Electromagnetic Spectrum

Hz10x 4 8 m 104 1 Radio 89 1 0.1 TV 9 10 0.1 0.01 Micro 11 14 10-3 10-6 Infra 4.3 7.5 x 1014 700-400nm Visible 16-17 10-8 10-9 UV 18-19 10-10 10-11 X-Rays > 20 < 10-12 Gamma

Huygens Principle
All points on a wavefront can be considered as point sources for secondary wavelets. After a short time the new wavefront is the surface tangent to the secondary wavelets.

Law of Reflection
Angle of incidence = angle of reflection.

Image in a Plane Mirror

Snells Law of Refraction

Reflection Coefficient
For light from air to glass R = 0.04, which means that 4% of the light is reflected at normal incidence.

Total Internal Reflection

Fibre Optics

Core n1 Cladding n2 < n1

Prism
Refractive index of a material is usually dependent on wavelength. For common glass nblue>nred and so blue is bent more than red. This is called dispersion.

Rainbow

Reflection at a Curved Surface

Magnification

Focal Distance

Paraxial Approximation and Spherical Aberration

Rays which make a small angle with the principal axis are called paraxial rays. Paraxial approximation is when the angles are assumed to be small. When they get too big the image is distorted because different parts of the image are focussed at different distances: spherical aberration.

Real and Virtual Images

Real Image Virtual Image

Virtual Objects
When we have a series of optical components an image from one component becomes the object for the next component.

Sign Convention
Real side Virtual side Side of outgoing light. Opposite to the real side.

Rules
p q R Positive when Real side Real side Centre of curvature is on real side Negative Virtual side Virtual side Centre of curvature is on virtual side

Refraction at Curved Surfaces

Apparent Depth
Surface is flat giving R =

Thin Lens Equation

The Lens Makers Equation ( The Microscope

The object is just outside the focus of the first convex lens. This gives an enlarged, inverted image (I1) which is arranged to be just outside the focal distance of the second convex lens. The second convex lens acts like a magnifying glass and the separation of the lenses is arranged so that the final image is at the near point. The image is inverted.

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The Astronomical Telescope

The image of a distant object is formed at the focal distance of the first convex lens. The first image acts as a virtual object for the second lens which acts like a magnifying glass

Aberrations
Spherical Aberration Chromatic Aberration

As light rays move further from the principal axis they focus nearer the lens. This leads to distortion of the image. This can be corrected by using non-spherical lenses but these are expensive.

The refractive index is a function of wavelength so different wavelengths focus at different distances. Therefore different colours have different magnification and images can have coloured bands at their edges

The Eye

Youngs Double Slit Experiment

Maxima

Minima

( )

Intensity
Intensity of Youngs interference fringes

Lloyds Mirror and Phase Change on Reflection

A set of fringes appear on the screen caused by interference of direct and reflected rays. There is a minimum at the join of the mirror and the screen. This shows that the reflected ray has had a phase change of . This is called phase change on reflection and occurs when a ray is reflected from higher n.

Interference in Thin Films

Path difference of 2L gives a phase change between rays 1 and 2. Phase change of for ray 1. (fastslow) For dark fringes: For bright fringes:

( Non-reflecting Coatings

Unwanted reflections from optical elements can be reduced by coating with a thin film of suitable material and thickness.

Minimum thickness of non reflecting coating

Rayleighs Criterion
Minimum angle for resolution by slit of width a. Minimum angle for resolution by a circular aperture of diameter D.

Polarisation and Malus Law

The component of the electric field parallel to the axis of the sheet is transmitted and the component perpendicular to the axis is absorbed.