RECEIVER AMPLIFIER

This is block 4 of Figure 17, usually the most complex electronic unit in the echo-sounder. A diagram illustrating the receiver amplifier principal functions appears as Figure 22. The purpose of the complete unit is to amplify the signals VRT received from the transducer in a precisely controlled manner and to present them to the following instruments (the echo-integrator or echocounter) at a suitable level of amplitude for further processing. Figure 22.

Starting at the input of block 1 of Figure 22, the transducer output is electrically matched to the input of the receiver, i.e. in terms of impedance and frequency bandwidth. Sometimes the receiver bandwidth is controlled by means of a switch to closely match the transmitted pulse duration , BW 2 -1. Although quoted at the -3 dB response points on either side of resonance in the same way as a transducer, the receiver bandwidth is often controlled until the response is at least 40 dB down on the maximum. Usually a 'bandpass' form of response is provided because it only allows those

frequencies which lie within the wanted band to pass from the input, thus minimising the effects of high level wideband interference. Overall amplification, or gain factor G is defined as G = 20 log VR/VRT dB (25) where VR is the output voltage VRT is the minimum detectable voltage from the transducer. The overall receiver response is defined as the voltage VR (dB/1 Volt) relative to an acoustic intensity of 1 Pa at the transducer face. Gain must be precisely controlled in relation to depth and blocks 1 and 2 of Figure 22 automatically vary the tuned amplifier gain relative to the time after transmission. This is known as time varied gain TVG and the circuits comprising it are the TVG generator and controller, see sections 4.2; 7.2.2. At the beginning of each sounding period the transmitter trigger pulse also starts the TVG generator control circuit (block 2) after a fixed delay, often at 3 m depth but it can be less. Modern TVG circuits operate digitally; for each small time increment there is a corresponding change of gain in the amplifier, the rate of change depending on which TVG law is in use, see section 4.2 for details. With a correctly functioning TVG the calibrated output voltage VR from the receiver amplifier is independent of the depth to the target, preferably to an accuracy of 0.5 dB or better at any depth over which the TVG is designed to operate. This is of course provided that the TS of a target does not itself vary with depth. In addition to the trigger pulse which initiates timing at the beginning of each sounding period, there is another input to the TVG. This is the absorption coefficient for which the, TVG circuits must compensate. A value for a is determined at the start of a survey and switched, or keyed, into the TVG circuit where it remains the same until conditions change sufficiently that it must be updated, see section 2.6.1. All amplifiers produce some noise, i.e. with no input signal from the transducer, or with merely a matched resistor replacing it, there will be some noise at the output; the receiver self noise. This electrical noise must always be below the lowest level of acoustic noise likely to occur from a very low sea state when the ship is stationary, or, when working at higher frequencies, the thermal noise level, see section 4.7. Receiver self-noise can be quoted as less than -n dB/1 Volt referred to the input terminals but with a TVG amplifier is not constant. Modern receiver amplifiers generally have input sensitivities of 1 V or less, i.e. -120 dB/1 Volt or less. The maximum depth at which a given size of target can be detected is the point where it is just distinguished above the noise level, but for acoustic survey purposes the SNR must be greater than 10 dB. At the other extreme there is a maximum size or density of target with which the receiver can cope at short range due to the saturation level of the circuits. Receiver saturation is defined as the condition when the output voltage no longer follows the input voltage linearly, i.e. the gain factor is not constant. It is vital that the receiver voltage response (gain) is linear between the extremes of signal level ( 120 dB) likely to be encountered under practical survey conditions. The difference between the minimum useable signal at the receiver input and the maximum input signal which

does not cause saturation is the dynamic range. A typical output signal dynamic range might be between 50-80 dB. For measurement purposes the output voltage VR is always taken from the calibrated output but there is usually another amplifier which processes the signals for display purposes, either a paper recorder or a rectified 'A' scan cathode ray tube display.

3.1.5 Displaying and Recording Signals

Once amplified, the echo signals are still in the form of a pulse comprising a certain number of cycles at the echo-sounder frequency, Figure 23(a). For display purposes only this pulse at the echo-sounder frequency is further amplified then demodulated, otherwise known as 'detected', or 'rectified', Figure 23(b). This process removes all traces of the echo-sounder frequency, and, either the positive half of the negative half of the pulse. The result is a uni-directional DC waveform which can be used to mark a paper record, or to deflect the beam of a cathode-ray tube (rectified 'A' scan). An unrectified 'A' scan CRT would take its signals from the calibrated output. Figure 23.

Signals cannot be displayed intelligibly without a timebase. The function of a time base was described earlier although it is usually an integral part of a display. There are multi-stylus 'comb' recorders which use an electronic time-base, but some recorders of scientific echo-sounders still have a mechanical timebase. In these systems a motor and gearbox drive a marking stylus across electrosensitive wet or dry paper which is slowly drawn over a metal plate, at 90 to the path of the stylus.

As the stylus rotates, or moves past the zero mark on the recorder scale the transmitter 'trigger' contacts operate, causing an acoustic pulse from the transducer. Whilst the stylus continues to move across the paper, echo signals start to return and mark the paper at the instant they arrive. When the stylus reaches the zero mark again, the paper has been drawn along so that successive soundings are just separated from one another giving the familiar record. A recorder timebase normally generates time marks and for acoustic survey purposes it is important to have an input from the ship's log to mark the paper at the end of each nautical mile or some other unit of time or distance.

3.1.6 Recording Paper

Moist paper is sensitive to weak signals and has a good dynamic range relative to dry paper (the ability to show a range of different colouring according to the signal strength). It is still widely used despite a number of disadvantages. These are 1. Moisture content must be carefully controlled during manufacture 2. Careful packaging and storage before use 3. Must be 'sealed' in the recorder to retain moisture 4. Shrinks when it dries 5. Fades quickly and discolours if exposed to light. Stylus pens for moist paper have 'thick' polished tips and are applied to the paper at a constant pressure. Compensation is made for the change of marking density with change of speed of rotation. Dry paper is prepared with electrically conductive surfaces and a filling of fine carbon powder between them. A fine wire stylus conducts a high voltage to break down the front surface paper and make a dense black mark. Although this marking process is difficult to control and consumes the stylus, less storage problems occur before and after use. Dynamic range is about 10 dB whereas nearer 20 dB is claimed for the moist paper. Multistylus recorders can use either wet or dry paper.

3.2 The Analog Echo-integrator

Echo-integrators were first used in the late 1960's when only analog techniques were practicable. Despite the introduction of a number of digital integrators many analog units are still in use. Because of this the essential functions of signal processing and echo-integration are first described by reference to the Simrad QM system. A brief description of the main features of the digital units is then given in section 3.3. An echo-integrator receives all signals from the calibrated output of the echo-sounder, see diagram 1 of Figure 24. These signals require further processing and the facility for the operator to select sections, or intervals of the water column at depths which can be adjusted to make the echointegrator into a practical tool. Because of this there are many circuit functions, of which only one is strictly an integrator, but it is convenient to place them together and call the resulting system of units an echo-integrator. The term integrator is used in its mathematical sense of measuring the area under a curve of voltage versus time. Time is usually proportional to the distance moved by the survey vessel and the voltage output is proportional to fish density. A block diagram showing the main functions of an echo-integrator appears in Figure 24(a) and the associated waveforms in 24(b).

3.2.1 Demodulator
When the TVG controlled signals from the calibrated output of the echo-sounder reach the echointegrator, they still consist of sinewaves at the echo-sounder frequency. It has been shown that a sinewave has equal positive and negative values and the information it carries (the modulation) is in the form of equal positive and negative changes of amplitude. The integral of a sinewave is zero, so before integration the information must be changed to a different form. This process is known as demodulation, sometimes called detection, or rectification. Figure 23(a)(b) and block 2 of Figure 24. This completely removes either the positive or the negative portions of the signal so that only variations between zero and one polarity occur, but these are still at high frequency. A further process filters out the high frequency half-cycles and we are left with the average voltage (i.e. an 'outline' of the signals) of varying amplitude according to the signal strength. In section 3 of Figure 24 there is an illustration of the waveform in section 1 when it has been demodulated. After this process there may be a need to amplify the signals.

3.2.2 Amplifier
Survey conditions in regard to density of fish and depth at which they occur can vary widely so it is sometimes useful to have an amplifier (block 3) to increase the amplitude of the signals by a precisely known amount. If a thin layer of widely spaced targets is to be integrated, the signals may be very small so that the subsequent processing cannot be carried out efficiently. Any change of signal amplitude is important so a switched type of control is necessary allowing say, 0-10-20-30 dB of amplification to be used. These steps of gain correspond to amplitude changes of 1, 3.16, 10 and 31.6 times respectively.

3.2.3 Threshold
This function, block 4 of Figure 24, is linked to the gain control of the amplifier to ensure similar operation at each setting of the latter. The effect of the threshold control is to vary the zero reference of the DC waveform by a small amount so as to suppress noise, which although at a low level, may exist throughout the full depth interval, thus giving rise to a significant integrated output. Of course the threshold setting must be taken into account when the final results are being calculated. However, in order to make the processing after the threshold as accurate as possible, the amount subtracted from each signal above the threshold level is added again but exact compensation cannot be achieved. The threshold control should never be used unless it is absolutely essential. When used with analogue integrators it seriously biases the obtained results in a manner which cannot be reproduced. The effect of any threshold is difficult to calculate so use of a threshold is inadvisable for quantitative measurements.

3.2.4 Depth and Interval Selection

Although the echo-integrator accepts signals from the whole water column it is necessary to have a means of excluding the transmission and the bottom echo from being integrated and this is the function of block 5, Figure 24. It is desirable to be able to select specific depth layers within the water column and to vary the extent of the layer and the depth at which it starts. In the early equipments thumbwheel switches controlled the settings, usually in increments of 1 m. Thus a depth interval 2 m wide could be placed at a depth of 100 m for integration. The action of

the depth and interval selector is initiated by the same trigger pulse which operates the transmitter and starts the TVG. It causes a circuit to operate for a duration of time proportional to the depth at which integration is required to start. When this time is reached, the first circuit causes another to operate for a time proportional to the depth interval required, this is sometimes known as an electronic signal gate. Even though the depth interval has been selected the signals are still not ready for integrating.

3.2.5 Voltage Squarer

Seen as block 6 of Figure 24 this performs one of the most critical functions in an echo integrator. It is necessary because the signal voltages V are still proportional to acoustic pressure p. Density of fish is proportional to acoustic intensity which is proportional to p2. Using the relationships and the analogies discussed in Chapter 2, i.e. V is analogous to p and V2 W W is analogous to I so p2 I we can say that by squaring the voltages they become proportional to intensity. The effective gain steps of 3.2.2 are then 1, 10, 100, 1000 times, corresponding to 0, 10, 20, 30 dB respectively.

3.2.6 Voltage Squared Integrator

When the echo signal voltages have been squared, they go to block 7 of Figure 24. It is here that the energy, represented by the area under the squared voltage curve, is put into its final form of a DC voltage whose amplitude at any given time is proportional to the acoustic intensity of the signal. In Figure 24 there are two signals selected by the INTERVAL gate, the deeper of the two is partly lost because it is not completely inside the gate. The DC waveform in block 7 shows how the integrator voltage increases as the first echo rises to its maximum then falls again. When this echo finishes, the DC is maintained at the level it has reached until the next signal occurs. As shown in the waveform of block 7 the level then rises again when the second signal occurs, in this instance the rate of increase is greater than that due to the previous signal. This is because of the larger amplitude. At this point integration is complete for the one sounding period illustrated. Although echointegrators usually have a facility for display of single sounding integrals it is of limited value and the normal arrangement is to allow the integrals to accumulate over a given time period, or a nautical mile, after which the integrator is reset and the DC voltage starts again from zero.

3.2.7 Display of Integrated Signals

The simplest form of display possible is a DC voltmeter of either the analogue or digital type (see Chapter 7 for details) but this is not very convenient, eg when reset occurs the reading is lost. Usually a recording voltmeter is provided which displays and records the integrator output on heatsensitive paper. In this way the variations in echo intensity can be related to positions along the ships track.