find 5

we have

really obtained the

sum
or at
the

of
.

an
dt,

infinite

number

of elementary areas, each

at

body

the total of which gives the space traversed by during the time /, and moving in accordance with

the law v

at.

The summation

of

elementary areas with


is

a view of a marked

obtaining a result indicated by their total feature of the Integral Calculus.

ART. 43.

The

definite integral.

to determine the space traversed

it be required a moving body under by

Should

the law v

at

during a

finite
/2

time interval

proceed thus: putting


integrating
I

OD =
.

and

ds

I at

dt,

we

CD we might OC = ^ (Fig. 17), and = J at + C, as we get s


2

have already seen, and have 5 = i at 2


.

if

the initial velocity

is

zero

we

The

space traversed from zero to

is

represented by the

238

Elementary Calculus.

area of the triangle the area of *!, by


Subtracting,

ODH =
\ at
at
2

2 \ at2 2
.

and that from zero


2

to

OCE =

we have \

^ at

area

CDHE,
:

which

In the language of the gives the required space traversed. Calculus we express the above as follows Integral
2 I

atdt

I at2

dt

a^

dt

2 J at2

\ at

2
,

or thus,

The
/!

integral I atdt is called a Definite Integral; /2-and Jt, are referred to as the superior or upper, and inferior or
limit, respectively.
/
t

lower

We
.

read the expression thus: the

integral from
It will
is

to

/2

of at

dt.

be noticed that the quantity enclosed in brackets


the general or indefinite integral, and
is

the solution of

that the solution of the definite integral


stituting
first

obtained by sub-

the upper limit, then the lower,

and taking

the difference.

The

constant

difference

is clearly made to disappear by taking the between the integrals formed by giving two

successive values to the independent variable. To find the value of a definite integral solve
integral, then substitute

the general

first the upper, then the lower limit,

and
by

take the difference. This process will be the following simple example:

made

clear

Required the space traversed between 5th and ;th seconds, given the acceleration equal to 4 feet per second per second.

5= C
Js
.'

at.dt=[^
2

at

].

*= i-4-

(7)

-i-4.(5)

=48sq.ft.

Elementary Calculus.

239

INTEGRATION OF GENERAL FORMS.


ART. 44.
It is to

be observed that in the formula,


n

aoc

dx

+
i

.....
quantity
(without

(A)

x stands for any expression whatever. Hence, whenever we have a quantity, monomial or polynomial, raised to any
power and the
differential

of

this

its

exponent), formula (A) applies.

Example.

(2

x3

x2

5)*

(x

x) dx
it

what?

Since a constant does not affect differentiation,


affect integration, so that

does not

are always at liberty to introduce a constant factor behind the integral, if at the same

we

time

we

divide the integral by the

same

factor, in order

that the value be not altered.

But no expression contain-

ing the variable can be removed from behind the integral or introduced in any way.
In the example above,
d(2

x3

x2

5)

(6

x2
2

6 x)

dx

6 (x 2

x) dx.

Hence if the expression (x becomes the differential of form (A); thus,

x) dx be multiplied by 6, it 3 2 2 x 3 x + 5 and we get

f (2 X

x2
2

5)

(x

x) dx

= =
5].

r*-3* +5) i (6*


[Like (A)], [where

-6*)<fc;

2=2^-3^ +
x) dx

^(2X
3

x 2 +5)3
2

(*
$Y*

- ix +
f

= (2^-3^ +
15

5)',

240
f*

Elementary Calculus.

xdx

Agaln

xdx
\/r
2

- x2

since
2

x 2 )-* (2

xdx)

= -

(r

<fo

d(r

x 2 ).

TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS AND LOG


INTEGRALS.
ART. 45.
tiation,

we

Since integration is the reverse of differeneasily derive the following, by reversing the

formulae for differentiation:

cos

x dx

=
=

sin

+
x

c.

I sin

x dx

cos

+ c.
c.

sec 2

x dx

= =

tan

+
x

esc 2

x dx

cot

-f

c.

sec

x tan x dx

sec

+
x

c.

esc

x cot #
dx

cfo

=
s 111

csc

-{-

c.

/~ I

"1 *

+C

or

cos- 1

4-

c.

Elementary Calculus.

241

dx = f J i +*
2

tan- 1 x

+
*

c.

\/a
2

sin- 1

or

- cor** +
cot- 1

c.

^
+
I t/

= x2
log

tan- 1

- + cor - a

- +

c.

-^c

c, etc.

Put these

all

into rules.

EXERCISE
Integrate:
i.
I

VI.

x%dx.

2.

I (x

2)

dx.

4.

2 f(2 ^

5)* (x

i) <&.

5.

2 (jc

i )2 A;

dx.

6.

/ (jc

3 #)

^-

7-

(5^ *

3^cJ

i)^.

8.

I-

1-dx.

/f +
(^
2

~
:

10.

i)

* ^2
2

dbe.

(i

*)

\/^ ^*)* (2

12.

J (\/n -\/x)

dx.

13-

2 f(3 *

- * ^2 )

Elementary Calculus.

14.

C dx i J 3/x2
I
/ I

r
I
1

?-

(i

3/ V

jc)

dx.

16.

cos3

sin

dx.

17.

(i

cos

18.

tan*

sec

# <fo.

19.

cot

esc

dx.

20.

sec 2

rv

tan xdx.

21.

esc

jc

cot

jc c?^.

22.

sin*

^ cos

ac

dx.

23.

e^

A;

dx.

24.

tan

5f

dx.

J
I

25.

J/
1

sin

cos

26.

cos

#2

rv

dx.

27

28

^2 + /JC<foI
30-

J^*?dxI +
JC

32

2^ +

p J
we

sec

tan

x dx # 3
ry

34.

t/

r-^fc.. + COS X
I

ART. 46.

77ze
is

curve;

harmonic motion.

Suppose

a body moving in a circle with uniform P! (Fig. 18) the centre of the circle being O let P2 be a second velocity,
;

body moving
ner that

P2

diameter AB, but in such a manmaintains a position at the foot of the always
in the fixed

Elementary Calculus.

243

perpendicular from Pj upon AB. Now the body P2 travels backwards and forwards upon the diameter and its velocity

Fig.

18.

will

be at a

approaches Simple Harmonic Motion. The distance from O to


If

maximum as it passes O and diminishes as it B and A; such motion executed by P 2 is called


called the Amplitude. once at each complete AB, then,
is

or

we

fix

upon any

point in
the

pass this fixed point, thus occupied by such a cycle of motion is called a Period. P2 in completing The motion of a tuning fork, an oscillating pendulum and
revolution of
15

body P2

will

travelling in the

same

direction.

The time

an

alternating

current,

are

motion.

The change

of position or

good examples of periodic motion of the particle

P2

is

clearly a function of the time,

and further

since each

cycle of

motion recurs periodically, we say that the Simple

244

Elementary Calculus.
of

Harmonic Motion
time.

a point

is

a periodic function of
the

In general a

Periodic Function

is

one,

value of

which recurs

at fixed intervals, while the variable increases

uniformly. In Fig. 1 8, suppose

OP

is

a revolving radius, and tracing

a constantly increasing angle, a.


Putting the radius of the circle equal to unity then
or in general
.'.

sin

a.

= P Pi,
2

= =

sin a.

sin (a

2 TT).

sin a. is a periodic function, and Evidently, then, y the period is the time taken to complete one revolution.

This

is

equal to
call 6.

271

divided by the angular velocity, which


thus have the Period

we will

We

T=
6

The

Frequency, or the

number

of periods in a second, is

Note

that

. ,

and

/.

2 nf.

is

In electrical work the number of alternations per minute often used instead of the frequency. From the annexed
it

diagram

will

be seen that the motion of the Point

P3
is

is

exactly similar to that of

P2

excepting that

when P2

at

the extremity of is zero, the point

its

P3

path, where the instantaneous velocity is passing through the with its maxi-

mum velocity

and

so on.

Calling the radius of the circle a (the Amplitude),

we

have,

Elementary Calculus.

245

but

cos (90

a)

= sin a, = a cos (90 y

a).

. *.

or

= y=

a sin a,
a sin (a

TT).

Hence we see that y = a sin a represents the Simple Harmonic Motion of the point P 3 where a is the Amplitude and a the angle described from a fixed starting point, and is the product of the angular velocity and time,
;

a.

dtj

Note
less

a sin dt. generally write y that since the sine can never be greater than
i,

we

or

than

hence the
i

maximum and minimum


respectively.

values

of sin 6t are

and
a:

i,

We

will

now draw

Function y
If

=
a

a graph of the Simple Harmonic

sin

=
=

0.707

a=
4

0.707

TT

= =

a=-y=i
2

a=5JE

<y

.707

=
o.

.707

246
Referring a,

Elementary Calculus.
expressed in radians to
the
#-axis,

and

using the same scale as the ordinate, we obtain a sinuous or wavy curve, known as the Curve of Sines or the Har-

monic Curve.
this

If

the motion of the point giving rise to

graph be made quicker or slower, the undulations of the curve will be more widely spread or brought nearer
together.

Increase in Amplitude gives increased rise to the undulations

and

vice versa.

Fig.

(i8a)

shows the same curve plotted by another

Fig. i8a.

method; the student should have no difficulty in understandIt will ing the principle after an inspection of the figure.
be noticed that the curve does not begin upon the *-axis, but that the periodic time is counted from the instant that
the point

has passed through the angle


electrical engineers the lead;

e.

This angle
negative

e is called
it is

by

when

known as the lag. The term Phase is used

to

denote the interval of time

that has elapsed since the point P passed through its initial the Phase Conposition at A, and hence e is often called
stant.

Elementary Calculus.

247

ART. 47.

Plane areas.

AB

a fixed ordinate.

Now

ordinate corresponding to

= suppose CD the value x = OC

Let y

f(x) be a curve,

and

y be a second
(Fig.

19).

then

ABDC, call this area u, let CF Aw = CFHD, and Ay = GH. Now CDGF < Aw < CEHF but CDGF = y
Consider the area
;

and

CEHF = FH
y
.'.
.

A*.

Hence

Ax < Aw <
y

<

AM

FH. < T. TT
.

Now
and

the smaller

A#
UkX

becomes, the more nearly


in value; hence

will

FH

approach

when A# becomes

dx, then

FH =
if

=
(too

and du
is

dor.

Hence

any area

portion of the abscissa,

bounded by a curve (y = and two ordinates, then the

/(#)), a
differen-

248
tial

Elementary Calculus.
of such area (du)

is equal to the product of the termiordinate (y) and dx. nating Adopting the notation of the last paragraph we have, for the Definite Integral which expresses the area bounded

by the curve, part of the and b, this expression

abscissa,

and two

ordinates, a

Xb y .dx.
.

Xb
(I)

f(x)dx.

NOTC: y . dx gives a numerical measure of an area which may be found as follows:


Integrate
the given
differential

expression,

or as

we say

find the indefinite integral.

Substitute the given limits, first the higher, then (II) the lower; subtract the latter resulting expression from the former.

CHAPTER

IV.

TANGENTS, SUBTANGENTS, NORMALS AND SUBNORMALS.


ART. 48.
In Analytic Geometry
it

was found

that the

form

y-y=m(x-oc'}

(C)

expressed the equation of a straight line in terms of its slope (m) and a fixed point (V, y'). As any curve may be regarded as generated by a point moving according to a definite law, expressed by its equation, the direction of a

curve at any point

is

the direction in

moving But the generating point if not constrained to move in the curve, would at any instant move off in a straight line (by the first law of motion) and this straight line would be tangent to the curve at the point of departure;
at the instant.

which

this point (taken as the generating point) is

hence

The

slope of a curve at

any point

is the slope of its tan-

gent at that point,

slope

meaning

as usual the tangent of

the angle made with the rv-axis. f In equation (C), if (x , /) is a point

on a given curve,

and
is

is

the slope of the tangent at that point, then (C)


f
t

the equation of the tangent at (x


/

/).

But

if

y=

f (x)

(where

(x)

is

any expression containing only x and


is

known
shown

quantities)
that
--21

the equation to a curve

it

has been

dx

the slope of the tangent to the curve,

and
f
,

if

the coordinates of a definite point on the curve, like (x 249

y'\

250

Elementary Calculus.
it

be substituted in the value of

dx

will then represent

the slope of the tangent at that point; say

\dx

-j-

\=
I x
f

slope of the
f

,i/

tangent at (x

f
,

y').

Then (C) becomes

x', y'

which

is

clearly the tangent equation at (#',

/).
expression for

ART. 49.

From
is

these considerations an

the subtangent

readily found, in exactly the

same way

as described in Analytic

Geometry

(see Art. 50).

Since the normal


point of tangency

is

a perpendicular to the tangent at the

(#', y'), its

equation will be,

yf

= -

(*-*') (T-) \dx]#,j


lines as

(N)

by the

relation

between the slopes of_J_

developed

in Analytic

Geometry. This equation may be written:

if

we understand

-^

to represent the reciprocal of -2-

dy

dx

the case of the subtangent the subnormal is found by determining its ^-intercept from its equareadily
in tion (N).

As

Elementary Calculus,

Let
then

o in (N),

whence

X*

OC

(Fig. 20)

Fig. 20.

But subnormal,

BC = OC - OB

[P

(V, /)]

-^ -/(?)
J
Corollary
:

\dxlx>,y>

The

lengths

of

tangent ajid

normal are

readily found, since they are the hypotenuses, respectively,


of the triangles

APB
2

and BPC.
2 2

= AB +PB =/

^y i dyJx',y>]
and
2 2 PC =PB 2 + BC = / 2
i fi L

+ I^-Y
\<bj

MfJ
and

Example
subnormal

Find

equation

of

tangent, subtangent
25 y
2

to the ellipse 16

x2

400 at

(3,

3J).

252

Elementary Calculus.
16

From

x2
=

25 y*

400

dy

_ 16 x

dx
At the point
(3,

2$y
becomes,
.

m
y

aJ)

this

V**

/*>. y'

25
is

16X3 = -3X V 5

Hence tangent equation

(3,3t)l

or

25

=
=
i

also

^ /^ \
\dy
jx',y>

=
=

Hence subtangent

/(f)^,
( \
etc.,

(f)(

and subnormal
ART. 50.
nates.

- l! = / (&\ x,,y' 5 \dx)


.

l)
S/

- - A.
25

Subtangent, subnormal,

in polar co-ordi-

are Using the Polar System, subtangent and subnormal denned as follows: The subtangent and subnormal are respectively the distances cut off by tangent and normal from the pole on a
line

drawn through

it

J_ to the radius vector of

the tan-

gency point, as

OT

and

ON

(Fig. 21).

Elementary Calculus.
Calling the angle
gent,
</>,

253

TPO

between radius vector and tan-

we have

in the right traingles

OPT

and OPN,

Fig. 21.

subtangent,

ON = OP
The
Let

OT = OP tan OPN =
(p

tan

TPO =
(b

p tan

p cot

(since

OPN =90 -

(p.

Subnormal,

TPO).

angle

is

determined thus:

ACE

be any curve (Fig. 22), the co-ordinates of

A/7

Fig. 22.

being

(p,

0),

and

of

being

AB= ApandAOC

+ A/B, 6 + A 6). Then TanBAC= [since A0


(p

AB

254
is

Elementary Calculus.

a very small angle the arc


at B, say].

BC

does not differ sensibly

from a tangent

Whence

tan

BAG =

pA#, since an arc = its angle multiplied by the As the point A approaches C, the secant AC radius). approaches the position of a tangent at C (FG) and BAG
(arc

BC =

approaches the value

(p

(OCG),

hence, finally,
,

tan

c-= pdd

dp

Hence polar subtangent


and polar subnormal

= =

p tan

<p

TO
2

dp p cot
<b

= -~
do

EXERCISE
1.

VII.

Find the length of tangent and normal for the para-

bola y 2
2.

16

at

4.

Find the length of subtangent and subnormal 2 == 2 144 at (6, 6 Y/3)ellipse 9 x + 16 y


3.
2

to the

Find
16

the

equations

of

tangent

and

normal

to

=
4.

x3

at (i, 4).

Find the length of the normal


Find where the tangent
Find where the normal
(8

to

x 2 (x

+ y) =
a3

4 (#

y)

at (o, o).
5.

to

yax

x3

is

parallel

to the #-axis.
6.
is

JL to the rv-axis

on the curve,

f= ^
7.

a;).

Find

the
36
-

angle

at

which

x2

intersects

4^

+ 9f=

Elementary Calculus.
8.

255

1 2 y = 16. The hyperbola x area of the triangle formed by a tangent and the coProve it. ordinate axes is constant and equal to 16.

In

the

equilateral

9.

At what angle do y 2

x and x 2

is

that the subtangent to twice the abscissa of the point of tangency. 11. Show that in a circle the length of the
10.

Show

+ y = 20 intersect? the parabola y = 2 px


2 2

normal

is

constant.
12.

The

equation of the tractrix being

show

that the length of the tangent

is

constant.

CHAPTER

V.

SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATIONS.
ART.
Since -*
in general, purely a function of

51.

dx

is,

x, its differential coefficient

may

be found as readily as that

of the original function.

It is

usually symbolized thus,


2

dx^

For example,

if

y =

5 x*,

dx

JL=Q X + 4X -s x-l,
i

dx 2
Likewise the differential of
this

second differential

may

be

found in the same way, and


fourth differential coefficient as

is

symbolized as -^-; the dx?


;

dx*

-^

the

n th

as

dx n

it

sometimes happens that the successive differential coeffimay be written by analogy after three or four have been found. For example
cient
:

y=
dx

xm

256

Elementary Calculus.

257

d n/2 v

dx n

=m

(m (m

i)

(m

2)

i)

x m~n

function be an implicit function of x and y, it is not necessary to put it in explicit form, as the previously found derivatives may be used to find successively each
If the

higher one.

For example:
x*

=r*

(i)
(2

Take

^-derivative

dy

y -f~

=
=

ax

....
...
y

solving for

-%-

-2,

ax

ax

(3)

-%substituting value of already found from (3) in (4),

ax

dx 2

_
da?

3,2

2.
y
5

MACLAURIN'S AND TAYLOR'S FORMULAE.


ART.
52.
It is

tion to express the value of a function in the

frequently useful for purposes of calculaform of a

For example, in algebra, the binomial theorem series. enables us to develop a binomial raised to any power into a
series of
(a

powers of the single quantities involved,


4

as,

b)

4 a b

6 a b

4 a b

b\

etc.

258

Elementary Calculus.

Likewise the logarithms of numbers and the trigonometric

computed from series. Hence a general method for the expression of any function of x, say, in series, would prove exceedingly useful. But such a series has utility only when its sum is a finite In general, series have an unlimited number of quantity. and clearly, unless the sum of these terms is a finite terms, A series whose sum is finite quantity, it is utterly useless.
functions are
is

called a convergent series.


It is

only with such series that

we

shall deal here.

Let

it

be required to develop f(x) into a series of powers of (x m) say. Supposing such a development possible, let

/(*)
etc

= A +B

(x

- m) + C

(x

- m) + D
2

(x

m)

3
,

(a)

Differentiate (a) successively:

+ 3 D (x - m) + 4 E (x - mf + - m) + 12 E (x /"O) = 2 C + 6 D (x = 6 D + 24 E (x - m) + /"'(#) /"(*) = 24 E +


/'(*)
==

B +

(x

m)

etc.

m)

Since

is

assumed

to

have any value,

let

m.

Then f(m)
f'(m)

= A = B,

or

/"()

^ C,

Elementary Calculus.
Substituting in (a)
(x)

259

= l(m)+t'(m)(x-m)

Example: Develop log x


/

in

powers of (x
/

2).

(*)=

log*,

(2)

log

2.

fiv(x)

(2)

= i (x
4

I, etc.

Hence log x

= log 2 + i (x + i (x - 2) - |
3

2)

(x

2)*
. .

2)

ART.

53.

If

in

formula

(b),

be

made

o,

which

is

clearly permissible, since

no

restrictions

were placed on

its

value,

the formula

becomes the development

for f(x) in

terms of x:

+
where /(o),
/'(o), etc.,

(b)

mean
x

the values of /(#), /'(#),

etc.,

when #

replaced by o. Example : Develop cos


is

in terms of x.
I (o)
/'

= cos x, sin x, x = /' = - cos*, f'(x)


I
(

x)

(o)

/"(o)

= cos o = i. = - sin o = o. = - coso = -

i.

260

Elementary Calculus.
/"'(#)
Iv

(x)

= =

sin x,

/"'(o)
IV

cos x,

= () =

= cos o =
sin o

o.
i, etc.

Substituting in (b):

which

is

the expression

from which cos x


30

is

computed.
,

For example,

to find cos

cos
[

rad.
J

cos.

30= _ IS/. +

f-T

(-V
JfiZ.

_ &L +
720

f-V

etc.

(W

3.1416.)

24

.00313

24

24
1.00313
( 1

=
is

.0000'

.13711

cos 30

=
series

.86602 approx.

720

.13711
as

The
ART.
tion of

(b)

(and

its its

special form b t )

known

Maclaurin's Series from


54.
It
is

discoverer.

frequently necessary to express a funcseries of

two quantities in the form of a

powers of
of x.
in
is

one of them, as for example, }(h

x) in

powers

The

process

is

entirely analogous to that

the development of Maclaurin's Series, known as Taylor's formula.

employed and the result

Assuming

that )(h

x) can be developed in powers of

x and
t

regarding h as constant:
}(h

Let

x)

= A + Bx + Cx + Dx + Ex +
2
3 4

(c)

Elementary Calculus.

261

Taking
j'(x

the derivatives with respect to x,


2

B + 2Cx+ 3 Dx + 4 Ex +h)= 2 C + 6 D* + 12 E* + j"(x +h)= /"'(* + A)=: 6D + 24 E* + }(x + h) = 24 E +


2
.

-f

Since this series must be true for


identity,
series of
it

all

when x = o; hence setting x = o in this equations we are enabled to determine the conis

values of x, being an

true

stants, thus:

(2

X i=

Z2)

(6-3X2 Xi=

Zs).

Substituting in (c)
f(x

+h) =

j(h}

f'(h)

x
Z2

etc.,

Where f(h\ j'(h\ when x = o.


ART.
55.

etc.,

mean

the values of

f(x+h), /'(x+h),

It will

be evident upon consideration, that the

binomial theorem as encountered in algebra is a special form of Taylor's formula. The utility of these develop-

ments of Maclaurin and Taylor, depends upon the rapidity with which they converge.

262

Elementary Calculus.
the series developed

As

by these two formulae

is

usually

always a residual error in taking the sum of a limited number of terms as the value of the function
infinite,

there

is

A discussion of this error is unnecessary thus expanded. here; it will be sufficient for us now to observe that a
convergence, if the successive terms decrease rapidly in value, and after a limited number of
series has satisfactory

terms, approach zero.


It is

usually

an

effective test of convergence,

when

the

n th term
ratio

of a series

can be readily expressed,

to

find the
ratio

between the (n

th iY h and n

terms.

If this

approaches zero as n approaches


vergent,
tical

infinity, the series is

con-

otherwise divergent, and hence, useless for prac-

purposes.
:

Example

To

test

convergency of

sine-series.

sin

#=#-+/5
T3 V5

T7

Z3

/7

..

Inspection of the relation between the coefficients of x, the denominators, and the corresponding term number,
gives

the
is,

n th term

as above.

The

(n

tk

i)

term

like-

wise

Z_2
If

then the value approached by the ratio,

n
~

X 2n /_% n
is

as
i

n approaches

..

infinity,

zero, the series is convergent, otherwise not.

Elementary Calculus.

263

(2

i) 2

oifn-oo.

Z_2

Hence the
It is to

sine-series is convergent.

be observed that

it is

only the absolute values of

the terms that are considered, as the sign does not affect
the
for
this

There are numerous more complicated tests convergency, but they do not come within the scope of
ratio.

book.

EXERCISE
1.

VIII.
i,

x3
,

x2
2-

find

2.

x3

find

dxr

4.

y
y

log x, find
x

~
(LOO

5.

log

(e

+
,

er*\ find
4x

-^ dxr

6.

= &

(x
,.

8), find

^
dx3

7-

y
7

=
=

dV
4

8.

10.

log sin

ap,

find

264

Elementary Calculus.

11.

y
y
^
^y

sin 2 x, find

12.

=
i

find

2.
efar

# (V

13.

= = =

2 e *

i), find -^2-

14.

e ax , find

id.

-y

e^sin #.

show

-^ dx

^~
dx
in terms of y.

16

= =

ex

_
,

i
^-x

express

^ ^2

17.

-y

^2 e z show

that
/

n \^

^=

6 e x (x

-{-

i)

y.

18.

=! + *,
*?

find

g.
find

19.

a*y
a y
2

+
2

/,

j-2.

20.

&

2
^c

a2 b

2
,

21.

#, find

-^
d3 y -*
^2.

22.

jcy

tr,

nnd

23.

e* 4*

^y,

find

dx
JH, find

in terms of y

and

a.

25.

y =
5

a 2 #, find
r vers1

26.

rv

=
r.

^ /

\A ^ - /,

find

ax

in terms

of

and

Elementary Calculus.

265

EXERCISE

IX.

Expand by Maclaurin's formula:


i.

sin

(in

powers of

x\

2.

3. 4-

log*
" i

(in

powers of (x powers of x}.

i))

(in

5. 6.

ex
-

(in (in

powers of (x
powers of (x
in

2)).

h)).

Expand by Taylor's formula


7.

powers of x:
log sin (h
sec (a
(a

sin (n

+
^
2

x).
-

10. ii.
12.

+
x).

x)

8. 9.

\A
e a+x .

+
x)

n.

CHAPTER

VI.

EVOLUTION OF INDETERMINATE FORMS.


ART.
56.
,

Functions of a variable which reduce to such


,

forms as
o

o, oo

etc.,

for certain values of the vari-

oo

able are called indeterminate, because

we

are unable to divide

o by o, or oo by oo directly, but must approach the quotients by a circuitous path.

The

consideration of a definite example


5

may make

the

idea clearer
oc

wen x =

i.

and and
2

o<?

8
2
i

o o

when x
,

x x
2

2,

oc

- = o when x = i

i.

3 ar

o
the

Evidently
cases,
cited.

does not

mean

same thing

in all these

nor in the multitude of similar cases that might be Having practically an infinite number of possible
-

values then, the expression


'

is

indeterminate.

It

will
it

o
266

be recalled that in discussing the differential quotient,

Elementary Calculus.

267

was remarked
too

that although

two quantities may each be


individual

small

(or

too

large)

for

comprehension,
if

they might yet have a


to the

finite,

readily expressible ratio,

same order of smallness (or largeness). they belonged To use a somewhat inadequate illustration, two typhoid
though each hopelessly beyond the reach of our ordinary senses, could be readily compared with one another
bacilli,

by a very simple a bacillus is not infinitely small, the Although same illustration may be extended indefinitely. As the
number.
chemist has to approach the problem of his inconceivably small atom and the astronomer of his inconceivably vast
distances, indirectly, so

and

their relative size could be expressed

we

will

have to deal with our zeroes

and

infinities.

To

return to the expression

Before giving x any definite value, divide the numerator

x5 i = x4 -}- x3 -}- x2 -{- x4- i. x i If in this expression we give x a constantly decreasing value >i, the integral function will clearly approach more and more nearly the value 5, while the fraction approaches
by the denominator, then
-

the value

It is

easy to infer then that

when x is

actually

i,

the value of

--

becomes exactly

5.

Again the expression


2

x x2

x2 i 2 x -i

if

may we
.

be

shown

to

first

divide both

-J as x approaches oo, approach numerator and denominator by

x2

268

Elementary Calculus.
57.

ART.

To

find a general method for evaluating

an

indeterminate.

Let o

when x

a.

By

Maclaurin's formula,
/
(

X\ )

if

f(a)

+
i

it f

j'(a) (x

a)

\a + -L-L
i

(x

o 2

a)

'(a) (*

a)

But /(a)

o and

<j>

(a)
.

o by hypothesis.

/(*)

(dividing numerator
(since (x
a),

and denominator by x
2

a)

(x

a)

etc.

o when x

a).

If

'

' ,

still

equals

for

a,

it

is

clear that the expression reduces to

-*

'-

if

Elementary Calculus.
<f>'(x)

269

are replaced

by

their values, o,

and numerator and


a.

denominator be again divided by x

Hence when

1& = <*
<j>(

f or

a,

etc

X)
:

</>'(*)

#'(*)'

rule

may
(as
(x),

be stated thus

Take
inator n

the successive derivatives


distinct junctions)

of

numerator and denom-

until a derivative is found,

say

which

is not zero for

a.

Then,

is the

X
Example
Ll
T-.
,

value sought.

Evaluate

tan

sin

x cos x

o
,

x3
x cos x
2

when x

o.

tan

sin

-?tan

j(x}

=^)'
_
sec

sin

x cos x

cos

sin

"^^

3^
(taking derivatives).
to
'

This expression corresponding

still

equals

_
o

<p

(x)

Hence taking second


tan

derivative,

sin

cos

x
2

2 _ sec

a;

cos

+
jc

sin

x
2 sec

3^

x tan #
tan

cos

sin

2 sin

cos

Jg

6x
sec
5P

2 sin

cos

x
and dividing by

(collecting

2).

270
This

Elementary Calculus.

is

still

sec

ifrr /

\*

Taking

third derivative
2 cos
2

'

fff

sec

x
o.

tan

x
3

2 sin

3_

= i, when x =
.-.

tan* -sin* cos*


3 tf

whfin

ART.

t;8.

If

-"2 =
0(x)
co

when x

a,

a simple trans-

formation reduces the expression to the form

for

=
<j)(x)
i

for

If

j(x)

=
.

o and
(f>(x)

<j)(x)

cc

for

a,

then

/(#)
fix)

=
=

oo.

an indeterminate,
o
O

but

<j>(x)

By
diate

using the logarithms of the functions as an intermestep, expressions like i, o, 00, etc., may be
.

reduced likewise to

o
<p(x)

For example,

let

f(x)
a.

and

oo,

when x

Then
Let

}(x)]^

= ix y = [/(*)]*<*>.
. :

Taking the

log of both sides log /(*)

Log y=(f)(x)

=
i

o o

w hen

a.

Elementary Calculus.
In these cases
function,

271

we

of the get eventually the logarithm


itself is

from which the function


/

readily found.

Example : Evaluate

- x -

\ tan -^2-

2
,

when x = a,

T \tan

^r =
1

when x

a.

5)Then

= log y

tan

^
2

log &

2
(

- )=
/

log (2
*

o_

. cot

WP
2

/.

log

=
2
i

a
i

a
esc
2

je

=
a
ft

a
-

2
,

when x =
,

a.

JL
2

2
I

2a
\ tan
)

That

is,

log y

log (2 \

ff ^ 2 a

a /
a)

-,
TT

when ^
2

a.

tan

E*_
2 a

(a

-IT

Example : Evaluate

x
(a
i )

x,

when #

oo

i
(a*
-

i)
GO
.

x=

a.
00

(a

i) oo

(a

i) oo

o.oo,

when x

272

Elementary Calculus.

But

-i* =

llLl..

1
X
when x

**
I_

oo

EXERCISE
Evaluate
x
.

X.

J2Z |W heny=i. yi

e*
2.

tan

g-*

x
jg

when x
2_7r

o.

4
2.

sin

cos
42

x
i

wnen ^_-_,
2

cos

-^ --#
1
,

sin

6
i.

5.

tf*"

when
tan

#=
,

6.

'sin

y)
g 2

gZ 7.

_
2
)
,

when

3;

-.
2

when z=o.

8.

(i

+ ^)"-i
+
-

i
[

when x

oo

*/

Elementary Calculus.

273

10.

-- x
sin
:

tan-

x
y

when x
y

=
i

o.

"
12.

e y sin

y
*:

when

log -

sin 2

log sin

* x

when

oc

o.

13-

(m*
p O
-

i)*,

when# =
T X
,

oo.

14.

>X O

when x

=
i.

i.

/Y* vV

15.

r
log*

when *

log*
16.

(cos 26)

when when *

6=0.

17.

(log *)

a;

-1
,

=
o.

i.

18.

^ ^
esc

when *

19
20.
21.

(i

tan *) sec 2 x,

when *
oo
.

c~ x log *,
[log (e
2

when *
z)]*,

+
]

when 2=0.

22

(*\ n)

^* tan -

2n

when x

n.

sec
24.

log (i

when *

x)

274

Elementary Calculus.

25.
00

cot x,
*

when x
when ^
jc
,
,

=
=

o.

26.

-cos
sin-

27.

x
2 X sin

when x

=
oo
.

o.

28.

when

x=
=

sin

29.

(sin

#)

*,

when ^
^c

o.

i
30.
rv

e*,
2

when
2

=
-

o.

5C

31.

COS

3f

2
,

when# =
,

o.

sin
5f

cos

32.

sin

cos

#1 when
,

jf

TT

33-

34-

-,
(e

y-

when 3^=0.
sec ^,
2

i)

35.

rv

tan

when x
oo
.

= 2

when

CHAPTER

VII.

MAXIMA AND MINIMA.


ART.
59.

When

a function has a
until
it

maximum

value

it is

an increasing function

reaches the value then a

would not be a maximum.


tion is the ratio

decreasing function just afterward, otherwise this value Since the derivative of a func-

between
if

its

increase

and the increase


is
if it

of

its

independent variable,
as

the function

increasing with the


is

variable the derivative will be positive;

decreasing

the variable increases the derivative will be negative.

its

Hence when a function passes through a maximum value derivative changes from positive to negative, and in
it

order to do this
continuous.

must pass through the value

zero,

if it is

similar process of reasoning shows that

a function passes through a minimum value the derivative also passes through zero from negative to positive.

when

It is to
its

variable for

be remembered that since a function depends upon its value, it can be made to take any number
together as

of

values, as near

we

please,
is

by giving the

variable a suitable series of values, that


that the function
is

provided always

continuous.

graphic illustration may make this plainer. Since in general any function may be represented graphically by a curve, let the curve AB, Fig. 23, represent

/(*) Since the

derivative

of

a function, represented by a

curve,

is the slope of its tangent at any given point, the change of the derivative and the tangent slope are synony-

275

276

Elementary Calculus.

mous.

= OD. A

Suppose

is

maximum

point

for

the

value

glance at the figure will

show

that starting,

say with the tangent


the point of tangency

MN at A,
T

the slope of this tangent as

moves from

to

will

positive (the inclination being

an acute angle, as

be constantly AMO) but

constantly decreasing; at
is

tangent, RS, the inclination of the tangent

parallel to the jc-axis;


is

the slope will be zero, for the beyond the point T,

an obtuse angle
it

as]

PQ#,

and hence

its

tangent

is

negative, but

will

still

decrease

Fig. 23.

in general.

Therefore, as indicated, the derivative of the


is

function which

always equal to these slopes,

will

pass

from

positive to negative through zero.

But a function

may

sign, so

pass through zero or infinity without changing its even when the derivative is zero there may not be a
or

maximum
mine
exists.

minimum.

Hence

it

is

in a given case

whether a

maximum

necessary to deteror minimum

zero before a
it is

Recall the fact cited above, that the slope decreases to maximum and continues to decrease (because
negative) after a

maximum, hence

the derivative

is

Elementary Calculus.

277

decreasing function at a maximum, hence its derivative, that is, the second derivative of the original function, will

be negative from our definition of a derivative. An examination of the figure around the point F (a minimum) will show that at a minimum the slope, and

hence the derivative, passing from negative to positive through zero, is an increasing function, hence its derivative,

that

is,

the

second

derivative of the function,

is

This suggests a general method for determining positive. maxima and minima, as follows
:

Since the

first

derivative
if

is

minimum

point,

the

first

always zero at a maximum or derivative is found and set

equal to zero, the value of the variable found from this equation will, in general, be one of the co-ordinates (usually
the abscissa) of the maximum or minimum point on the curve representing the function. To determine whether it is a maximum or minimum, the second derivative is

found, and

if

it

is is

variable, the point

negative in value for this value of the a maximum; if positive, it is a minimum.


that the second derivative
is

ART. 60.
minate as to

It

may happen

also zero for this value of the variable,


sign.

and hence

indeter-

In this case
in the

it

is

clearly desirable to

expand the function


the variable that
If (fx) is
its

neighborhood of this value of character may be more readily seen.

the function,

and x

a be the value found from

f(x)

then f(a h) and f(a h) will represent the value of the function immediately before and immediately
o,

after,

respectively,

its

value for

a,

h being a quantity

which can be made as small as desired.

By

Taylor's formula

278

Elementary Calculus.

j(x

h)

j(x}

f(x)h

^)
Z2

h2

^U
Z3
/(a),

Replacing x by the value

a,

and transposing

f(a+h)-f(a) =
f( a _/,)

f(a)h

j (a )

-/
is

Z2
its

Now
cube,

since

to

be taken exceedingly small,

square,

developments will be insignificant, and hence the values of the above expressions will practically That is, equal the first terms of their development. f(a + h) j(a) will have the same sign as /'(#)/, and
etc.,

in the

j (a

h} there is a

- /O)

will

have the sign of

f(a)h.

But

if

maximum

or

minimum

at a, f(a -f h)

and

}(ah)

must have the same value, because if it increases to a maximum it must decrease beyond the maximum, and hence have the same value just before and just after, as the sun has the same altitude at the same time before noon

and after, noon being its maximum elevation. But the only way }'(a)h and f(a)h could both have the same value would be, that both equal zero, that is, that
j'(a'}= o [/'(a) being value of j'(x) verifies our former conclusion.
If /'( a )

when

x=

a],

which

o, then,

and

Z2
Since h
is

Zs

so small,

is

much
f(a)

larger than h* or any

higher power, hence j(a

h)

and }(a

h)

f(a)

Elementary Calculus.
^

279

are determined
is positive,

by

'

a'

h2
if

and hence are


is

positive

if

I" (a]

and negative

f'(a)

negative

for /" (a) determines the sign cf the

term L^LL h?\.

But, when f(a + h) h) f(a) and }(a both negative, f(a) is a maximum, since it

f(a)

are

is

greater

h} and f(a h)]; when they are both positive, f(a) is a minimum. likewise, But these conditions prevail, respectively, when f" (a) is

than the values on either side of

it

\j(a

-f-

negative and

when /"(#)

is

positive,

which

verifies

our

second conclusion above.


If

f"(a)

is

also zero, then,

and

for a turning value

course of reasoning exactly as before, will (maximum or minimum)

show

that

^M
that
is,
iv

h3 and

f"( a )

h 3 must equal
o,
is

zero,

/'"O)
f

and when
is

(a)

is

positive there

minimum; when

iv

(a)

negative there is a Hence the rule


:

maximum,

etc.

A
if

function has a

maximum
x

or

minimum

value at

x =a,

any number
first,

of the successive derivatives, beginning with

the

is zero for

a,

provided the

first

that does not

equal zero is of even order,

being negative for a

maximum

and

positive for a minimum.

280

Elementary Calculus.
values of the variable which cause the
first

The

deriva-

tives of a function to

vanish are called

critical values.
3 2

Example: Find turning values of (x

i) (x

2)

/(*)= (*-l) (*-2)


/'(*)

3(*
2

l) (*

2)

2(X
o,

l)

(*-2)

whence

(x

i) (x
i,
i,

2)
2,

(5^

8)=
8) -f (*

x=
/"(*)

f.

2 (x

i) (x

2)
2

(5

i)

(5

- 8)

-f

5(*-

l)

(*~2).

When

Hence
and
for

Since
third

= o. i, /"(*) = 2, /"(#) = 2 (positive). # *= ,/"(*) = -M (negative). x = 2, there is a minimum, for x = f there is a maximum. = o for x i, is necessary /"(#)

x=

it

to find the

and fourth
j'"(x)

derivatives.

=
:

2 (30
is

x2

84 x

57)

when x
at

i.

Hence

there

neither

maximum
that

nor

minimum

i.

Example
vessel

What

are the dimensions of the

cylindrical

of

largest

contents
tin plate,

can be

made from 3234

squire inches of

not counting waste?

Since 3234 square inches will constitute the surface of the


cylinder (one base)
2

when completed,

nrh

xr2

3234
nr*h

......
=
2l1
7

(i)
(2)

Volume
which
is

to

be a

maximum.

From

(i)

=
2

nr

2r

Elementary Calculus.
Substituting in (2)

281

maximum
Say then,

Since a constant does not change value it cannot affect or minimum, hence any constant factor may

be ignored, in searching for turning values.


/ (r)

1029

r*,

l'(r)= 1029

3 r

o,

whence
f'(r)

343, r

7 v 7.

6 r

which

is

negative, hence r

= 7 V/

gives a

maximum. From (i)


will

h=

X/7

for r

x/y.
its

Hence

the cylinder

have

greatest

contents

when

radius

equals

its

altitude.

EXERCISE
Find maxima or minima:

XI.

y- 8 ~~~
O 3
.

(z

9) (z

2)

^2

/+
7.

+x i + 2M+ w + i
2

x
3

Divide a
will

line

i'

long into two parts, such that their


in

product
8.

be a

maximum.
6".

Find the greatest rectangle that can be inscribed

a circle of radius
9.

Find the volume

of the greatest cylinder inscribed in

a sphere of 8" radius. 10. Find the greatest cone in the same sphere.

n. Show that it takes the least amount make a cylindrical tank closed at both
diameter equals
its

of sheet iron to

ends,

when

its

height.

282

Elementary Calculus,

12.

a right cone of radius,


13.

Find the greatest cylinder that can be inscribed r, and height, h.


cell,

in

Calling the E.M.F. of a

E; internal resistance

r,

external resistance, R,

and

current, C,

jr

r -f

and the
a maxi-

power,

= RC

2
.

What

value of

will

make P

mum?
14.

Find the shortest straight

line

that can be

drawn

through a given point (m, n) and limited by the axes.

CHAPTER

VIII.

PARTIAL DERIVATIVES.
ART.
variable
61.

Up

to this time functions of

one independent

may

only have been considered, but an expression be a function of two or more independent variables.

function of two variables,

x and y
F(x, y),

say, is symbolized
etc.

thus:
/ (x, y),
<f>

(x, y),

Continuous functions only give important general results, and a function of two variables is continuous about any
specific values of these variables, say

h,

k,

when

the function runs through an

unbroken
its

series of values (as

near together as

we

please) as

variables run through

corresponding
of

series of consecutive values, in the vicinity

h and
ART.

k.

62.

The

derivative of a function of two (or more)

variables found by considering all the variables except one, as constants, is called its partial derivative with respect to
is For example, 4 xy 3 y changes. the partial derivative with respect to x of the function 2 2 3 2 x y -f 3 xy y (regarding y as a constant) and is

the

variable

that

represented thus:
(2

x 2y

+
2

3 xy*

/)

4 xy

Ifs= 2X 2 y

+ 3xy + y>,then=4*y+3y
differential,

(i)
is

Likewise the partial


sented thus:

with respect to x,

repre-

283

284
'dyZ

Elementary Calculus.

4 xy dx

2 y dx

(2)

Evidently
Similarly,

9 xz = dyz

- dx. since (2) equals (i) multiplied by dx.


'dx

(2

x2

xy

+
2

dy

(3)

By
dz

the principles of differentiation already

known,

4 xy dx

x 2 dy +

y dx

xy dy
show
OZ
,

+ 3y

dy.

(4)

comparison

of (2), (3)
-^
.

and
OZ

(4) will
i

that

--N

That

is,

in this case the total differential equals the

sum

of the partial differentials.

In Art. 4, and succeeding articles, it was explained that a differential quotient (or derivative) was the ratio of the increase of a function to the increase of its variable when
these

increments were indefinitely small.


if

This

expressed thus:

y=

may be

f(x),

dy dx

Ax

hesa
if

Likewise in a function of two variables, x and y say,


z

as

[(

is

a symbol meaning

"

approaches. "]

Also

=
oy

*.yy-. yasA
A;y

^^

in the first case y remaining constant while

x changes to A#, and in the second # remaining constant while y

changes to y

A^.

Elementary Calculus.

285

Now
function

let

these changes take place together in the

same

and we have,

3+
But the
result

Az

= f(x+

A*, y

Ay)
if

.(a)

would plainly be the same,

instead of

changing simultaneously, x should change while y remained constant and then y would change while x + A# remained
constant.

From

(a),

Az

/ (x

A*, y

+ Ay) -

} (x, y),

or changing successively,

Az

/ (x

+ +

A*, y)
/ (x

j (x, y)

+
A#

A*, y

Ay)

/ (x

A*,

y).

Az

A#

= /(*+ A*,y)-/(*,y)
.

(x

kx, y

Ay)

Ay

/ (x

AJC, y)

'

A^ A*

(Multiplying and dividing the


dividing through by A*.)

last

two terms by Ay, and

By

definition of derivative,

/(*+ A *- ?) -/<*'?) A#
and

[as

A* =o]-|L. o#
, ,

^
~dz
-,

= Jz
3y
.

Ay
That
T.I
A

dz
is,

'dz = ---

'dz

dy

\-

dx

ox

oy dx

-f-oidz= ox dx+ oy

3z

dy.
'

Hence the result found in the specific example above is shown to be general for all continuous functions, namely: The total differential equals the sum of the partial differentials,

each being multiplied by the differential

oj

its

inde-

pendent variable.

This rule could be easily inferred from the rules already

286

Elementary Calculus.

enunciated for the differentiation of specific forms as, for example, the product of two or more variables, wherein
is found by regarding all the variables but one successively as constant, and taking the sum of the

the differential

results.

ART.

63.

In

implicit

functions,

most frequently for


/ (*,

partial

which are presented differentiation, the form is

y)

o.

An implicit function, it will be remembered, is one in which the variables are thrown together in the various terms, and the function is not solved explicitly for any one, like
3

x2 y

xy

xy

etc.

From our

rule,

or

shortly,^dx

-?. 3
of variables,

The same
for example,

process applies to any


if

number

w=
dw
ART.
64.
If

<f>(x, y, z),

= ^dx+ ^-dy + ox
'

-~dz,
oz

etc.

oy

is

itself

a function of x, say y

(f>(x),

then the form


dz __ 3z
,

3z
'dy

dy

dx

'dx

dx

Elementary Calculus.

287

is

most

effective, for

2 can be found from y dx

d> (x).

Example

2 1 tan- 2-2 and x

4y

i.

By

formula,

dz
'dx

.....

(a)

From

2 88

Elementary Calculus.

It is readily

shown
.

that

that

is,

the order

is

immaterial.

'dx'dy

EXERCISE
Find
i.

XII.

SL by
dx
2

partial derivatives:

a 2y

+
2

x2

=
x

a*b\

x3
a

4.

a/ = x
5

(x

3 a)

s.,-^
6.

*.- 5
).
a*.

**

+ /=

1.

x=

r vers-

-r

\/2 ry
that

8.z=
9
.

tan-

y~
;

show

o.

log (tan

+ +

tan ^
sin 2

+
y

tan w); show that

sn

+
find

sin 2

M - ou

2.

10.

^ + /
z

-f

^^ =
;

"^

11.

^2 y

^Y

show

that

Elementary Calculus.

289

12.

z=z=
z

=J=

^
w

show

that

+/+
13.

= |^ + |L; +|^ o. a** a/ 3^2

14.

Vr^*

/,

/=

^2

find

CHAPTER

IX.

DERIVATIVES OF ARCS, AREAS, VOLUMES, ETC.


ART. 66.
tive

The most important


to

applications of the deriva-

do with curves whose equations are known. the principle of minute increments the characteristics By
have
of a curve of irregular curvature are discovered.

In dealing with curves it will be helpful to regard them as described by a fixed law, point moving according to a and at any given instant having the direction of a tangent
line to the

curve at the position of the point at that instant.

Length of an Arc.

P and

ART. 67. Let AB be an arc of any curve (Fig. 24), Q two positions of the describing point, 6 and (j) the

Fig. 24.

angles

MN,

made respectively by PQ, and the tangent at P, with the #-axis, to find the length of the arc PQ.
the co-ordinates of

Draw
Then

P and Q, (OT, PT)


and

(OS, QS).

TS = PR = A*

QR =

Av.

290

Elementary Calculus.
In the right triangle

291

PQR,
,

chord
that
is,

or

2 2 2 PQ = PR + QR 2 PQ = A? + Ay PQ V^+ ^V
2
,

2
-

Dividing by Ax,

-.

But as
zero,

Ax

is

taken smaller and smaller, approaching

the chord

PQ

approaches the arc

PQ

(Q moving
ax
(where
s

down toward

P),

and eventually

-^ Ax

becomes

represents the arc).

dx

The same

result

may
-^-

be obtained from (b) thus

^= Ax PQ
whence But

Ax

[multiplying and dividing by

PQ]

Ax

PQ
i,

.(from(b))

^-eventually equals

since the chord eventually

equals the arc, when,

A _ds_ ~ dx Ax

Corollary : of the chord

The

tangent

MN gives the

ultimate direction

PQ, and Ax

becomes dx and Ay becomes dy

29 2
at the

Elementary Calculus.

same

time.

Since by what has been said in Art.

n,

ds

from
or

(c)

j^

= V, i +

tan

2
<

sec

Likewise,

=
Volume

sn

of Solid of Revolution.

ART. 68.

Let the arc

LN

revolve

about the #-axis,


is

(Fig. 25) to find the

volume whose surface

generated by

Fig. 25.

MN =

As, a portion of

LN.
will

This volume plainly

lies

between the volumes generated by the rectangles

TNRQ
AV, we

and MPRQ. Since volume generated by


have,
2

these

be cylinders, calling the

MNRQ

(MN,
2

the chord),

+ A?) A* > AV> ;ry A# = OQ,y= MQ, A* = QR, ky = [x


TT

(y

NP].

Elementary Calculus.
Dividing by A#,
TT

293

(y

Ay)

> AY >

^y

As

the arc

is

taken shorter and shorter,

approaching

M, R
that
is,

approaches Q, and

NR

approaches the value

MQ;

+ Ay
lies

approaches

y.
2 Ay) and 2

But
it

always
2

between n(y
if

Try

hence

cannot pass
2

Try

but

Tr(y

Ay)

reaches the value


(generated

of

Try

it

must

also

reach

it,

becoming

dx

by the

arc).

To Find

the Surface Generated.

ART. 69. The surface generated by that of a cone-frustrum, hence calling it

chord

MN

will

be

AS

(Fig. 25),

AS=
As
the

Tr(2y

Ay)

MN.

the arc

is

taken indefinitely small,


its

N
ds,

approaches the arc, as Atf approaches dS, the surface generated by hence finally (dividing through by Ax), approaches dx,

chord

MN

arc

approaching and hence

M, AS

^S dx

ds_

gince

^ =

Q ag

dx

a pp roac hes M].

But

-^

CHAPTER

X.

DIRECTION OF BENDING AND CURVATURE.


ART.
point,
70.

A curve is said to be concave upward,


line at that point.
it

at a given
it

when immediately

before and after this point

lies

above the tangent


It is concave
line.

downward when

lies

below the tangent

If the curvature
is

changes concavity at a point, that point


is

called a point of inflection.

In Fig. 26 the curve

concave downward at A, concave

Fig. 26.

It is upward at B, and has a point of inflection at C. evident that at a point of inflection the tangent line crosses the curve.

It is clear also that

the

conditions for

downward
for

con-

cavity are the

same

as for a

concavity are the same as for Since the second derivative

maximum, and a minimum.


is

upward

negative for a

maximum
where

and

positive for a

minimum,

at a point of inflexion

294

Elementary Calculus.

295

the curve changes from one to the other, the second derivative must change from positive to negative or vice versa,
that
is, it

must pass through zero

(or infinity), hence solv-

ing the equation,

gives the point

(or points) of inflection


this value

if

such

exist.

If

f(x)
there

=
is

o changes sign for


a point of inflexion.
:

(or these values),

Example

Examine y

3 8 a -r2

for inflexion.

/'(*)=-

Substitute in /"(*),

x=

-^=

h and x

\/3

-^L

successively,

where h

is

as small as

we

please.

l6o'/4 a 2

+4^+^-4
,_

Then ?(*)
r

-h

^3

296

Elementary Calculus.

V 3

++
3

and

/"(*)

Since &

is

so small, the denominator

is
2
,

positive in both

cases, but for the

same reason

^-= >

hence the second

value of j"(x)

is

negative and the


is

first positive,

and hence
is

= ~^

\y
3_a\

=
2

a point of inflection, as

also

3 L
t

J
t

--20 V3
ART.

ky tne same p roo f

CURVATURE.
71.
If

two curves have the same tangent


is, if

at

point of intersection they are said to have contact oj the


first

order: that

f(x)

and y

F(#) are the equa-

tions of the curves,

then

for a

point of intersection the

equations are simultaneous any way we please to find />,

and we may combine them and

t(P)=F(p)
Also their tangents being the same,
/'(/>)
x

......
.
.
.

(i)

Y'(p).
(2)

[The values of f(x) and F (x) when x = p] So these are the conditions for contact of the
If

first

order.

addition

/"(/>)

F"(/>),

they are said to have contact of the second order, and so on.

Elementary Calculus.

297

In general, a straight line has only contact of the first order with a curve, because the two equations above (i) and (2) (one function representing the straight line, the
other the curve), are just sufficient to determine the two arbitrary constants for the equation of a straight line, since

to

two simultaneous equations furnish only enough conditions determine two unknowns. Likewise a circle requiring three conditions may have

contact of the second order, for three equations will then

be required, namely:

Total Curvature.

ART.

72.

The

total
is

curvature of a continuous arc, of

which the bending

in the

same

direction, is

measured by

the angle that the tangent swings through, as the point of

Fig. ay.

tangency moves from one end of the arc to the other; or what is the same thing it is the difference between the slopes
at these

two
f

points.
(j)

arc

MN

is

(f>

A<,

In Fig. 27 the total curvature of the It is evident from say. geometry

298
that

Elementary Calculus.

</>'

= AED.

That

is,

the total curvature

is

the

angle between the two tangents, measured from the first to the second, hence it may be either positive or negative,

according to our conventional rule for positive and negative


angle.

The

average curvature

is

the ratio between


-

the

total

curvature and the length of the arc, say


the arc length.

&,

where As

Measure of Curvature.

ART 73. Following the principle of minute increments, the value of the average curvature, as the arc becomes indefinitely small, is taken as the measure of curvature,
But as As becomes indefinitely usually designated as *. small, A^> likewise becomes indefinitely small, and eventually

^
As

becomes

-^
as

in our notation; that

is,

K=
Since
tan

d$_ ds

'

6=

dx

-%-,

But uc

_
ds

dx

Elementary Calculus.

299

RADIUS OF CURVATURE.
The circle tangent to a curve (or having consecond order) at a given point and having the same curvature as the curve at that point is called the
ART.
74.

tact of the

circle of curvature for the

curve at that point.

In a circular

arc, the angle made with each other by the tangents at the extremity of the arc is the same as the angle between the radii to these extremities, since a radius is JL to a tangent at

the point of tangency, and a central angle equals (in radians) arc divided by the radius. But the angle between the

tangents
.'.

is

the total curvature,

A0.
(calling r the radius),

A<

=
radius

=
r

dividing by As,

As

And

since r

is

a constant,

+
ds
r K

o?y

dx2
Since a circle can always be found of such radius that it have the exact curvature of any curve at a given point, the r as found above is called the radius of curvature of a

will

given curve at any point for which

and

dx

dx2

L are deter-

mined.

The

radius of curvature

is

understood to be positive or
is

negative according as the direction of bending

positive

or negative; that

is,

according as

dx

-is positive or negative.

300

Elementary Calculus.

EVOLUTE AND INVOLUTE.


ART.
75.

As every
is

different centre of curvature, that

point on a curve in general has a is, the centre of its curvathese centres describe a locus as

ture circle

different,

the point on which the curve called the evolute of the curve.
this

moves
It will

along.

This locus

is

be seen later on that

name

is

peculiarly appropriate.
itself is

The

curve

called the involute of

its

evolute.

Involute

arcs

are
is

where the evolute

used extensively in usually a circle.

modern

gears,

ART. 76. To find the equation of the evolute, curve equation be y = f(x) The equation to a circle is,
(x
If

let

........
2

the
(i)

h)

(y

k)

2
.

(2)

this

be the curvature
t

circle

at the point

(x,

y) on

y=

f(x)

then the

x and y

in (2)

have the same value as


of circle of curvature.

in (i) for that point,

by definition

Taking

derivative of (2 ) twice with respect to x,

(*

h)

(y

t)

g=o

(3)

<+()'
&V1
dy
dx 2

<>-*>-&=
dyV
<Py dx*

>

Eliminating y between (3) and (4),

dx2

dx 2

Elementary Calculus.
r

301

(Jy
^

As we know

'

no particular point on the curve be taken fe), (5 2 ) and y = j(x) will, by combination, give the equation of
If

the

e volute

of

f(x), -?-

and

ax

-^ax

being found from

/(*):

Example
Here

Find the evolute of the hyperbola xy

2
.

y
dy -fdx

x
<?
2

(i)

\y

/(*)!

whence

= =
2 c
3

j x
r
^c

and

^ 2 <fo

d*y

Substituting in (5^

and fe),

From
From

(2),

h=
k

f-+x=
-^

^JLE.

...
from
.4

(4)

(3),

h y (or since

y=

(i))

(s)

302

Adding and subtracting successively


,
,

fl

~T K

Elementary Calculus.
(4)

and
2

(5),

3 g

+
2

3 c x* -

-(c

2 C X?

Extracting cube root and then squaring,

Subtract;

The equation

to the evolute is then,


(

(h+k)*- (h-kf =
in the usual form.

where h and k are the general co-ordinates,

like

x and ^

PROPERTIES OF THE EVOLUTE.


ART.
involute
77.
is

An

important relation between evolute and

the following: The difference between any two radii of curvature equals the length o) the arc of the evolute

between the two centres of curvature from which they are

drawn.

Let

(off,

This important fact is proved thus: /) be any point on the curve y = /(#); R, the

radius of curvature for this point; (h, k}, the corresponding centre of curvature, and a the angle R makes with the

Elementary Calculus.
#-axis.

303

Then

the equation of R, passing through (#',


*-axis, is

/)
(i)
sat-

and making angle a with the


y
y'

tan

(x

yf)

.....
must
x'),

But

also passes through (h, k), hence (&, k)

isfy (i).
.-.

(k

whence
Squaring and adding
(h

h
i

- /) = k-y' = *,
x'
to

tan

a (h-

tan a.

both

sides,

*)*
(h

+
-x')

/)2
f
,

But

since

extends from
as,
2
.

(h,

k) to (x

/)

its

length

is

given by Analytics

(h.- x')

(-/) 2== R

2
-

Substituting in (2), inverting both sides

and extracting

square root,

whence and

= R cos a, or h = x' + R cos a = R sin a, or & = y' + R sin a y' Differentiating (3), [V, ^ R and a are all functions of yf\. R sin a da ) dh = dx + cos a dR. dk = dy' + sin a dR + R cos a da )
h
x'
)
)
, ,

_,^

By Art.
and

67,

=
ds

cos

<p

or

dx

cos

d
i

=
ds

sin

or dy

sin

(f>

ds

Since the tangent to y vature circle at (x', /),

90

= f(x) is also tangent to the curR is _L to this tangent, hence cos a. + 0, whence cos = sin a and sin =
<j> <j>

304
Also

Elementary Calculus.

Substituting in (4),

= d(>. dx' = sin ads. = cos a ds. dy'


da

ByArt
or since

74
d(j>

=
=

da,

da
ds

that

is,

ds

Rda.

and

(4) finally

becomes,
doc?
r

dy

R sin a da, R cos a da.


Rlfa^da =
dR.

Substituting these values in (3d),

dh

= dk =

RTsirra^

4-

cos

a dR
sin

cos

a dR.

Ra35-^/a:

Rcd&.a da

sin

a dR

Squaring and adding,


2

~dh

+~dk*=

(cos

a+

sin 2

2 a)dR = dR
2 2

[since cos

sin

i].

But

(h,

k) being a point on the evolute, letting s be the

length of an arc from this point,

dk 2
or J5

(By Art. 67.)

=
s.

dR,

which means that


It

either increases or decreases, but in

either case changes just as fast as

follows

from

this,

that the

end

of a stretched string

unwinding from the evolute will describe its involute, or a straight line rolling on the evolute as a tangent, any point on it describes an involute. This latter method is used

by draftsmen

to

draw gear

teeth.

Elementary Calculus.

305

ENVELOPES.
contain equations of curves, in general, and when these constants vary the one or more constants,

ART.

78.

The

result is
ties,

a family of curves, having the same generic quali-

but differing in the constant. equation to a straight line,

For example,

in the

y
If

= mx +

b.

varies, the result is a

set of straight lines passing

through the same point, (o, &), and making different angles with the x-axis. Again in the ellipse equation,

*+-!,
a2
b
2

if

a and b both vary, but always obeying the condition, a2


b
2

[c

being a constant],

the result

is

a family of ellipses with the

same

foci

but

different axes.

The
that
is,

locus of the intersections of consecutive curves of a

family, as the points of intersection approach coincidence,

when

tesmial increments,

the constant (or constants) changes by infiniis called the envelope of this family.

TO FIND THE EQUATION OF AN ENVELOPE.


ART.
curve,
79.

Let

/ (x,

y,

m)

o,

be the equation of a

being originally a constant.


/ (x, y,

Then
o
adjacent
to

m + Aw) =
immediately

will

represent

the

curve

/ (x, y,

m)

o,

Aw

being indefinitely small,

when

is

allowed to vary.

306

Elementary Calculus.
I (x, y,
/ (x,

From
and

m)

......
o

(i)
(2)

y,m + Aw) =

....

we

get

by subtracting and dividing by Aw,


/ (x, y,

m + Aw) -

/ (x, y,

w)

Aw
But by
Art. 62 (3)

may

be represented by

<*'? "I as
hence

AM A

o.

or

more simply,

|^=o 3w
By
definition of envelope
(4)

......
of

(4)

represents a point on the

envelope, curves f(x, y,

since

it

is

the intersection
}(x, y,

two consecutive
o, as

m)

o and
for

m + Aw) =
these

they

approach coincidence, (3) equations were combined. If now m be eliminated between (4) and (i),
in

we

get

an equation

free

mined by the condition


envelope, hence the result

from the variable w, but deter(4), which gives a point in the


is

the equation for this envelope.

The

varying constant
:

is

called the variable parameter.

= mx +

Example

where

Find the envelope of the straight line system b is determined by the relation
(p being a constant).

Hence

= mx +

--', y

mx

^-

m
*

o;

whence

om

= -

om

L
m*

o,

Elementary Calculus.

307

combining,

y= mx + -* m
x

(i)

and

-%

o
(2),

(2)

To

eliminate w,

we

get

from
2

W =
squaring
(i),

^
2
2

(3)

V= w* +
m
2

+ -m

(4)

substituting value of

from
2

(3)

and

(4),

px

-\-

px

+ px =

4 px,

which shows that the envelope is a parabola. ART. 80. It follows readily from the
evolute of a curve
is

fact

that

the

the locus of

its

centres of curvature,

and that the


mals
radii)
all lie

radii are all

normals to the curve (being J_

to the tangents of
to

any curve

each point), that the envelope of the noris its evolute, since these normals (the

always pass through the centres of curvature, which

on the evolute.

EXERCISE
i.

XIII.

Find the points of

inflection of the curve

x2
2.

16

Find the equation

of the line
2

through the points of


x.

inflection of the curve


3.

y (x

4)

Find the radius of curvature of the parabola x 2 Find the radius of curvature of

8 y

at the origin.
4.

- at

a.

308
5.
2 4x

Elementary Calculus.

Find the

radius

of

curvature

of

the

i6y
yl

hyperbola

64.

6.

Find the radius

of

curvature of

X%

+
7.

the hypocycloid

al.

Find the evolute Find the evolute

of the parabola of the

px.
c
2
.

8.
9.

hyperbola xy =

Find the co-ordinates of the centre of curvature of


93,2

4*2

+
9

36 at (VS, j).

10.

Find the co-ordinates of the centre of curvature of

/=
11.

*at

(3,3).
ellipse

Find the points on the


is

a 2y 2
a

where the curvature


tively.

maximum and

+ b 2x 2 minimum

a 26 2

respec-

12.

Find the radius


-1

of curvature of the cycloid,

r vers

\/2 ry

at the

point whose ordinate

is 2 r.

13. 14.

Find the evolute

of the circle, of

x2

+
3<^>

2
.

Find the envelope


<f)

cos

-f

sin

3^

a (cos 2$)*,
15.

being the variable parameter.


line in the first

Find the envelope of a straight

quad-

rant which terminates in the co-ordinate axes, and

makes a

constant area with the axes.


1 6.

Find the envelope of a variable


TT

ellipse

with constant

area,
17.

ab.

Find the envelope of y 2

m(x

m) where

is

the variable parameter.

CHAPTER

XI.

INTEGRATION AS A SUMMATION.
ART.
merely
consider
81.

as
its

Integration has been considered, heretofore, will now the reverse of differentiation.

We

real

and much more important meaning.

Let

<f>

(x) be such a function of

that

its
is,

first

deriva-

tive will
first

be a given function, /(#); that derivative by an accent,


\

denoting the

tt

f(x)

it/

<j>'(x)

=
+

<f>(x

-^

--yv
=

as

A# =o,
.
.
.

whence

</>(x

Ax)

<j>(x)

j(x)

A#

(m)

In the language of integrals


(x)

we may

write,
.

dx

<f>(x).

Suppose in <f>(x\ x to start with a value h and change to a value k, <j>(x) would change from (j)(h) to (f>(k), the difference would be expressed by,

Suppose again that instead of one jump from h

to k,

x changes by minute
changes of
<j>(h
(j>(h

&x

increments, say making n successive each, then the successive steps would be,

<f>(h

+ + +

A*) ^ (h) 2 A*) - <(/*


3

A#)

= j (h)kx + A*) = f(h 4- ^(A + 2 A#) = /(/t +

[by (m)]

309

3io
adding
<f>(h

Elementary Calculus.

or since

+ nhx) - <t>(h) = /(&)A# + f(h f(h + 2 A#)A* + h + nkx = k, by our hypothesis


hand
side of this equation

<f>(k)

<f>(h)

The

left

may

gotten by integrating j(x}dx, and then taking the

evidently be difference

between the values of

this integral

when x

k and

when

h, for

by hypothesis

f(x)dx

<j>(x).

This

is

usually written

Jh 'h
and
cific
is

f
was shown
in a speis

known
right

as a definite integral as

case under Art. 43.

The

hand member
hence as n

plainly a
,

sum

of

terms, as

A# = o and
nitely small

oo

for there cannot be


is

an

infi-

increment unless there

an

infinite

number

of

terms.

For brevity such a sum may be indicated thus:

^h

f(x)

A#
(

V being

the symbol for

summation
I
j

When Ax =

o, this is

modified to
f(x)dx,

which brings us back to our integral symbol, for we have found that this sum is actually equal to the definite integral
of j(x)dx (namely, </>(k) tion is a

<(&)), hence definite integrasignificance of

summation.
82.

ART.

this series

Let us see what is the further whose sum we have been finding.

Elementary Calculus.

Let uv

(Fig. 28)

be any curve whose equation

is

f(x).

Divide the #-axis from the point

A to P into n equal parts,

A D G

Fig. 28.

calling

OA,

&,

and OP,

k,

and the equal distances AD,

DG,

etc.,

each A*.

Then

AB = DE =

f(h)

f(h

GH =/(/* +
RP =/(& +
Form
B, E, H,
rectangles
etc.

A*) A*)
A*).

by drawing

parallels to the #-axis

from

The sum

ABRP,

but can be

of these rectangles will be less than the area, made to approach it as nearly as we

please by taking
nitely large.

A#

indefinitely small,

and hence n

indefi-

The

area of " "


"
'"

BCDA = EFGD = HKLG =

f(h)

A*
A*) A*
2

)(h + f(h +

RTQP = f(h + = f(h) A^ + f(h + Adding; Sum of the rectangles 2 A^) Ax + f(k) Ax [since h + n Ax = k]. + f(h + As Ax = o this sum approaches ABRP, hence finally, But dx + f(h + dx) dx + + + ABRP = f(k) dx.
"

"

/(//-)

312
the right

Elementary Calculus.

Hand

side

is

the

same

as obtained in the last article


,

and shown equal

to

Ck /
Jh

}(x)dx, hence

areaABRP =
The
for

f*/(#)<&.

area would be given as well by solving the equation

x, say

x=F

(y)

and integrating

F(y)dy, since the


to the

rectangles could as easily be


^-axis

formed with respect


0}

and summed. That is, the definite


where

integral

f(x)dx between fixed

limits,

f(x) is the equation of the curve, is the area bounded by the curve, the x-axis, and the two ordinates corresponding respectively to these limits, which are the
abscissas in this case.

y=

Example

Find

the

area

of

the

parabola

8 x,

between the origin and the point (2, 4). Here the limits are o and 4, the two bounding ordinates, and we have,

rVSxdx = \fs C x*dx= Vs


["(

2 )a

-c/U-.
we
is,

Corollary

Clearly
result,
/>*

if

we

reverse the limits

get the

same absolute

but with contrary sign, that

Jh
It is also

}(x)dx=

ph

Jk

f(x)dx.

h take the area from y then the area from to y j (being between h and k) and the sum k, and if the curve be continuous, y j to if we went directly from of these results will be the same as
evident that

we can

y=

to k.

That

is,

C*f(x)dx=
h

Jh

P/(*)dfc+

J)

f */(*)<**

Elementary Calculus.

313
expressed as the
if

Thus a definite integral may be readily sum of any number of definite integrals,

the difference

between their limits taken together equals the difference between the original limits.
It must be carefully observed that j'(x}dx does not become infinite between the limits. When that occurs the integral must be broken up into parts leading up to the gap

on either ART.

side.

83. Remembering that summation between the limits, length of an arc

definite
if

integration is a the expression for the

which represents any infinitesimal arc whatever of the curve, y = f(x), be integrated between the limits representing the co-ordinates of its extremities, the result will be the sum of all the infinitesimal arcs making up the
total arc

and hence the length

of this arc, that

is,

/v
s

being the arc from abscissa h to abscissa

k.

Example

Find the circumference of the

circle,

Taking

derivative;

~= i

V r*-x
\ *
J

whence

r +r
I

i
f

x2

dx

r
2 r I

314
It is to

Elementary Calculus.

be observed that the limits

and

r,

which are

the extreme values of x, give the length of the semi-circumference only, and hence the factor 2 above.

SURFACE OF REVOLUTION.
ART. 84.
It

has been shown (Art 69) that the surface

of revolution for a variable point, (x, y}

on an

arc, is given

by the formula,

where the revolving arc is indefinitely small. By the same reasoning as before, the surface generated by an arc of any length will be then,

where h and k represent the abscissas two ends of the arc.

respectively, of the

SOLID OF REVOLUTION.
ART.
85.

In exactly the same way, using the expres-

sion found in Art. 68 for solid of revolution,

dv

ny dx,

which represents an

infinitely thin strip,

v=
gives us the

Tt

y dx,
limits

volume between the


Clearly

h and

k.

ART. 86.

we

are at liberty to divide a given

area into strips as we please and to apply the same reasoning to their summation, so that any one of the above for-

Elementary Calculus.
mulae

315
if

may

be expressed in terms of
y.

y,

the limits
write,

be

determined according to

For example, we may

for the length of the arc,

if

a and b are ^-limits, etc.

EXERCISE
i.

XIV.

Find the length of an arc of the cissoid y 2


o to x

=
2

from x
2.

=
=

a.

Find the

total length of the cycloid

x
3.

r vers

Find the length of the hypocycloid x* Find the length of the catenary y
to the point

y*
-

=
e

r*.

4.

/ (e a
is b.

--\ a

from the origin


5.

whose abscissa
(o,

Find the length

of

ay =x? from
of

o) to
circle,

(3 a,

^V^a).

6.

Find the circumference

the

(*7.

2)

Find the length of Find the area

+ (y+ i)' = 16. y = log x from x =


circle in

to

4.

8.
9.

of the ellipse.

Find the area of the Find the area


of

Ex.

6.
2

10.

the

parabola y

8 x,

between
to

the origin
11.
12.

and the double ordinate corresponding Find the area of the hypocycloid.
circle

2.

Find the area of the

x2

+
=

rx

o.

13.

Find the area bounded by y2


a,

8 as
-, the ordi-

nate

and the

axes.

316
14.

Elementary Calculus.

Find the area bounded by the axes and the

line

2
a
15.

+ Z--I. b
of

Find the area between the X-axis and one loop

the sine curve y

sin x.

Find the surface generated by revolving about the X-axis


the following curves:
1 6.

17.
tf-axis.

The parabola y* The circle (x The The The


9

px from x
2

=
2

o to x

p.

a)

(y

4)

25

above

the

18.

ellipse
line

x2
b

+
=

16
i

/=

144.

19.

between the axes.


o to x

20.

catenary from

a.

21.

y-axis in

Find the surfaces generated by revolving about the Examples 16, 18, and 20.

Find the volumes generated by revolving the following curves about the X-axis
:

22.

The

ellipse^a
circle

+ ---!. b
-f-

23.
24. 25.

The
The

x2

2
.

hypocycloid.

The The

witch y=
line

* 8 a

x2

+
i

2 4 a

26.

a
27.
ellipse.

h b

between the axes.

Find the volume generated about the Y-axis by the

MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATION.
ART.

on our

Since our determination of volume depends ability to divide our solid into sections, whose areas
87.

Elementary Calculus.

317

can be generally expressed, and then summed, any solid for which this is possible may be estimated.
be required to find the volume described by a rectangle moving from a fixed point, its plane remaining parallel to its first position, one side varying as

For example,

let it

its

this distance, the rectangle


side, at

distance from this point, the other side, as the square of becoming a square 5' on the

a distance of 4' from the point.


the line -L to the plane of the rectangle through its the other, Let v be one side and

Take

middle as the X-axis.

then by conditions, x being taken as origin at any time,

its

distance from

the point

4,

whence v
whence

= *, w=
2 ^X
.

w
Hence

x2

16,

16

the area of the rectangle at the distance


is,
>*

(being any

point between o and 4)

VW = 25^
64

This area representing any section of the solid, if multiplied by dx, thus forming an infinitesimal slice, and

summed between o and


volume; hence volume
feet.

4,
I

will

evidently give the total

=f|

Xs

dx=

JQ

ffcty*}*

25 cubic

Again

To
oil

find the part of the contents of a cylindrical

remaining in it, after the oil has been poured out, until half the bottom is exposed (see Figure 29). Let be any section of the remaining contents,
bucket of

EGH

taken parallel to the axes. Take the origin at the centre of the base and the co-ordinate axes as the axis of the
cylinder

and a diameter

of the base.

318

Elementary Calculus.
since

Then

EGH

and

DOC
:
:

are similar,

and
or

GH = VBG X GA = vV EH CD GH
:

x 2 [where
:

OG is #],

OC,

EH =
[where h

altitude

and

radius of base].

H
Fig.
29.

Hence area

EGH = J EH X GH =
dx=
,,

-- = contents remaining.
2hr2

EXERCISE XV.
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.
1.

Find the volume generated by an

isosceles triangle of

altitude, h,

moving with

its

plane always perpendicular to


r,

the plane of a circle of radius,

and having always the

ordinates of the circle for bases.

volume generated when the circle in Ex. 3, is replaced by an ellipse whose axes are 2 a, and 2 b? 3. Through the diameter of the upper base of a right
2.

What

is

the

Elementary Calculus.
cylinder,

319

whose altitude is h and radius, r, two planes are passed, touching the base at the two extremities of a diamFind the portion of the cylinder between the planes. eter.
4. Two right cylinders each of radius 3 in., intersect each Find comother at right angles, their axes intersecting.

mon

volume.

is h 5. Find the volume of a pyramid whose altitude and area of base B. 6. Find volume of a cone whose height is h and radius r.
7.

In cutting a notch in a log, the sloping face of the

notch makes an angle of 45 with the horizontal face. log is 3 ft. in diameter; how much wood is cut out?
8.

The

radius 6

right circular cone has a small circle of a sphere of If the in. as base, and its vertex is at the surface.
is

vertex angle of the cone

30, what

is

the

volume

of the

sphere outside the cone? a grindstone 9. A square hole is cut through the axis of for a bearing. The grindstone is 18 in. in diameter, 2 in.
thick at the circumference,

and 4
3 in.

in. at

the centre,

and has

conical faces.
is

If the

hole

is

square,

how much material

removed?

CHAPTER

XII.

INTEGRATION BY PARTS.
ART. 88. It is frequently a great aid in integration to separate the parts of an expression containing two factors, thus producing either a re-arrangement or a change in

form

of the integral.
is

This

readily accomplished by using the formula for

differentiating the product of

two

factors,

Transposing,

d(uv} = udv =

udv

vdu.

d(uv)

vdu.

Taking the

integral of both sides,


I

udv

uv

vdu

....

(B)

Example
Let
then

x2 cos x dx

what

x2
du

=u
=2

and cos x dx

dv
x.

x dx and v

= sin

Substituting in the formula (B),


I

udv

Ix 2
x2
cos

cos

x dx

=x

sin

sin

dx.

Where
less

the

integration of

sin

than in the

x dx is now made to depend upon the x dx, in which the exponent of x is one If we treat this inteoriginal expression.
again, letting

gral the

same way, using (B)

x=

u,

du

will

320

Elementary Calculus.
equal d(x) gral; then

321
final inte-

dx,

which eliminates x from the

x sin x dx

=
=

x cos x x cos #
sin

cos

# d#

2 sin x,

by putting

whence
.'.

= dx =
# x dx

u and
du,
2
I

x dx

=
v.

dv,

cos x =

x2 x

cos

x2

sin

x
2

sin

x dx

x 2 sin x
2 sin #.

cos

2 sin

2 x]= x sin # +

x cosx

In using the formula (B) no general rule of application

can be given for choosing the value for u and for dv, except that they should be so chosen that one factor may be made
to disappear eventually or to take such a value that in combination with the other, it may form an integrable

part

of

the

original

expression.

For example, in the

expression
I

x 2 tan" 1

:*:

dx,

dv can only equal x 2 dx since x dx is the only integrable 1 then part; tan" x dx having no known simple integral,

= =

tan" 1 x,

dv
-v

x 2dx,
3

du

dx
i zf

=x
3

x
I

' ,

and

fudv

= udv =

fx
=
x

tan" 1

xdx=
3
,

^-

[dividing

x3 by

jc

322
i
.'.

Elementary Calculus.
f*
/

x3 dx 2

3J i+x

=
=

Cxdx j
(i
3

f*2

J
+

x dx + x2

-1 log
6

*):
-

Hence

(*
I

#2

tan

x dx

5C

tan" 1 #

366
+
.

jc
-

i -

EXERCISE XVI.

i.

/r /r
I

Integrate by parts:

sin 2

x dx.

9.

cot" 1

dx.

Ce x cosxdx.
x sin

10.

lxn logxdx.
I

dx.

n.
I2

ze dz.

rx sec 2jc dx.

J
^

y tarr y
log (x

dy.
)
,

sin

dx.

3-

Vx +

+ 2 ^
2
-

<**

Cx

ten- l x dx.
.-i l

14-

8" " 2 / / (" + i)


I -

/
8.
/

ar cot

j xdx.

r(ioff)dv
^-j^
l
.

15.

log sin

esc

cot

^ dx.

16.

lx*cos

xdx.

ART.

INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION. An expression may often be simplified by 89.


it

substituting another variable for a part of the expression

be integrated. No general rule can be given, largely a matter for the exercise of originality.
to

being

Elementary Calculus.

323

An example

or two

may
dx
2

aid:

xVx
Let

^hat?

a2

_ "

I_

y' then

dx= -

Substituting,

_dy_

/dx-a xVx
2

~
2

Ji\/i

C dy J Vi-a<
ady

yy
-= 1
a
_i l

= _L C
a
i

J
_1
t

cos- 1 (ay)

A/I
a,

a 2 y2
i

cos

sec

x
.

a
Again;

/ J

dx

x2 ~ *2

=
+
_

what

/dx = J -2*+f
3

r
gx
2

dx
5
3].

-6x+
dx and

[multiplying and dividing by

Let

(3

i )

y,

then dy

The
9

i ) y comes from the fact that suggestion (3 x 6 # + 5 can be put in the form,

^2

-6^+i + 4

324

Elementary Calculus.

and the formula


a2

=
a

x2

tan"1
a

is

immediately suggested.

ART. 90. Expressions containing the form \/, can usually be integrated by making the substitution,

\/x 2
Example
Let
:

+
I

ax
=

x.

=
2

J Vx + X\x +x 2 = y 2 = y x + x
2

x.
2 2

yx

x2

'

whence

=
_

+
2

y
2 (y
2

doc

+
2

4y
(i

y
2

+
y

4a

2 ;y)

(i

+ +

2)

2;y)

V^
/

=
_

=
y
2

y
i

2
i

2
'

+ 2y

+ 2y 2 _ y + y i + 2y
2

= r
23;

=
ART. 91.

log (i

ff

2\/X 2

X
2

2).

where
factors,

degree can be integrated by making the substitution,

x2

Expressions containing the form a^ + b can be resolved into two

\/x

-\-ax+b,

first

x2

ax

+ b=

\/ (m

x} (n

x)

(m

x}y

Elementary Calculus.
or
(n

325
x)

x)y, where

(m
-f

and

(n

x) are the factors of

x2

ax
?

Example :

V2 +
whence
i

C J \/2 + 3 # 2 # = \/(i +
2

xdx
2
2

=
#2
(2

#)
j

#)

(2

x)y,

x=

2V

i
,

dx=
XVII.

10 y dy

22'

EXERCISE
Integrate
1.
I

by

substitution:
3 [substitute z for x].

J
2.

x*

J
3-

x*

^^ +

[substitute z for ^].

ar
4^

/f~^~i' ^ ^
I

5.

J
*/

[substitute

\/y
2

+
x2

=
3

z].

\/yl
2

_j_

C__xdx_
(a
^c
2

[substitute a

=z

].

)*

/^^
v^
2
~(~

s.

r
t/

^^
I

Xr

9.

JZ f--==r J Z \/Z 2
I
2

10

C^4y-y
tJ

326

Elementary Calculus.

ii.

/x
-7=

dx r # + 4X #V5
2

dx
a*

V2 + 5*- 3*
dx

13

^ J x\/4
/

x2
4

[substitute

x= x
z

x dx
[substitute
i)

14

z].

J (x/

,-

J
J

2*

?
2 *"

[substitute e

x].

j(V^4

+
vVy
I i

^2

/<~x?'
^i

l8

'

/\/^ + / ~~T / Vx

J
2CX

ax

x2 x 2 dx.

/ VJIP

REDUCTION FORMULA.
ART.
92.

Integrals of the general


I

form

xm

(a

bx n ^ p dx

are exceedingly

common,

as

J
Take
for example,

J
r

(a

x 2 )*

J
^

\/2 ax

x2

Xs dx
2

(a

x 2 }*

Elementary Calculus.

327

A careful

r
inspection will

x* x?
2

dx
5

show

that

if

J
-,

(a

x2 y

can
is

/x
2

dx

(a

the

x2 Y

expression

integrable, for the latter integral is in the can be readily reduced to it by inserting

form x n dx or
the factor
2.

/dx
2

- can be found

if

it

can be made

to

(a

depend upon

C
I

x 2 )* dx

sin

_! l

x
-

In the former case the exponent of


sion
is

x when
is

the expres-

in the

form

xm

(a

bx n

Ydx

to

be decreased,
is

and
If
/

in the latter the

exponent of the parenthesis

to

be

decreased.

then a general method can be devised for expressing


(a

xm
or

bx n Y dx in

terms

of

other

integrals

where

(or both) is increased or decreased as the case

may

require,

many

of these forms

can be integrated.

process in one case will suffice to show how these formulae, four in number, known as reduction formula,

The

are found.
as
it is

The formula

for integration

by parts

is

used,

necessary to
I

break up the original expression.

In
let

x m (a+ bx n Y dx,

then,

x m ~ n+l and dv

(a

bx n Y x n

~l

dx [x m dx

Substituting in

udv

uv

vdu

(B)

(a -f

bx n Y dx

x m-n+l
nb (p

i)

328

Elementary Calculus.

nb (p p
Since du

+ I Cx m-n (a + i) J = (m n + i m ~ n dx
n
) jc I

dx

and

z;

(a 4-

nb (p
(a

i)

But

x m ~ M (a + bx n Y +1 dx =

x m~n

bx n

(a

fo n

/</;

p+1 [since z

z.z p ]

ix m - n

(a

bx n y dx

xm

(a

bx n }p dx

[multiplying out].
Substituting in (i) above,

f*

(a

+
I
)

bxnydx

xm '~ +1

(a+^r
+
i)

nb (p
(a

+ i) J b(mn+i) nb (p +
nb (p
Transposing the
---*I

/V-

last

term
(a

of (2 )

and

collecting,

nb (p
/

xm
I
I

i)

J
j

+
/

bx n

Y dx
t/.A'

=
J

nb (p
/7ir W-vV.

i)

'^
nb

~\-

I )

f*

m_n vV

1C*-

(p+i) J
b (np

|^

Tj^nV

+m+

i)
?

Dividing by

rttf+x)
TC

C^w (a+^ /^=


b(np
Here
jc

^+W+
plainly

i)
. .

(a

+ m+ + Zww / ^
/

(A)

is

made

to

depend upon
is

the integral
it

~ xm n

(a

bx n

dx,

which
is

exactly like
n.

except that the exponent of x, [m],

reduced by

Elementary Calculus.

329

The
x
//v*W2-

other three formulae are as follows:

(rt ( -

A +

bx

/i-vW^
'

np
-

+ m+

np

+m

Cx m

(a

bx n )P- 1 dx

(B)

C J
_ CX J
b

a(m+
(np

i)

+
a
(

+ m+i) C + i) J

m+n

ft

(a

aw

(^

"+* Cxm
i

i)

(a

(A) decreases

m m

by

w.

(B ) decreases p by unity.
(C) increases

by

w.

(D) increases p by unity.


In using these formulae, the expression to be integrated carefully inspected, and the known integrable form to
it is

is

which

to

be reduced,

is

decided upon, then the formula

[(A), (B), (C), or (D)] suited to this reduction

is applied. Clearly these formulae may all be applied to one example successively, or any one of them may be used any number

of times until

the desired form

is

reached.

These

for-

mulae

fail

when

the constants have such a value that the


to

denominators of the fractions reduce


ample, in (A) b (np

zero.

For ex-

+m+
I o

i)

must not reduce

to o, etc.

Example:

330

Elementary Calculus.
is

Here the form desired

plainly

Va 2

x2

To
by

accomplish must reduce to


2

this,
2

(a
i

x2 )^ x2 must reduce to x = i and (a 2 2 x )~*. That is, m must be decreased


it

and p by

(why can

not be reduced to the form


this,

Va 2

To
,

accomplish

(A) must be used to


i.

x2

~ reduce x m to x m n and (B) to reduce p to p

Comparing
with

x2

VV

x 2 dx

xi

(Q?

x 2 )* dx

Cx m

(a

+
2,

bx n ) p dx

using (A) then,

/x
m=
n

2,

1,

a2 b
,

x 2 (a 2
2

x 2 )% dx=
2

(a
>

-x -4

)$ '

f*

(a

x 2 )* dx

(i)

[since

xm ~ n
2

x2 ~ 2 = X Q
dx,

i].

Applying (B) to

I (a

x 2 )*

where

m=

o,

2,

f\a 2

i*-^
*
2

(a

*2

'

Elementary Calculus.
2

331

Substituting

this value

of

(a

x 2 )* dx

in (i),

pV* =
8

a
completely integrated.

where
of

x \/a

x dx is

The

value

form that
the

these formulae lies in the ability to see the integrable lies within the original expression, and to select
It
is

appropriate reduction formula. observation and ingenuity purely.

a matter for

Again

\/2 ax

x 2 dx

what?

/dx V2
##

dx

x vers-1 ,

x2
I

To

put

\/2 ax

x 2 dx

in the

form

x m (a

bx n ) p dx,

take out

x from under

the radical,

and we have

/ xfc (2

x)^dx.

This must be reduced

to

r J 2

ax

-x
w

x
i,

Since

=
[i

here

^m ~ n
is

- x* = jc^- =
1

x~* the desired form


is

for x, hence

(A)
i

needed.
J]

Also p
is

to

be reduced to

p
tice

i.

hence (B)

also needed.

Apply-

ing these successively

we

get the desired form.

Only prac-

formulae,
is

and experience can give facility in the use of these and familiarity with the simpler integral forms
that the inspection of the expression to be

desirable,

integrated should be effective.

332

Elementary Calculus.

EXERCISE
Integrate:
1.

XVIII.

C(x
'

+
2

6 2 )i dx.

A/2
n

ry

y dy.

2.

vV

x2

dx.

xdx
2 x;

j- *-**
5

/>

9-

^
r r
2

l~7= J V2 ax

dx

J ^ v!-::
'

r dz J (a - z
2

dx

'

''

)*

J Va -

'

f (*-?*+&

substitute

first

-*
-X
2

rJ
\/I

ryZ
J
r ^

I <.

J
16.

Vl
2

2 Z

ffz.

^^
2

/Vy +

^-^

6 Jy.

RATIONAL FRACTIONS.
ART. 93.
together,
If the fractions
i

and

+
2

be added
33;

we

get,

+ 3^

(i

x) (2

$x)

Elementary Calculus.

333

It will be observed that the numerator of the sum gives no indication of the numerators of the component fractions, but that the denominator does indicate directly the denomi-

form indicated
factor
it.

nators of the components. If the denominator is in the in the final fraction above, it is easy to

So that we

may

regard every rational fraction whose

denominator

is

factorable as

made up

of simpler fractions
If it is

having respectively the factors as denominators.


required to integrate, for example,
11
2
it is

+ ** - 3X

dx,

clearly a gain to be able to express this fraction as the

sum

(algebraic

sum

of course is

meant) of two or more

simpler fractions; for


ii
2

when we

discover that,
5
j

+ ^x
X
3

=
#2
I

we

get the integral readily, since

= -3 log .(i-#) and


Since

C-^- = $\ Qg
2
-f-

(2

+ 3*).

we know that this decomposition is possible, for denominator factor we set a fraction with a letter, or every letters, for numerator, which we determine by the principle
of identities.
It is

necessary to discriminate between


will appear,

second degree factors, as


cases, as follows:
(a)
(b)
(c)

first degree and hence we have four

where the factors are

where the factors are linear only, and not repeated. linear and repeated.

(d)

where the factors are quadratic and not repeated. where the factors are quadratic and repeated.

334

Elementary Calculus.
Case

(a).

For every

r the linear factor in t

denominator there

is

component

fraction of the

form

A
x
a
'
;

Suppose the fraction

is

/v

where

F (x) =

(x

a)

(xb) (xc)
Then
/(*)
JF(#)

(xn).
B
C
'

=
(a;

^
,

N
c)

a)

(xb)

(x

The original fraction should be a proper fraction, that is, the degree of the numerator should be less than that of the denominator, to avoid complications. If this is not the
case in the given fraction,
condition.
integral
it

can be made
until

numerator by denominator
fulfills

so, by dividing the remainder fraction


is

this

The remainder
quotient added

then

decom-

posed and the

to the result.

An

example

will

make

the process plainer:


2

(x

i)

dx

X2
(X*

X2

2 4 ) (4 *

I)

(X
B

2) (X

+
C

2) (2

I) (2

I)

~
It is to

A
X

X+22X I2X+I

this is an identity, not a mere must be exactly the same, when cleared of fractions by our hypothesis, A, B, C and D being used because we do not immediately know what their

be remembered that

equation, as the two sides

values are.

Elementary Calculus.
Clearing;

335
i)
(2

x2

=A

(x

2)

(2

i)

(X-2) (2X-I) (2X+ l)+ C (X-2) (X+

2) (20C

+B i) +

x Since this is an identity it is i). true for any value of x whatever; hence we can give x such values that the terms will all disappear but one, and thereby For example, if we find the unknown constant it contains.
(#

2)(#

2) (2

let

=
2
2

2,

all

the terms containing (x

2) will reduce to o,

hence

= A
and

(4) (3) (5)

60 A,

whence
Let x
to

A = ^V

2,

all
i

hence (- 2) 2 + 0= - 60 B,

terms containing x + = 3 = o + B (- 4)

2 will

reduce

(-

5)

(-

3)

whence
Let x
2

B=

^j.

then

(i)

-ii

1=
then

whence
Let x

+ C (= + TV C
o

f) (f) (2)

V-C,

(i)

= -1 =
r

=o +
2

whence

Then

_ J
2

+ o + D (D = TV
o

f ) (|)

(- 2)= V- D,

(x

1)

dx
2

=
i)

_i_

r
X

dx

(X

4) (4X

20 J

j_
2

r_ dx

20JX +2

+ =
A"

j_
10

<**

_
I

JL
IO
(2

^g (*-).-

A log O + 2) + A ^g
(2

I)

A log
2) (2

J)

""

"
j

(jc

(^ +

2) (2

x *

i)

(by the principles of


logarithms.)

i)

336

Elementary Calculus.
Case
(b).
sort,
it

In using indeterminate coefficients of any

is

cardinal principle that every possible case that must be provided for in the supposition used.

may

arise

Suppose
i

-2

x
2
,

x
5

and

(i

x)
_

-^
(i

x)
12

^ are
3

added,

3
i

x
2

3
(i

x2

+
x)

i
3

7
(i

+
3

x2

(i (i
2

x)
s

x)

Here the
factor (i

x)
,

gives no indication directly of the


it.

x)

that has disappeared in

If (i
(i

x}

is

separated into linear factors they


(i

would

all

be alike

x),
at all,
2

x), (i
3

x),

and there would be no separation


fractions having denominators (i
for.

neither

would the
x)

x)

provided necessary then to provide a fraction for each n a of these, hence for every factor of the form (x a)
(i

and

be

That nothing may be

omitted

it is

series of fractions is

assumed, thus:

/(*)

A
,

(xa)thus accounting for


all

(**r
?

the powers.

Example:

Cx5

S^-^ =

As

this

is

an improper fraction,

divide

numerator by

denominator,

r5_ 5 3.2_ 3

Elementary Calculus.

337
x.

[Thus accounting
Clearing;

for all the

powers of

and

of (x

i).]

Let x

(-

= 3 (i)
=
o

then
2

i)

- = -3=
i

+C

(-

i)

+ o=

C,

C=-3Let x
o
o; then

i=

A- disappear,

A(i)
i.

o=A

Since no rational value of

we

will

give

x will cause the other terms to x any small values to get two

simultaneous equations for the two remaining constants,

B and D.
Let x
i
3

i
2

then
i

- (i) + D(i)
2

=A

(2 )

+B

(i)

(2 )

+C

(i)

( 2 ),

or since

whence
Let x

A = i, and C = 3 -i= -4 + 4B-3 + 2D 2B + D=3 .......

(i)

whence
3

B+2D= 4
(2)
2

.......
i.

(2)

Combining
Hence,

(i)

and

B=
x3

and

D=

^^TW dx
J X+
I

-x 2

'

dx

Cdx

dx

r_dx_ =L+
X

+ _JL_ _

X+

og (x

338

Elementary Calculus.

[collecting].

Case
If for

a factor of the second degree

the form

x2

form

x2

^
a

(c).

we

set

a fraction of
the

x+
,

we

overlook the possibility of

b
is

ax

since this

also a proper fraction, but

if both are combined in one thus getting the most general So for factors of form, all contingencies are provided for. the form x 2 + ax + b, we have fractions of the form

x2

Ax + B + ax+ b
Hence
-*

where

<

Example:

Elementary Calculus.
lowed; a method that
in every case
if

339

is

entirely general

and can be used

preferred.

Multiplying out in (i);


2

x2

+ i = Ax + A + Ex + Cx +
2

"Bx

+
(A

C.

Collecting;
2

x2

+ i=
is

(A

2 B) x

(C

+
is,

B) x

C).

Since this

an

identity, the coefficients of like

powers of x

on the two

sides are identical; that


2

A+B= C+B= A+ C=

coefficients of

x2

o
i

since there

is

no x on the

left.

absolute terms.

Combining these as simultaneous:

(2

x2

B=i, A=|, + i}dx _

C=-

j.

34

Elementary Calculus.

EXERCISE XIX.
Separate into rational fractions and integrate:
2

<<

2^-

J
6
.

* - 3 r (^-6)^ J x? 6x2 +

^
.

/3
9-

vs
\

(^^V

s
^2

^,

+
<ty.

l8.

/
/*

_|_

20.

^-^
2

21 '

J C

(^
3

+4^ +3
)

_I_

^^

J+ *-,**
I)
3
2

22 .

6 *+* r J (X+ 2)3 (XZ + 2 Z Jr-^j_</,

23 .

Elementary Calculus,

341

r J (x +
2

*
i

N2

^A

'

CHAPTER

XIII.

TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS.
ART. 94.

The

integration of

the

more complex

trig-

onometric functions can often be accomplished by substitution, sometimes by breaking up the expression taking advantage of the relations known to exist between the
different functions.

the chief assets are

There are very few general rules and originality and a knowledge of the

simpler integrable however.

forms.

A
the

few cases

may

be noted,

ART.

95.

Integrals

of

form

sm m xcos n xdx

where either

or

is

a positive, odd integer.

Say

is

2 odd; then since sin

=
2

cos 2 x,

m-l
I

sin m x cos n x dx =

cos x)

cos n

x sin x dx

m-l

/~~2
(i

cos 2 #)

cos n

xd

(cos x).

m-l
[For sin

m x = sin

A
"

sin

(i

cos 2 x)

sin x.]

Since

is

odd,

is

even and hence


2

can be

expanded by the binomial theorem; then each term muln tiplied by cos x d (cos x) becomes an integral of the form
342

Elementary Calculus.

343

x njx

^L
+
I

or

f d = -2. J X
is

log *,

and the

result is
_

easily found.
If

is

odd, the cos

reduced to sin x and the same

process followed.

Example:

C J

cos3 * -

dx

->

sin*

[**.&= Jf i^sini* * *
sin

cosxdx =
x

fjfisin*)

sin

sin

_
If

sin

xd

(sin

*)

log sin

2 4 sin x.

w+

n
I

is

an even negative whole number,

sin w

x cos n

^ may be put
J
cot n

in the

form

cosUoc
.

sin n

sin

x
C05

+"xdx= C
m + n x(ix==
is

x csc-< w + ^ x dx,

or

sm m x m cos x
Since
will

JI
integer,

m+

an even negative
(
~>

(m+n
+
6
tan 2 x.

2 be a positive even integer, hence leaving sec #d# as - m + n - 2 x can be sec the d (tan*), expressed entirely in

terms of the tangent by

the relation sec

x
n

Example:

Cc -^-^dx=? J sin 6 *
fc
2

Here

m+

=-

= -4.

Hence

C ?2* J sm *
The
I

= f
y

sin

2^ sin-. xdx = JC *
2

cot*

* csc< *

dx.

cot

x
2

esc x, hence,

cot

* esc 4 * dx

cot

(i

cot *)

csc*xdx

344

Elementary Calculus.

J
ART.
96.

~T~ ~7~
If the integral is in the

form,

/ sec 2m

* dx

or

csc 2n

xdx, where n and

are positive integers,

the

expressions can be readily put in the forms,

=
and

(tan

* *

+ +

i)

m~l d
2 n 2 2

(tzn x)

(cot

i )

esc 2

* dx

which are both readily integrable, since m i and n are both integers and the parentheses may be expanded.

Example:

^
cos 6

=
*

J
r

/dx x
cos6

J
+
i)
2

J
d (tan *)

= i
=
/

(tan

tan 4
5

*d
,

(tan *)

tan 2

*d

(tan *)

sec

tan

tan3
3

*
-

h
5

tan *.

ART.

97.
I

If the integral is of the

form,

sec m * tan n * dx

or

csc

cot n

* dx,

Elementary Calculus.

345
it

where

m is

anything, and
f*

is

a positive odd integer,

may

be reduced to
sec w-i

x tan- 1 x sec x tan x dx


1

=
or

sec- xt&n - xd
1
71

(sec#),

csc^-^cot-1

^
and

(csc#),

since n is odd, w i is even and tan x and cot x can be expressed in terms of sec x and esc x respectively by

and

the relations, tan 2 #

sec

cot

csc

i.

ART.

98.

If the integrals are in the


/

forms,
dx,

tan m xdx

or

cot m x

they
I

may

be put in the forms,

tan m

~ 2 x.

tan 2

xdx
2

tan m

~2 x

(sec

x
2

dx,

and

cot w

~ 2 x.

cot

xdx

cot m

~2 x

(esc

i)

dx.

If these are

multiplied out, the


of

first

term

is

grable and the exponent

tan# or cotx

is

always intereduced by 2
is

in the second term; thus

each application of the process


reached.

reduces the exponent m, until an integrable form

Example:
tan 4

(t&n

x)dx=
tan 2

xdx

(sec

i)

dx

346

Elementary Calculus.

tan 2 tan 3
3

xd
x

(tan x)

tan 2

x dx

I
3

(sec

i)

dx

tan

CsK*xdx+ C dx
tan

x.

ART.

99.

When

and n are both

positive integers the

multiple angle formulae

may

be used to simplify, namely,

Example
I

sin

x cos2 x dx
I (sin

=?

sin

x cos 2 x dx =

x cos #) 2 sin 2 x dx

sin

x dx
cos

I sin si

# cos
sin
2

iV

x ~~

4x) dx
I

TV

je

cos

(/

(2 rv

= TV

dx

^
sin 4

cos 4

jc

J
3

(4

x)

TV

sm2

xd

(s*

= TV*- &

# -

& sin

5f.

Elementary Calculus.

347
be useful, but

ART. TOO.

The
is

their derivation

following formulae will not necessary here.

dx

where

m>

The
the

integration of

m + nsmx
;

Js

made
z

to

depend upon

same form by
sin

first

substituting

90.

g^Csin^ w^

n cos

e a * cos

^ = gffjfcsjn

na;

a2

+ g cos +w
2

EXERCISE XX.

Icsc 4 xdx.

It
/'

Aan3
-

jc

</*

cos 4

10.
A;

v / (

348
6

Elementary Calculus.

11.

dx.

16.

/cot
12.

J
4 x sm A x

sm x COS 4 X
COS3

dx.

/*
/"sin
3 I

cos*

dx.

17.

I-

/^sin

J
I

x dx X *

13.

COS^

x X

dx.

18.

C dx

J
*
= dx.
cos

COS 4
4

/"

^
sm 2 *

x V /sin
cos
15.
I

19.

J
I

cos .*
4

r sin3 x dx =~7= J V i 4- cos *


/

r
20. sin

* cos 4 *

y
[set sec

21. [.

sec3

* d*

*=

y].

r
22.

dx
5 cos

/</*
sin

*
5

cos 2

*
2g>

rco_s
23-

_*^
*
dx

J J

sin

J 3 r J 10 +

6 cos

5P

24. ^

C^cmx
cot
3

w*

/
/

elsi 2 sin

dx.

255.

r J 3
.

^
5 sin

e 2x sin

* *
cos
dx.

dx.

26.

/; 4-5
I

sin 2

cos

dx.

32.

e mx (sin

w*
*
dx.

33.

I e x cos 3

34.

3 / e ^ (cos 2

* 4-

sin 2 *) dx.

Elementary Calculus.
Integrate the following by multiple angle formulae:
35.
/ sin
2

349

cos 4

dx.

37.

sin

cos 2

x
.

dx.

36.

sm x cos Jr./* #
4 4 .

38.

f^dx x
cos 4

MULTIPLE INTEGRALS.
ART. 101. As we learned that a given function
a

may have

number

of successive derivatives,

it

immediately follows

that a multiple derivative admits of successive integration, thus recovering the lower derivatives and eventually the
original function.

This process

is

indicated by repeating

the integral sign, thus,

JJ J
Suppose we
have, for example,

This
three

is

what

is

known
the

as a differential equation.

To

find

the relation between y


times,

and x
third

it

is

necessary to integrate
is

since

derivative

involved.

It

follows then, that

2= dx 2
or

x 2 dx x 2 dx

x dx

d (^2\ 2 \dx ]

x dx.

Integrating,

2 dx2

= =

Jfate

Cxdx= J

^ + a*L+c 32

i;

dy\
\dxj

350
Integrating,

Elementary Calculus.

d2

dx~*J*

Cy*dx

*J

6
Integrating,

C2 dx.
2

Q, C 2 and C 3
,

are the constants of integration

which may

be determined in
the problem.
tions of curves,

specific cases by the given conditions of This process is useful in finding the equa-

when

certain attributes expressed in terms of

their derivatives are given, for example, their radii of curvature, although a general application to this end requires a general knowledge of differential equations.

INTEGRATION OF A TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL.


ART. 102.

Where

several variables

are involved

it

is

necessary to reverse the process of partial differentiation,


thus integrating for one variable at a time, regarding the others as constant. In the case of a function of two variables say,
ential
is,

z=

j (x, y), the expression for the total differ-

Say a differential is given where P and Q are functions


is

in of
it

the form

P dx
If the

+ Q dy,
function
it

x and

y.

not originally in this form,

may

be made to assume

by grouping.

Elementary Calculus.

351

The
which
ential?

will

function z, of question arises, is there a have the expression P dx dy for

x and

y,

+ Q
*"\

its differ-

x->.

Comparing
ent that
if

Pdx+Qdy mth~dx+ ^-dy,


is

it is

appar-

there

such a function,

to y Differentiating these equations with respect

and x

respectively,

But
.

3P = 3Q

And when

this is true the function z exists, not otherwise.


:

Example
/ (^, y).

x 2 dx

3 y

dy

a# <y

^^

^>

to

Put

this in the
(3

form
2

P dx +
<&

Q dy,
+
s

3 <*?)

(3

*)

<*?
-

Here

P =

~ 3 ^ Q = 3 f ~ 3 ax 3 ^

/B

=
P

.S^and
3

z exists.

Since

x2

3 ay.

352

Elementary Calculus.

Integrating this with respect to x, y being constant,


zf

x3

axy

\_z

means

partial value of

z].

Since the terms in Q, which contain x, have already been integrated in P, as will be evident if we remember how
partial differentiation
is

effected,

it

grate the terms in

Since

Q=

Q containing y alone,
y.

remains only to intewith respect to y.

2 ax, the integration of the

term

2
,

containing only

y, gives

Adding

this to the partial

integral already

found in

zp ,

the total integral becomes,

2=^
Hence
to integrate

axy

an expression of the form

P dx +

Q dy,
Q

integrate

with respect to x, then integrate the terms in not containing x, and add the results.

DEFINITE MULTIPLE INTEGRALS.


ART. 103.
Evidently the conception of multiple integral include definite integration, where the limits of inte-

may

gration are determined for each variable separately.

/
means
for y

f* \/r 2
I

x2

(x

)dxdy

0^/0

vV
We

that the definite integral of this expression is taken (x remaining constant) between the limits o and x 2 then the integral of this result with respect to x,
,

between o and
integrate

r.

first

for the outside differential.

Thus,

/V /VV
I
I

a; 2

(x

JQ JQ

y )dxdy

/r
I

*3\

vV'

x2

Jo

!x 2 y+
\

2-) 3 /o

dx

Elementary Calculus.

353

1 sin- ix~] 12 r \
.

Tir*

AREAS AND MOMENTS OF INERTIA.


ART. 104.

The

determination of areas comes readily

under the process of double integration. Take the circle Divide the circle up into minute (Fig. 30) for example.

Fig. 30.

squares, by lines drawn parallel respectively to the #-axis and the j-axis, and let those parallel to the y-axis be at a distance A# apart; those parallel to the y-axis, Ay apart.

Then

the area of each square

is

AJC

Ay.

The sum

of all

these squares will be less than the area of the circle by the minute spaces bounded by the sides of the extreme squares

and the circumference.

But

as Arc

and Ay approach

o,

these spaces also approach o, and eventually the sum of the squares represents the actual area of the circle, that is,

354
.

Elementary Calculus.
doc

when A# A^ becomes
definite integration is a

dy.

We

have learned that


if

summation, hence

we

integrate

along a line parallel to the ^-axis, that is for y, we get a strip parallel to the #-axis, and then integrating parallel to
the
;y-axis,

that

is

for x,

get the circle area.


will will

Since

we sum these strips and hence we we must take limits for y, that

apply to any strip, these limits or rather one of them be variable, and should be a function of x.
origin at the centre, the circle equation
is

Taking the

X
2

2
,

whence

\/r

x2

will represent the distance

Since the value of y represents any point on the circle, it on any strip from the #-axis,

along a parallel to the

hence starting with the x-axis and integrating upwards ;y-axis, the lower limit o is the same

for all strips (the starting point always being at the jg-axis) 2 and the upper limit for any one will then be x 2 (the

VV

outer end of the strip). Then these strips are integrated parallel to the #-axis, from the y-axis, to the extreme distance of the last one

from the

;y-axis,

that

is, r.

We

express
r

all this,

/w/r2
I

a*

f*rT

~|

x*

dxdy=
t/o

/o

\y\ L Jo

= C
Jo
the area of a quadrant.

x
4

Tir

2
,

the area of the circle.

Elementary Calculus.

355

MOMENTS OF INERTIA.
ART. 105.

The moment

of inertia of a plane area about


is

a given point in its plane

defined in mechanics, as the

sum

each infinitesimal portion distance from the point. by Taking the point as origin and laying out the strips parallel to the axes, taking the axes in a position most
of the products of the area of
its

the square of

convenient for laying out the


is

strips,

we have by
(x,

Geometry, that the distance of


point (origin)

any point

Analytic y) from the

Also by the
is

last article the

area of any infinitesimal square

dx

dy.

Since an infinitesimal square is practically a point, we have then the moment of inertia of any square is
2

(x

dx

dy.

determined as in the
;y-axis

Integrating this parallel to the #-axis with proper limits, last article, and then parallel to the

with limits indicating the extreme of area,

we have

the required sum. Calling the moment of inertia, I; the limits for ^-integration, (o, a) [where a is a function of x];

those for ^-integration,

(o, Z>),

the result

is

expressed,

na
stead of rectangular ones.

(x

This was illustrated in Art. 100. The same process may be used in polar co-ordinates by taking radial strips, in-

356

Elementary Calculus.

EXERCISE XXI.
By double
1.

integration find the following:


3

= x and x = y. = 8 x and x 8 y. area between y = 6 x and y = 10 x x2 3. Find the segment of the circle x + y = 16 cut off 4. x = 4. by the line y Find the area between y = 2 px and the line y = 2 x. 5.
2.

The The The

area between y3 area between y 2

6.

Find the moment of


2

inertia

about the origin of the

circle (x
7.

i)

(y

z)

9.

Find the moment

of inertia of a right triangle, about

the origin, legs of length 6 in. the axes.


8. 9.

and 8

in.

respectively forming

Find the moment of

inertia of the area in Ex. 5.

Find the moment

of inertia of the

segment

in Ex. 4.

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